The human glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue liraglutide preserves pancreatic beta cells via regulation of cell kinetics and suppression of oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress in a mouse model of diabetes

High Dose of Liraglutide Impairs Renal Function in Female Hypertensive Rats

ABSTRACT

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists exhibit beneficial cardiovascular effects. However, the renal effects of different doses of liraglutide in an essential hypertension model have not yet been investigated. Female spontaneously hypertensive rats were treated for 30 days, twice a day, with saline (control) or liraglutide at low (0.06 mg/kg) and high (LH, 0.6 mg/kg) doses. Volume intake and excretion were monitored for a period of 24 hours. In renal tissue, nitrite, nitrate, advanced protein oxidation products, collagen deposition, creatinine (Cr), urea (U), sodium, and potassium were analyzed. Liraglutide reduced body weight gain in both groups. However, in the high dose, it increased urinary volume excretion and sodium/potassium ratio. Both doses reduced the urinary U/Cr ratio and LH increased the serum U/Cr ratio. Advanced protein oxidation products were reduced only in low liraglutide. LH augmented collagen and early markers of kidney injury (blood urea nitrogen, blood urea nitrogen/Cr). LH increased nitrate, reduced nitrite, and caused an aberrant increase in glomerular filtration rate. Both doses' effects were independent of blood pressure and glycemic control. Liraglutide appears to have distinct effects on the hypertensive female kidney depending on the dose, with higher doses impairing kidney function.

Incretin-Based Therapies: A Promising Approach for Modulating Oxidative Stress and Insulin Resistance in Sarcopenia

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have linked sarcopenia development to the hallmarks of diabetes, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance. The anti-oxidant and insulin sensitivityenhancing effects of incretin-based therapies may provide a promising option for the treatment of sarcopenia. This review aimed to unveil the role of oxidative stress and insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of sarcopenia and explore the potential benefits of incretin-based therapies in individuals with sarcopenia.

METHODS

PubMed, the Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar databases were searched by applying keywords relevant to the main topic, to identify articles that met our selection criteria.

RESULTS

Incretin-based therapies manifested anti-oxidant effects by increasing the anti-oxidant defense system and decreasing free radical generation or by indirectly minimizing glucotoxicity, which was mainly achieved by improving insulin signaling and glucose homeostasis. Likewise, these drugs exhibit insulin-sensitizing activities by increasing insulin secretion, transduction, and β-cell function or by reducing inflammation and lipotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Incretin-based therapies, as modulators of oxidation and insulin resistance, may target the main pathophysiological factors of sarcopenia, thus providing a promising strategy for the treatment of this disease.

Harnessing beta cell regeneration biology for diabetes therapy

The pandemic scale of diabetes mellitus is alarming, its complications remain devastating, and current treatments still pose a major burden on those affected and on the healthcare system as a whole. As the disease emanates from the destruction or dysfunction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells, a real cure requires their restoration and protection. An attractive strategy is to regenerate β-cells directly within the pancreas; however, while several approaches for β-cell regeneration have been proposed in the past, clinical translation has proven challenging. This review scrutinizes recent findings in β-cell regeneration and discusses their potential clinical implementation. Hereby, we aim to delineate a path for innovative, targeted therapies to help shift from 'caring for' to 'curing' diabetes.

Initial Exploration of the In Vitro Activation of GLP-1 and GIP Receptors and Pancreatic Islet Cell Protection by Salmon-Derived Bioactive Peptides

This study examines the in vitro effects of a soluble protein hydrolysate (SPH) derived from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) on incretin receptor activity and pancreatic islet cell protection to explore the mechanisms underlying SPH's observed benefits on weight loss and metabolic health in overweight individuals. SPH demonstrated a dose-dependent enhancement of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) receptor activity, with significant increases of 2.4-fold (p < 0.05) and 2.6-fold (p < 0.01) at 10 mg/mL, respectively, compared to the control. Pancreatic islet cell assays showed a substantial proliferation effect, with up to a 57% increase at 50 µL/well, indicating potential protective properties against inflammation-induced cell loss. Notably, the smallest SPH peptide fraction (<1000 Da) exhibited GLP-1 agonist activity comparable to semaglutide, a widely used therapeutic agent, underscoring SPH's potential efficacy in modulating metabolic pathways. These results suggest that SPH not only enhances key incretin signaling but also promotes islet cell health, positioning it as a promising dietary intervention to improve age-related metabolic health, including the weight gain and underlying adverse metabolic changes frequently encountered through the menopause.

Liraglutide Protects Pancreatic Islet From Ischemic Injury by Reducing Oxidative Stress and Activating Akt Signaling During Cold Preservation to Improve Islet Transplantation Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Islet transplantation is a promising therapy for patients with type 1 diabetes. However, ischemic injury to the donor islets during cold preservation leads to reduced islet quality and compromises transplant outcome. Several studies imply that liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, has a positive effect on promoting islet survival, but its impact on islet cold-ischemic injury remains unexplored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether liraglutide can improve islet transplantation efficacy by inhibiting cold-ischemic injury and to explore the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Liraglutide was applied in a mouse pancreas preservation model and a human islets cold-preservation model, and islet viability, function, oxidative stress levels were evaluated. Furthermore, islet transplantation was performed in a syngeneic mouse model and a human-to-nude mouse islet xenotransplantation model.

RESULTS

The supplementation of liraglutide in preservation solution improved islet viability, function, and reduced cell apoptosis. Liraglutide inhibited the oxidative stress of cold-preserved pancreas or islets through upregulating the antioxidant enzyme glutathione levels, inhibiting reactive oxygen species accumulation, and maintaining the mitochondrial membrane integrity, which is associated with the activation of Akt signaling. Furthermore, the addition of liraglutide during cold preservation of donor pancreas or donor islets significantly improved the subsequent transplant outcomes in both syngeneic mouse islet transplantation model and human-to-nude mouse islet xenotransplantation model.

