Reovirus cell attachment protein sigma 1: structure-function relationships and biogenesis

Characterization of the σC-encoding Gene from Musocvy Duck Reovirus

The sigmaC-encoding gene of two muscovy duck reovirus (DRV) S14 and C4 strains were cloned and completely sequenced. The open reading frame (ORF) comprised 810 bp and encoded 269 amino acids with a predicated molecular mass of 29.5 kDa. Expressed sigmaC fusion protein in Escherichia coli BL21 strain could be detected by Western blotting under duck anti-reovirus polyclonal serum. There are two large gap insertions at the N-terminal part of the DRV sigmaC when necessary to optimize the alignment of the amino acid sequences of the DRV sigmaC had a heptapeptide repeat and leucine zipper patterns structurally related to ARV sigmaC. All DRVs grouped into one specified genogroup within Orthoreoviruses genus subgroup II. The degree of differences between the S14/C4 and ARV was only 23-24%, and 21-22%, respectively, at both the nucleotide and deduced amino acid levels, suggested that DRVs are quite different from ARVs and should give a precise classification for DRVs in Orthoreovirus genus.

Protective immunoglobulin A and G antibodies bind to overlapping intersubunit epitopes in the head domain of type 1 reovirus adhesin sigma1

Nonfusogenic mammalian orthoreovirus (reovirus) is an enteric pathogen of mice and a useful model for studies of how an enteric virus crosses the mucosal barrier of its host and is subject to control by the mucosal immune system. We recently generated and characterized a new murine immunoglobulin A (IgA)-class monoclonal antibody (MAb), 1E1, that binds to the adhesin fiber, sigma1, of reovirus type 1 Lang (T1L) and thereby neutralizes the infectivity of that strain in cell culture. 1E1 is produced in hybridoma cultures as a mixture of monomers, dimers, and higher polymers and is protective against peroral challenges with T1L either when the MAb is passively administered or when it is secreted into the intestines of mice bearing subcutaneous hybridoma tumors. In the present study, selection and analysis of mutants resistant to neutralization by 1E1 identified the region of T1L sigma1 to which the MAb binds. The region bound by a previously characterized type 1 sigma1-specific neutralizing IgG MAb, 5C6, was identified in the same way. Each of the 15 mutants isolated and analyzed was found to be much less sensitive to neutralization by either 1E1 or 5C6, suggesting the two MAbs bind to largely overlapping regions of sigma1. The tested mutants retained the capacity to recognize specific glycoconjugate receptors on rabbit M cells and cultured epithelial cells, even though viral binding to epithelial cells was inhibited by both MAbs. S1 sequence determinations for 12 of the mutants identified sigma1 mutations at four positions between residues 415 and 447, which contribute to forming the receptor-binding head domain. When aligned with the sigma1 sequence of reovirus type 3 Dearing (T3D) and mapped onto the previously reported crystal structure of the T3D sigma1 trimer, the four positions cluster on the side of the sigma1 head, across the interface between two subunits. Three such interface-spanning epitopes are thus present per sigma1 trimer and require the intact quaternary structure of the head domain for MAb binding. Identification of these intersubunit epitopes on sigma1 opens the way for further studies of the mechanisms of antibody-based neutralization and protection with type 1 reoviruses.

Putative autocleavage of outer capsid protein micro1, allowing release of myristoylated peptide micro1N during particle uncoating, is critical for cell entry by reovirus

Several nonenveloped animal viruses possess an autolytic capsid protein that is cleaved as a maturation step during assembly to yield infectious virions. The 76-kDa major outer capsid protein micro1 of mammalian orthoreoviruses (reoviruses) is also thought to be autocatalytically cleaved, yielding the virion-associated fragments micro1N (4 kDa; myristoylated) and micro1C (72 kDa). In this study, we found that micro1 cleavage to yield micro1N and micro1C was not required for outer capsid assembly but contributed greatly to the infectivity of the assembled particles. Recoated particles containing mutant, cleavage-defective micro1 (asparagine --> alanine substitution at amino acid 42) were competent for attachment; processing by exogenous proteases; structural changes in the outer capsid, including micro1 conformational change and sigma1 release; and transcriptase activation but failed to mediate membrane permeabilization either in vitro (no hemolysis) or in vivo (no coentry of the ribonucleotoxin alpha-sarcin). In addition, after these particles were allowed to enter cells, the delta region of micro1 continued to colocalize with viral core proteins in punctate structures, indicating that both elements remained bound together in particles and/or trapped within the same subcellular compartments, consistent with a defect in membrane penetration. If membrane penetration activity was supplied in trans by a coinfecting genome-deficient particle, the recoated particles with cleavage-defective micro1 displayed much higher levels of infectivity. These findings led us to propose a new uncoating intermediate, at which particles are trapped in the absence of micro1N/micro1C cleavage. We additionally showed that this cleavage allowed the myristoylated, N-terminal micro1N fragment to be released from reovirus particles during entry-related uncoating, analogous to the myristoylated, N-terminal VP4 fragment of picornavirus capsid proteins. The results thus suggest that hydrophobic peptide release following capsid protein autocleavage is part of a general mechanism of membrane penetration shared by several diverse nonenveloped animal viruses.