CONCLUSIONS

Liraglutide protects islets from cold ischemia-related oxidative stress during preservation and hence improved islet transplantation outcomes, and this protective effect of liraglutide in islets is associated with the activation of Akt signaling.

The impact of GLP-1 signalling on the energy metabolism of pancreatic islet β-cells and extrapancreatic tissues

Glucagon-like peptide-1 signalling impacts glucose homeostasis and appetite thereby indirectly affecting substrate availability at the whole-body level. The incretin canonically produces an insulinotropic effect, thereby lowering blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake and inhibiting the production of the sugar by peripheral tissues. Likewise, GLP-1 signalling within the central nervous system reduces the appetite and food intake, whereas its gastric effect delays the absorption of nutrients, thus improving glycaemic control and reducing the risk of postprandial hyperglycaemia. We review the molecular aspects of the GLP-1 signalling, focusing on its impact on intracellular energy metabolism. Whilst the incretin exerts its effects predominantly via a Gs receptor, which decodes the incretin signal into the elevation of intracellular cAMP levels, the downstream signalling cascades within the cell, acting on fast and slow timescales, resulting in an enhancement or an attenuation of glucose catabolism, respectively.

Potential impact of underlying diseases influencing ADME in nonclinical safety assessment

Nonclinical studies involve in vitro, in silico, and in vivo experiments to assess the toxicokinetics, toxicology, and safety pharmacology of drugs according to regulatory requirements by a national or international authority. In this review, we summarize the potential effects of various underlying diseases governing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs to consider the use of animal models of diseases in nonclinical trials. Obesity models showed alterations in hepatic metabolizing enzymes, transporters, and renal pathophysiology, which increase the risk of drug-induced toxicity. Diabetes models displayed changes in hepatic metabolizing enzymes, transporters, and glomerular filtration rates (GFR), leading to variability in drug responses and susceptibility to toxicity. Animal models of advanced age exhibited impairment of drug metabolism and kidney function, thereby reducing the drug-metabolizing capacity and clearance. Along with changes in hepatic metabolic enzymes, animal models of metabolic syndrome-related hypertension showed renal dysfunction, resulting in a reduced GFR and urinary excretion of drugs. Taken together, underlying diseases can induce dysfunction of organs involved in the ADME of drugs, ultimately affecting toxicity. Therefore, the use of animal models of representative underlying diseases in nonclinical toxicity studies can be considered to improve the predictability of drug side effects before clinical trials.

GLP-1 receptor agonist improves metabolic disease in a pre-clinical model of lipodystrophy

Aims

Individuals with lipodystrophies typically suffer from metabolic disease linked to adipose tissue dysfunction including lipoatrophic diabetes. In the most severe forms of lipodystrophy, congenital generalised lipodystrophy, adipose tissue may be almost entirely absent. Better therapies for affected individuals are urgently needed. Here we performed the first detailed investigation of the effects of a glucagon like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist in lipoatrophic diabetes, using mice with generalised lipodystrophy.

Methods

Lipodystrophic insulin resistant and glucose intolerant seipin knockout mice were treated with the GLP-1R agonist liraglutide either acutely preceding analyses of insulin and glucose tolerance or chronically prior to metabolic phenotyping and ex vivo studies.

Results

Acute liraglutide treatment significantly improved insulin, glucose and pyruvate tolerance. Once daily injection of seipin knockout mice with liraglutide for 14 days led to significant improvements in hepatomegaly associated with steatosis and reduced markers of liver fibrosis. Moreover, liraglutide enhanced insulin secretion in response to glucose challenge with concomitantly improved glucose control.

Conclusions

GLP-1R agonist liraglutide significantly improved lipoatrophic diabetes and hepatic steatosis in mice with generalised lipodystrophy. This provides important insights regarding the benefits of GLP-1R agonists for treating lipodystrophy, informing more widespread use to improve the health of individuals with this condition.

Usefulness of Once-Weekly GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Semaglutide on Glycemic Control in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Switching from the Same Class Dulaglutide in a Retrospective Observation Study

Recently, the development of once-weekly incretin-based injections dulaglutide and semaglutide has drawn a great deal of attention. This study is aimed at comparing the efficacy of once-weekly GLP-1 receptor activator (GLP-1RA) dulaglutide and semaglutide on glycemic control and several metabolic parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. We compared various clinical parameters between before and after switching from dulaglutide to semaglutide in "study 1" (pre-post comparison) and set the control group using propensity score matching method in "study 2." In "study 1," six months after the switching, HbA1c was significantly reduced from 8.2% to 7.6% and body mass index was also decreased from 30.4 kg/m2 to 30.0 kg/m2. Such effects were more pronounced in subjects whose glycemic control was poor. In "study 2," after 1 : 1 propensity score matching, glycemic control and body weight management were improved in the switching group compared with the dulaglutide continuation group. In this study including obese subjects with poor glycemic control, switching dulaglutide to semaglutide showed more beneficial effects on both glycemic and weight control irrespective of age, body weight, and diabetes duration. Therefore, we should bear in mind that it would be better to start using a relatively new once-weekly GLP-1RA semaglutide in clinical practice, especially in obese subjects with poor glycemic control with other GLP-1RAs.

Liraglutide Improves Diabetic Cardiomyopathy by Downregulation of Cardiac Inflammatory and Apoptosis Markers

BACKGROUND

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is one of the leading causes of mortality for people with diabetes worldwide. The majority of the formalistic alterations in the heart associated with diabetic cardiomyopathy have been found to be primarily caused by the ongoing oxidative stress brought on by hyperglycemia, which leads to the dysfunctional reactions of apoptosis and inflammation. Liraglutide, a long-acting counterpart of glucagon-like peptide-1, has been demonstrated to have a number of therapeutic applications in medicine and other biological processes.

METHODS

The PubMed database was searched using the terms liraglutide, DCM, and all associated inflammatory markers.

RESULTS

There has been a lot of research on liraglutide's potential to protect the heart from cardiomyopathy brought on by diabetes. Liraglutide's therapeutic actions as an antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory medicine may help to lessen diabetic cardiomyopathy.

CONCLUSION

The most recent studies on the effects of liraglutide therapy on DCM are presented in this review, along with an explanation of the underlying mechanisms.

The intestine as an endocrine organ and the role of gut hormones in metabolic regulation

Gut hormones orchestrate pivotal physiological processes in multiple metabolically active tissues, including the pancreas, liver, adipose tissue, gut and central nervous system, making them attractive therapeutic targets in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Most gut hormones are derived from enteroendocrine cells, but bioactive peptides that are derived from other intestinal epithelial cell types have also been implicated in metabolic regulation and can be considered gut hormones. A deeper understanding of the complex inter-organ crosstalk mediated by the intestinal endocrine system is a prerequisite for designing more effective drugs that are based on or target gut hormones and their receptors, and extending their therapeutic potential beyond obesity and diabetes mellitus. In this Review, we present an overview of gut hormones that are involved in the regulation of metabolism and discuss their action in the gastrointestinal system and beyond.

Comparison of clinical efficacy and safety of weekly glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists dulaglutide and semaglutide in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: Randomized, parallel-group, multicentre, open-label trial (COMING study)

AIM

To compare the clinical usefulness of once-weekly glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists dulaglutide and semaglutide at the doses approved for use in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

In total, 120 patients with glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) ≥7% were randomly assigned to dulaglutide (n = 59) or semaglutide group (n = 61), and 107 participants (dulaglutide/semaglutide = 53/54) completed the 24-week trial. The primary endpoint was the difference of HbA1c level between the two groups at 24 weeks.

RESULTS

HbA1c level at 24 weeks was significantly lower in the semaglutide group (7.9 ± 0.5%-6.7 ± 0.5%) compared with the dulaglutide group (8.1 ± 0.6%-7.4 ± 0.8%) (p < .0001). Reduction in body mass index and visceral fat area were also more significant in the semaglutide group (p < .05, respectively). The achievement rate of HbA1c <7% was higher in the semaglutide group (p < .0001). The parameters such as low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, alanine aminotransferase and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase were decreased in the semaglutide group. Surprisingly, only semaglutide group significantly improved the apolipoprotein B/A1 ratio, which is considered a useful myocardial infarction risk index. Using computed tomography, the liver to spleen ratio was significantly elevated only in the semaglutide group. In contrast, gastrointestinal symptoms were observed in 13.2% of dulaglutide and 46.3% of semaglutide group (p < .01). The Diabetes Treatment-Related Quality of Life scores related to pain and gastrointestinal symptoms were also superior in the dulaglutide group.

CONCLUSIONS

This prospective trial showed that semaglutide has more pronounced glucose- and body mass index-lowering effects and reduces liver fat percentage and visceral fat area and that dulaglutide has less gastrointestinal symptoms and superior Diabetes Treatment-Related Quality of Life scores related to pain and gastrointestinal symptoms.

GLP-1 Analogs, SGLT-2, and DPP-4 Inhibitors: A Triad of Hope for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

Alzheimer's is a prevalent, progressive neurodegenerative disease marked by cognitive decline and memory loss. The disease's development involves various pathomechanisms, including amyloid-beta accumulation, neurofibrillary tangles, oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Recent research suggests that antidiabetic drugs may enhance neuronal survival and cognitive function in diabetes. Given the well-documented correlation between diabetes and Alzheimer's disease and the potential shared mechanisms, this review aimed to comprehensively assess the potential of new-generation anti-diabetic drugs, such as GLP-1 analogs, SGLT-2 inhibitors, and DPP-4 inhibitors, as promising therapeutic approaches for Alzheimer's disease. This review aims to comprehensively assess the potential therapeutic applications of novel-generation antidiabetic drugs, including GLP-1 analogs, SGLT-2 inhibitors, and DPP-4 inhibitors, in the context of Alzheimer's disease. In our considered opinion, antidiabetic drugs offer a promising avenue for groundbreaking developments and have the potential to revolutionize the landscape of Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Comprehensive Search for GPCR Compounds which Can Enhance MafA and/or PDX-1 Expression Levels Using a Small Molecule Compound Library

It has been shown that chronic hyperglycemia gradually decreases insulin biosynthesis and secretion which is accompanied by reduced expression of very important insulin gene transcription factors MafA and PDX-1. Such phenomena are well known as β-cell glucose toxicity. It has been shown that the downregulation of MafA and/or PDX-1 expression considerably explains the molecular mechanism for glucose toxicity. However, it remained unknown which molecules can enhance MafA and/or PDX-1 expression levels. In this study, we comprehensively searched for G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) compounds which can enhance MafA and/or PDX-1 expression levels using a small molecule compound library in pancreatic β-cell line MIN6 cells and islets isolated from nondiabetic C57BL/6 J mice and obese type 2 diabetic C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. We found that fulvestrant and dexmedetomidine hydrochloride increased MafA, PDX-1, or insulin expression levels in MIN6 cells. We confirmed that fulvestrant and dexmedetomidine hydrochloride increased MafA, PDX-1, or insulin expression levels in islets from nondiabetic mice as well. Furthermore, these reagents more clearly enhanced MafA, PDX-1, or insulin expression levels in islets from obese type 2 diabetic db/db mice in which MafA and PDX-1 expression levels are reduced due to glucose toxicity. In conclusion, fulvestrant and dexmedetomidine hydrochloride increased MafA, PDX-1, or insulin expression levels in MIN6 cells and islets from nondiabetic mice and obese type 2 diabetic db/db mice. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing some molecule which can enhance MafA and/or PDX-1 expression levels. Therefore, although further extensive study is necessary, we think that the information in this study could be, at least in part, useful at some point such as in the development of new antidiabetes medicine based on the molecular mechanism of β-cell glucose toxicity in the future.