Secretory immunoglobulin A antibodies against the sigma1 outer capsid protein of reovirus type 1 Lang prevent infection of mouse Peyer's patches

Reovirus type 1 Lang (T1L) adheres to M cells in the follicle-associated epithelium of mouse intestine and exploits the transport activity of M cells to enter and infect the Peyer's patch mucosa. Adult mice that have previously cleared a reovirus T1L infection have virus-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) in serum and IgA in secretions and are protected against reinfection. Our aim in this study was to determine whether secretory IgA is sufficient for protection of Peyer's patches against oral reovirus challenge and, if so, against which reovirus antigen(s) the IgA may be directed. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) of the IgA isotype, directed against the sigma1 protein of reovirus T1L, the viral adhesin, were produced and tested along with other, existing IgA and IgG MAbs against reovirus T1L outer capsid proteins. Anti-sigma1 IgA and IgG MAbs neutralized reovirus T1L in L cell plaque reduction assays and inhibited T1L adherence to L cells and Caco-2(BBe) intestinal epithelial cells in vitro, but MAbs against other proteins did not. Passive oral administration of anti-sigma1 IgA and IgG MAbs prevented Peyer's patch infection in adult mice, but other MAbs did not. When anti-sigma1 IgA and IgG MAbs were produced in mice from hybridoma backpack tumors, however, the IgA prevented Peyer's patch infection, but the IgG did not. The results provide evidence that neutralizing IgA antibodies specific for the sigma1 protein are protective in vitro and in vivo and that the presence of these antibodies in intestinal secretions is sufficient for protection against entry of reovirus T1L into Peyer's patches.

The viral sigma1 protein and glycoconjugates containing alpha2-3-linked sialic acid are involved in type 1 reovirus adherence to M cell apical surfaces

Type 1 reoviruses invade the intestinal mucosa of mice by adhering selectively to M cells in the follicle-associated epithelium and then exploiting M cell transport activity. The purpose of this study was to identify the apical cell membrane component and viral protein that mediate the M cell adherence of these viruses. Virions and infectious subviral particles of reovirus type 1 Lang (T1L) adhered to rabbit M cells in Peyer's patch mucosal explants and to tissue sections in an overlay assay. Viral adherence was abolished by pretreatment of sections with periodate and in the presence of excess sialic acid or lectins MAL-I and MAL-II (which recognize complex oligosaccharides containing sialic acid linked alpha2-3 to galactose). The binding of T1L particles to polarized human intestinal (Caco-2(BBe)) cell monolayers was correlated with the presence of MAL-I and MAL-II binding sites, blocked by excess MAL-I and -II, and abolished by neuraminidase treatment. Other type 1 reovirus isolates exhibited MAL-II-sensitive binding to rabbit M cells and polarized Caco-2(BBe) cells, but type 2 or type 3 isolates including type 3 Dearing (T3D) did not. In assays using T1L-T3D reassortants and recoated viral cores containing T1L, T3D, or no sigma1 protein, MAL-II-sensitive binding to rabbit M cells and polarized Caco-2(BBe) cells was consistently associated with the T1L sigma1. MAL-II-recognized oligosaccharide epitopes are not restricted to M cells in vivo, but MAL-II immobilized on virus-sized microparticles bound only to the follicle-associated epithelium and M cells. The results suggest that selective binding of type 1 reoviruses to M cells in vivo involves interaction of the type 1 sigma1 protein with glycoconjugates containing alpha2-3-linked sialic acid that are accessible to viral particles only on M cell apical surfaces.

Muscovy duck reovirus sigmaC protein is atypically encoded by the smallest genome segment