Clinical Impact of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Analogs on the Complications of Obesity

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a chronic disease associated with increased morbidity and mortality due to its complications. The aims of obesity treatment are primarily to accomplish weight loss, and prevention or treatment of its complications. Lifestyle changes along with behavioral therapy constitute the first-line treatment of obesity followed by pharmacotherapy. Glucagon-like peptide receptor analogs (GLP-1 RAs) are among the approved pharmacotherapy options. Their central effect on suppressing appetite results in considerable weight loss. However, their effect on the complications of obesity has not been very well recognized. This review aims to analyze the effects of GLP-1 RAs on the complications of obesity, as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cardiovascular diseases, polycystic ovary syndrome, infertility, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), osteoarthritis, cancer and central nervous system problems.

SUMMARY

Data from preclinical studies and clinical trials have been thoroughly evaluated. Effects regarding the complications as far as the scope of this review have covered can be summarized as blood glucose lowering, blood pressure lowering, resolution of NASH, improving major cardiovascular events, improving fertility and sex hormone levels, and improvement in OSA symptoms and in cognitive scores. Although the mechanisms are not fully elucidated, it is clear that the effects are not solely due to weight loss, but some pleiotropic effects like decreased inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis also play a role in some of the complications.

KEY MESSAGES

Treating obesity is not only enabling weight loss but ameliorating complications related to obesity. Thus, any antiobesity medication has to have some favorable effects on the complications. As far as the GLP-RA's analogs are concerned, there seems to be an improvement in many of the complications regardless of the weight loss effect of these medications.

The role of insulin and incretin-based drugs in biliary tract cancer: epidemiological and experimental evidence

Insulin and incretin-based drugs are important antidiabetic agents with complex effects on cell growth and metabolism. Emerging evidence shows that insulin and incretin-based drugs are associated with altered risk of biliary tract cancer (BTC). Observational study reveals that insulin is associated with an increased risk of extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ECC), but not intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) or gallbladder cancer (GBC). This type-specific effect can be partly explained by the cell of origin and heterogeneous genome landscape of the three subtypes of BTC. Similar to insulin, incretin-based drugs also exhibit very interesting contradictions and inconsistencies in response to different cancer phenotypes, including BTC. Both epidemiological and experimental evidence suggests that incretin-based drugs can be a promoter of some cancers and an inhibitor of others. It is now more apparent that this type of drugs has a broader range of physiological effects on the body, including regulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, metabolic reprogramming, and gene expression. In particular, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4i) have a more complex effect on cancer due to the multi-functional nature of DPP-4. DPP-4 exerts both catalytic and non-enzymatic functions to regulate metabolic homeostasis, immune reaction, cell migration, and proliferation. In this review, we collate the epidemiological and experimental evidence regarding the effect of these two classes of drugs on BTC to provide valuable information.

14-3-3-zeta mediates GLP-1 receptor agonist action to alter α cell proglucagon processing

Recent studies demonstrate that α cells contribute to glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists potently potentiate GSIS, making these drugs useful for diabetes treatment. However, the role of α and β cell paracrine interactions in the effects of GLP-1R agonists is undefined. We previously found that increased β cell GLP-1R signaling activates α cell GLP-1 expression. Here, we characterized the bidirectional paracrine cross-talk by which α and β cells communicate to mediate the effects of the GLP-1R agonist, liraglutide. We find that the effect of liraglutide to enhance GSIS is blunted by α cell ablation in male mice. Furthermore, the effect of β cell GLP-1R signaling to activate α cell GLP-1 is mediated by a secreted protein factor that is regulated by the signaling protein, 14-3-3-zeta, in mouse and human islets. These data refine our understanding of GLP-1 pharmacology and identify 14-3-3-zeta as a potential target to enhance α cell GLP-1 production.

Physiological and pharmacological actions of glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in domestic animals

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GLP-1 improves peripheral glucose uptake in healthy dogs and cats.

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GLP-1 analogues administration in diabetic cats reduces exogenous insulin requirement.

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Dogs cardiomyocytes apoptosis is reduced by GLP-1-derived molecules action.

Analogues of glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and other drugs that increase this peptide half-life are used worldwide in human medicine to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) and obesity. These molecules can increase insulin release and satiety, interesting effects that could also be useful in the treatment of domestic animals pathologies, however their use in veterinary medicine are still limited. Considering the increasing incidence of DM and obesity in cats and dogs, the aim of this review is to summarize the available information about the physiological and pharmacological actions of GLP-1 in domestic animals and discuss about its potential applications in veterinary medicine. In diabetic dogs, the use of drugs based on GLP-1 actions reduced blood glucose and increased glucose uptake, while in diabetic cats they reduced glycemic variability and exogenous insulin administration. Thus, available evidence indicates that GLP-1 based drugs could become alternatives to DM treatment in domestic animals. Nevertheless, current data do not provide enough elements to recommend these drugs widespread clinical use.

Molecular Mechanism of Pancreatic β-Cell Failure in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Various important transcription factors in the pancreas are involved in the process of pancreas development, the differentiation of endocrine progenitor cells into mature insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells and the preservation of mature β-cell function. However, when β-cells are continuously exposed to a high glucose concentration for a long period of time, the expression levels of several insulin gene transcription factors are substantially suppressed, which finally leads to pancreatic β-cell failure found in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Here we show the possible underlying pathway for β-cell failure. It is likely that reduced expression levels of MafA and PDX-1 and/or incretin receptor in β-cells are closely associated with β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Additionally, since incretin receptor expression is reduced in the advanced stage of diabetes mellitus, incretin-based medicines show more favorable effects against β-cell failure, especially in the early stage of diabetes mellitus compared to the advanced stage. On the other hand, many subjects have recently suffered from life-threatening coronavirus infection, and coronavirus infection has brought about a new and persistent pandemic. Additionally, the spread of coronavirus infection has led to various limitations on the activities of daily life and has restricted economic development worldwide. It has been reported recently that SARS-CoV-2 directly infects β-cells through neuropilin-1, leading to apoptotic β-cell death and a reduction in insulin secretion. In this review article, we feature a possible molecular mechanism for pancreatic β-cell failure, which is often observed in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Finally, we are hopeful that coronavirus infection will decline and normal daily life will soon resume all over the world.

Metabolic Adaptions/Reprogramming in Islet Beta-Cells in Response to Physiological Stimulators—What Are the Consequences

Irreversible pancreatic β-cell damage may be a result of chronic exposure to supraphysiological glucose or lipid concentrations or chronic exposure to therapeutic anti-diabetic drugs. The β-cells are able to respond to blood glucose in a narrow concentration range and release insulin in response, following activation of metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the TCA cycle. The β-cell cannot protect itself from glucose toxicity by blocking glucose uptake, but indeed relies on alternative metabolic protection mechanisms to avoid dysfunction and death. Alteration of normal metabolic pathway function occurs as a counter regulatory response to high nutrient, inflammatory factor, hormone or therapeutic drug concentrations. Metabolic reprogramming is a term widely used to describe a change in regulation of various metabolic enzymes and transporters, usually associated with cell growth and proliferation and may involve reshaping epigenetic responses, in particular the acetylation and methylation of histone proteins and DNA. Other metabolic modifications such as Malonylation, Succinylation, Hydroxybutyrylation, ADP-ribosylation, and Lactylation, may impact regulatory processes, many of which need to be investigated in detail to contribute to current advances in metabolism. By describing multiple mechanisms of metabolic adaption that are available to the β-cell across its lifespan, we hope to identify sites for metabolic reprogramming mechanisms, most of which are incompletely described or understood. Many of these mechanisms are related to prominent antioxidant responses. Here, we have attempted to describe the key β-cell metabolic adaptions and changes which are required for survival and function in various physiological, pathological and pharmacological conditions.

New insight on the role of liraglutide in alleviating dexamethasone-induced pancreatic cytotoxicity via improving redox status, autophagy flux, and PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling

Chronic glucocorticoids therapy is commonly complicated by steroid diabetes, although the underlying mechanisms are still elusive. Liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1, was initially found to induce glycemic control and recently it was found to have many pleotropic effects; however, its role in pancreas remains unknown. The present study aims to estimate the protective role of liraglutide on dexamethasone-induced pancreatic cytotoxicity and hyperglycemia, highlighting the possible underlying biochemical, molecular, and cellular mechanisms. Twenty-eight male Wistar rats were involved in this study and were randomly divided into four groups. Group III and IV were treated with 1 mg/kg dexamethasone daily for 10 days. Group II and IV were treated with liraglutide in a dose of 0.8 mg/kg per day for 2 weeks. Pancreatic caspase-9, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), phospho-protein kinase-B (pAkt), and sequestrome 1 (p62) levels were assessed by immunoassay. Moreover, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) expression by real-time PCR, microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3B) expression by immunohistochemistry, glycemic status, β-cell function by homoeostasis model assessment (HOMA) β index, and pancreatic redox status were assessed. Liraglutide improved blood glucose level, β-cell function, pancreatic caspase-9 level, redox status, and autophagy. Additionally, it increased pancreatic PI3K, pAkt, and Nrf2 levels. Moreover, preservation of pancreatic histological and the ultrastructural morphological features of β- and α-cells were observed. In conclusion, liraglutide protected against dexamethasone-induced pancreatic injury and hyperglycemia and decelerated the progression towards steroid diabetes via activating PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling and autophagy flux pathways.

Early combination therapy of empagliflozin and linagliptin exerts beneficial effects on pancreatic β cells in diabetic db/db mice

Effects of combination therapy of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor and sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor on β-cells are still unclear, although combination agent of these two drugs has become common in clinical practice. Therefore, we aimed to elucidate the effects of DPP-4 inhibitor and/or SGLT2 inhibitor on β-cell mass and function and compared their effects between in an early and advanced phase of diabetes. We used 7-week-old db/db mice as an early phase and 16-week-old mice as an advanced phase and treated them for 2 weeks with oral administration of linagliptin, empagliflozin, linagliptin + empagliflozin (L + E group), and 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose (Cont group). Blood glucose levels in Empa and L + E group were significantly lower than Cont group after treatment. In addition, β-cell mass in L + E group was significantly larger than Cont group only in an early phase, accompanied by increased Ki67-positive β-cell ratio. In isolated islets, mRNA expression levels of insulin and its transcription factors were all significantly higher only in L + E group in an early phase. Furthermore, mRNA expression levels related to β-cell differentiation and proliferation were significantly increased only in L + E group in an early phase. In conclusion, combination of DPP-4 inhibitor and SGLT2 inhibitor exerts more beneficial effects on β-cell mass and function, especially in an early phase of diabetes rather than an advanced phase.