Although muscovy duck reovirus (DRV) shares properties with the reovirus isolated from chicken, commonly named avian reovirus (ARV), the two virus species are antigenically different. Similar to the DRV sigmaB-encoded gene (1201 bp long) previously identified, the three other double-stranded RNA small genome segments of DRV have been cloned and sequenced. They were 1325, 1191 and 1124 bp long, respectively, and contained conserved terminal sequences common to ARVs. They coded for single expression products, except the smallest (S4), which contained two overlapping open reading frames (ORF1 and ORF2). BLAST analyses revealed that the proteins encoded by the 1325 and 1191 bp genes shared high identity levels with ARV sigmaA and sigmaNS, respectively, and to a lesser extent with other orthoreovirus counterparts. No homology was found for the S4 ORF1-encoded p10 protein. The 29.4 kDa product encoded by S4 ORF2 appeared to be 25% identical to ARV S1 ORF3-encoded sigmaC, a cell-attachment oligomer inducing type-specific neutralizing antibodies. Introduction of large gaps in the N-terminal part of the DRV protein was necessary to improve DRV and ARV sigmaC amino acid sequence alignments. However, a leucine zipper motif was conserved and secondary structure analyses predicted a three-stranded alpha-helical coiled-coil feature at this amino portion. Thus, despite extensive sequence divergence, DRV sigmaC was suggested to be structurally and probably functionally related to ARV sigmaC. This work provides evidence for the diversity of the polycistronic S class genes of reoviruses isolated from birds and raises the question of the relative classification of DRV in the Orthoreovirus genus.

Role of immunoglobulin A in protection against reovirus entry into Murine Peyer's patches

Reovirus type 1 Lang (T1L) infects the mouse intestinal mucosa by adhering specifically to epithelial M cells and exploiting M-cell transport to enter the Peyer's patches. Oral inoculation of adult mice has been shown to elicit cellular and humoral immune responses that clear the infection within 10 days. This study was designed to determine whether adult mice that have cleared a primary infection are protected against viral entry upon oral rechallenge and, if so, whether antireovirus secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) is a necessary component of protection. Adult BALB/c mice that were orally inoculated on day 0 with reovirus T1L produced antiviral S-IgA in feces and IgG in serum directed primarily against the reovirus sigma1 attachment protein. Eight hours after oral reovirus challenge on day 21, the Peyer's patches of previously exposed mice contained no detectable virus whereas Peyer's patches of naive controls contained up to 2,300 PFU of reovirus/mg of tissue. Orally inoculated IgA knockout (IgA(-/-)) mice cleared the initial infection as effectively as wild-type mice and produced higher levels of reovirus-specific serum IgG and secretory IgM than C57BL/6 wild-type mice. When IgA(-/-) mice were rechallenged on day 21, however, their Peyer's patches became infected. These results indicate that intestinal S-IgA is an essential component of immune protection against reovirus entry into Peyer's patch mucosa.

Complete in vitro assembly of the reovirus outer capsid produces highly infectious particles suitable for genetic studies of the receptor-binding protein

Mammalian reoviruses, prototype members of the Reoviridae family of nonenveloped double-stranded RNA viruses, use at least three proteins--sigma1, mu1, and sigma3--to enter host cells. sigma1, a major determinant of cell tropism, mediates viral attachment to cellular receptors. Studies of sigma1 functions in reovirus entry have been restricted by the lack of methodologies to produce infectious virions containing engineered mutations in viral proteins. To mitigate this problem, we produced virion-like particles by "recoating" genome-containing core particles that lacked sigma1, mu1, and sigma3 with recombinant forms of these proteins in vitro. Image reconstructions from cryoelectron micrographs of the recoated particles revealed that they closely resembled native virions in three-dimensional structure, including features attributable to sigma1. The recoated particles bound to and infected cultured cells in a sigma1-dependent manner and were approximately 1 million times as infectious as cores and 0.5 times as infectious as native virions. Experiments with recoated particles containing recombinant sigma1 from either of two different reovirus strains confirmed that differences in cell attachment and infectivity previously observed between those strains are determined by the sigma1 protein. Additional experiments showed that recoated particles containing sigma1 proteins with engineered mutations can be used to analyze the effects of such mutations on the roles of particle-bound sigma1 in infection. The results demonstrate a powerful new system for molecular genetic dissections of sigma1 with respect to its structure, assembly into particles, and roles in entry.

Structure of the reovirus outer capsid and dsRNA-binding protein sigma3 at 1.8 A resolution

The crystallographically determined structure of the reovirus outer capsid protein sigma3 reveals a two-lobed structure organized around a long central helix. The smaller of the two lobes includes a CCHC zinc-binding site. Residues that vary between strains and serotypes lie mainly on one surface of the protein; residues on the opposite surface are conserved. From a fit of this model to a reconstruction of the whole virion from electron cryomicroscopy, we propose that each sigma3 subunit is positioned with the small lobe anchoring it to the protein mu1 on the surface of the virion, and the large lobe, the site of initial cleavages during entry-related proteolytic disassembly, protruding outwards. The surface containing variable residues faces solvent. The crystallographic asymmetric unit contains two sigma3 subunits, tightly associated as a dimer. One broad surface of the dimer has a positively charged surface patch, which extends across the dyad. In infected cells, sigma3 binds dsRNA and inhibits the interferon response. The location and extent of the positively charged surface patch suggest that the dimer is the RNA-binding form of sigma3.