Favorable Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonist against Pancreatic β-Cell Glucose Toxicity and the Development of Arteriosclerosis: "The Earlier, the Better" in Therapy with Incretin-Based Medicine

Fundamental pancreatic β-cell function is to produce and secrete insulin in response to blood glucose levels. However, when β-cells are chronically exposed to hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), insulin biosynthesis and secretion are decreased together with reduced expression of insulin transcription factors. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) plays a crucial role in pancreatic β-cells; GLP-1 binds to the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) in the β-cell membrane and thereby enhances insulin secretion, suppresses apoptotic cell death and increase proliferation of β-cells. However, GLP-1R expression in β-cells is reduced under diabetic conditions and thus the GLP-1R activator (GLP-1RA) shows more favorable effects on β-cells at an early stage of T2DM compared to an advanced stage. On the other hand, it has been drawing much attention to the idea that GLP-1 signaling is important in arterial cells; GLP-1 increases nitric oxide, which leads to facilitation of vascular relaxation and suppression of arteriosclerosis. However, GLP-1R expression in arterial cells is also reduced under diabetic conditions and thus GLP-1RA shows more protective effects on arteriosclerosis at an early stage of T2DM. Furthermore, it has been reported recently that administration of GLP-1RA leads to the reduction of cardiovascular events in various large-scale clinical trials. Therefore, we think that it would be better to start GLP-1RA at an early stage of T2DM for the prevention of arteriosclerosis and protection of β-cells against glucose toxicity in routine medical care.

Novel Approaches to Restore Pancreatic Beta-Cell Mass and Function

Beta-cell dysfunction and beta-cell death are critical events in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Therefore, the goals of modern T2DM management have shifted from merely restoring normoglycemia to maintaining or regenerating beta-cell mass and function. In this review we summarize current and novel approaches to achieve these goals, ranging from lifestyle interventions to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonism, and discuss the mechanisms underlying their effects on beta-cell physiology and glycemic control. Notably, timely intervention seems critical, but not always strictly required, to maximize the effect of any approach on beta-cell recovery and disease progression. Conventional antidiabetic medications are not disease-modifying in the sense that the disease does not progress or reoccur while on treatment or thereafter. More invasive approaches, such as bariatric surgery, are highly effective in restoring normoglycemia, but are reserved for a rather small proportion of obese individuals and sometimes associated with serious adverse events. Finally, we recapitulate the broad range of effects mediated by peripheral NMDARs and discuss recent evidence on the potential of NMDAR antagonists to be developed as a novel class of antidiabetic drugs. In the future, a more refined assessment of disease risk or disease subtype might enable more targeted therapies to prevent or treat diabetes.

CDATA[The Effect of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Therapies on Pancreatic β-cell Dysfunction: Results from in Vitro and in Vivo Studies

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress is a hallmark of many diseases. A growing body of evidence suggests that hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress plays an important role in pancreatic β-cells dysfunction and apoptosis, as well as in the development and progression of diabetic complications. Considering the vulnerability of pancreatic β-cells to oxidative damage, the induction of endogenous antioxidant enzymes or exogenous antioxidant administration has been proposed to protect pancreatic β-cells from damage.

OBJECTIVES

The present review aims to provide evidence of the effect of oxidative stress and antioxidant therapies on pancreatic β-cell function, based on in vitro and in vivo studies.

METHODS

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched to retrieve available data.

RESULTS

Due to poor endogenous antioxidant mechanisms, pancreatic β-cells are extremely sensitive to Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Many natural extracts have been tested in vitro in pancreatic β-cell lines in terms of their antioxidant and diabetes mellitus ameliorating effects, and the majority of them have shown a dose-dependent protective role. On the other hand, there is relatively limited evidence regarding the in vitro antioxidant effects of antidiabetic drugs on pancreatic β -cells. Concerning in vivo studies, several natural extracts have shown beneficial effects in the setting of diabetes by decreasing blood glucose and lipid levels, increasing insulin sensitivity, and by up-regulating intrinsic antioxidant enzyme activity. However, there is limited evidence obtained from in vivo studies regarding antidiabetic drugs.

CONCLUSION

Antioxidants hold promise for developing strategies aimed at the prevention or treatment of diabetes mellitus associated with pancreatic β-cells dysfunction, as supported by in vitro and in vivo studies. However, more in vitro studies are required for drugs.

Systematic Understanding of Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress-Related Conditions-Diabetes Mellitus, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a role in intracellular signal transduction under physiological conditions while also playing an essential role in diseases such as hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and diabetes, as well as in the process of aging. The influence of ROS has some influence on the frequent occurrence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in diabetic patients. In this review, we considered the pathophysiological relationship between diabetes and CVD from the perspective of ROS. In addition, considering organ damage due to ROS elevation during ischemia-reperfusion, we discussed heart and lung injuries. Furthermore, we have focused on the transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and L-type calcium channels as molecular targets for ROS in ROS-induced tissue damages and have discussed about the pathophysiological mechanism of the injury.

Unexpected Pleiotropic Effects of SGLT2 Inhibitors: Pearls and Pitfalls of This Novel Antidiabetic Class

Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors facilitate urine glucose excretion by reducing glucose reabsorption, leading to ameliorate glycemic control. While the main characteristics of type 2 diabetes mellitus are insufficient insulin secretion and insulin resistance, SGLT2 inhibitors have some favorable effects on pancreatic β-cell function and insulin sensitivity. SGLT2 inhibitors ameliorate fatty liver and reduce visceral fat mass. Furthermore, it has been noted that SGLT2 inhibitors have cardio-protective and renal protective effects in addition to their glucose-lowering effect. In addition, several kinds of SGLT2 inhibitors are used in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus as an adjuvant therapy to insulin. Taken together, SGLT2 inhibitors have amazing multifaceted effects that are far beyond prediction like some emerging magical medicine. Thereby, SGLT2 inhibitors are very promising as relatively new anti-diabetic drugs and are being paid attention in various aspects. It is noted, however, that SGLT2 inhibitors have several side effects such as urinary tract infection or genital infection. In addition, we should bear in mind the possibility of diabetic ketoacidosis, especially when we use SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with poor insulin secretory capacity.

Multifaceted Mechanisms of Action of Metformin Which Have Been Unraveled One after Another in the Long History

While there are various kinds of drugs for type 2 diabetes mellitus at present, in this review article, we focus on metformin which is an insulin sensitizer and is often used as a first-choice drug worldwide. Metformin mainly activates adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in the liver which leads to suppression of fatty acid synthesis and gluconeogenesis. Metformin activates AMPK in skeletal muscle as well, which increases translocation of glucose transporter 4 to the cell membrane and thereby increases glucose uptake. Further, metformin suppresses glucagon signaling in the liver by suppressing adenylate cyclase which leads to suppression of gluconeogenesis. In addition, metformin reduces autophagy failure observed in pancreatic β-cells under diabetic conditions. Furthermore, it is known that metformin alters the gut microbiome and facilitates the transport of glucose from the circulation into excrement. It is also known that metformin reduces food intake and lowers body weight by increasing circulating levels of the peptide hormone growth/differentiation factor 15 (GDF15). Furthermore, much attention has been drawn to the fact that the frequency of various cancers is lower in subjects taking metformin. Metformin suppresses the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) by activating AMPK in pre-neoplastic cells, which leads to suppression of cell growth and an increase in apoptosis in pre-neoplastic cells. It has been shown recently that metformin consumption potentially influences the mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19). Taken together, metformin is an old drug, but multifaceted mechanisms of action of metformin have been unraveled one after another in its long history.

GLP-1 receptor signaling increases PCSK1 and β cell features in human α cells

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an incretin hormone that potentiates glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. GLP-1 is classically produced by gut L cells; however, under certain circumstances α cells can express the prohormone convertase required for proglucagon processing to GLP-1, prohormone convertase 1/3 (PC1/3), and can produce GLP-1. However, the mechanisms through which this occurs are poorly defined. Understanding the mechanisms by which α cell PC1/3 expression can be activated may reveal new targets for diabetes treatment. Here, we demonstrate that the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist, liraglutide, increased α cell GLP-1 expression in a β cell GLP-1R-dependent manner. We demonstrate that this effect of liraglutide was translationally relevant in human islets through application of a new scRNA-seq technology, DART-Seq. We found that the effect of liraglutide to increase α cell PC1/3 mRNA expression occurred in a subcluster of α cells and was associated with increased expression of other β cell-like genes, which we confirmed by IHC. Finally, we found that the effect of liraglutide to increase bihormonal insulin+ glucagon+ cells was mediated by the β cell GLP-1R in mice. Together, our data validate a high-sensitivity method for scRNA-seq in human islets and identify a potentially novel GLP-1-mediated pathway regulating human α cell function.

Effectiveness of liraglutide 3 mg for the treatment of obesity in a real-world setting without intensive lifestyle intervention

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the efficacy and safety of liraglutide 3 mg daily in combination with diet and exercise 2, 4, and 6 months after initiation in real-world settings in Korea.

METHODS

People first using liraglutide starting in 2018 were recruited from ten sites in Korea. Body weight and body mass index (BMI) were measured after 2, 4, and 6 months and compared with baseline values.

RESULTS

The full cohort comprised 769 participants: 672 in the 2-month group, 427 in the 4-month group, and 219 in the 6-month group. The baseline mean ± standard deviation of BMI and body weight were 32.2 ± 5.1 kg/m², and 87.5 ± 18.8 kg, respectively. Body weight and BMI decreased after initiation of liraglutide treatment: -2.94 kg and -1.08 kg/m² at 2 months; -4.23 kg and -1.55 kg/m² at 4 months, and -5.14 kg and -1.89 kg/m² at 6 months (all P < 0.001). In the 6-month cohort, 52.5% and 18.3% of subjects lost ≥5% and ≥10% of body weight, respectively. After 6 months, systolic and diastolic blood pressure decreased significantly by 3.90 and 1.93 mmHg, respectively. In those with diabetes mellitus, HbA1c and fasting glucose levels decreased significantly by 1.14% and 27.8 mg/dl, respectively. Among all participants, 27.6% experienced adverse effects, including nausea (20.8%), vomiting (5.2%), diarrhoea (2.5%), and skin rash (3.6%). Documented reasons for discontinuation of treatment were lack of effect (4.4%), adverse events (4.3%), and high cost (3.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

In real-world settings in Korea, daily treatment with liraglutide 3 mg was associated with clinically meaningful weight loss without serious adverse events.

Switching From Daily DPP-4 Inhibitor to Once-Weekly GLP-1 Receptor Activator Dulaglutide Significantly Ameliorates Glycemic Control in Subjects With Poorly Controlled Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Retrospective Observational Study

AIM

At present, daily DPP-4 inhibitors are quite frequently prescribed in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Recently, it has been drawing much attention that once-weekly incretin-based injection dulaglutide was developed. In this study, we aimed to examine the possible effects of once-weekly GLP-1 receptor activator (GLP-1RA) dulaglutide on glycemic control as well as various metabolic parameters.

METHODS

We made a direct comparison between the effect of daily DPP-4 inhibitor and once-weekly dulaglutide on glycemic control in "study 1 (pre-post comparison)" and set the control group using the propensity score matching method in "study 2".

RESULTS

In study 1, switching from daily DPP-4 inhibitor to dulaglutide significantly ameliorated glycemic control in subjects with T2DM. Such effects were more obvious in poorly controlled subjects. After 1:1 propensity score matching, the switching group improved glycemic control compared with the non-switching group in study 2.

CONCLUSION

We should bear in mind that switching from daily DPP-4 inhibitor to once-weekly GLP-1RA dulaglutide exerts more favorable effects on glycemic control regardless of age, body weight, and duration of diabetes in subjects with T2DM, especially when we fail to obtain good glycemic control with daily DPP-4 inhibitor.

Notable Underlying Mechanism for Pancreatic β-Cell Dysfunction and Atherosclerosis: Pleiotropic Roles of Incretin and Insulin Signaling

Under healthy conditions, pancreatic β-cells produce and secrete the insulin hormone in response to blood glucose levels. Under diabetic conditions, however, β-cells are compelled to continuously secrete larger amounts of insulin to reduce blood glucose levels, and thereby, the β-cell function is debilitated in the long run. In the diabetic state, expression levels of insulin gene transcription factors and incretin receptors are downregulated, which we think is closely associated with β-cell failure. These data also suggest that it would be better to use incretin-based drugs at an early stage of diabetes when incretin receptor expression is preserved. Indeed, it was shown that incretin-based drugs exerted more protective effects on β-cells at an early stage. Furthermore, it was shown recently that endothelial cell dysfunction was also associated with pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. After ablation of insulin signaling in endothelial cells, the β-cell function and mass were substantially reduced, which was also accompanied by reduced expression of insulin gene transcription factors and incretin receptors in β-cells. On the other hand, it has been drawing much attention that incretin plays a protective role against the development of atherosclerosis. Many basic and clinical data have underscored the importance of incretin in arteries. Furthermore, it was shown recently that incretin receptor expression was downregulated in arteries under diabetic conditions, which likely diminishes the protective effects of incretin against atherosclerosis. Furthermore, a series of large-scale clinical trials (SPAED-A, SPIKE, LEADER, SUSTAIN-6, REWIND, PIONEER trials) have shown that various incretin-related drugs have beneficial effects against atherosclerosis and subsequent cardiovascular events. These data strengthen the hypothesis that incretin plays an important role in the arteries of humans, as well as rodents.

Exendin‑4 inhibits lipotoxicity‑induced oxidative stress in β‑cells by inhibiting the activation of TLR4/NF‑κB signaling pathway

The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the protective effects of exendin‑4 (EX‑4) on lipotoxicity‑induced oxidative stress and meta‑inflammation in β‑cells and the toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF‑κB signaling pathway. Lipotoxicity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)‑induced oxidative stress in β cells, obese Sprague Dawley rats and TLR4 truncation rats were utilized in the present study. The expression levels were detected by western blotting; cell apoptosis was detected by TUNEL assay; and the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were analyzed using a ROS assay kit. The findings of the present study showed that EX‑4 inhibited the expression of TLR4, NF‑κB p65 subunit and p47phox in a concentration‑dependent manner, and decreased the intracellular level of ROS. Additionally, silencing of TLR4 expression enhanced the protective effects of EX‑4, while overexpression of TLR4 attenuated these protective influences. Simultaneously, it was demonstrated that TLR4 was involved in the process of EX‑4 intervention to inhibit H2O2‑induced oxidative stress in islet β‑cells. Moreover, it was found that EX‑4 also inhibited TLR4‑ or NF‑κB agonist‑induced oxidative stress. These results were also confirmed in an animal model of obese rats, in which EX‑4 was able to improve the function of β‑cells, attenuate oxidative stress, and inhibit the expression levels of TLR4 and NF‑κB p65 subunit in the pancreas of the diet‑induced obese rats. Furthermore, truncation of the TLR4 gene in SD rats delayed the aforementioned damage. In summary, EX‑4 may inhibit lipotoxicity‑induced oxidative stress in β‑cells by inhibiting the activation of the TLR4/NF‑κB signaling pathway.

Liraglutide Therapy in a Prediabetic State: Rethinking the Evidence

BACKGROUND

Prediabetes is defined as a state of glucose metabolism between normal glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes. Continuous β-cell failure and death are the reasons for the evolution from normal glucose tolerance to prediabetes and finally type 2 diabetes.

INTRODUCTION

The necessity of new therapeutic approaches in order to prevent or delay the development of type 2 diabetes is obligatory. Liraglutide, a long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist, has 97% homology for native GLP-1. Identification of the trophic and antiapoptotic properties of liraglutide in preclinical studies, together with evidence of sustained β-cell function longevity during its administration in type 2 diabetes individuals, indicated its earliest possible administration during this disease, or even before its development, so as to postpone or delay its onset.

METHODS

Pubmed and Google databases have been thoroughly searched and relevant studies were selected.

RESULTS

This paper explores the current evidence of liraglutide administration both in humans and animal models with prediabetes. Also, it investigates the safety profile of liraglutide treatment and its future role to postpone or delay the evolution of type 2 diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Liralgutide remains a valuable tool in our therapeutic armamentarium for individuals who are overweight or obese and have prediabetes. Future well designed studies will give valuable information that will help clinicians to stratify individuals who will derive the most benefit from this agent, achieving targeted therapeutic strategies.

Molecular mechanisms by which GLP-1 RA and DPP-4i induce insulin sensitivity

Glucagon-like peptide-1 is a peptide of incretin family which is used in the management of diabetes as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA). Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 enzyme metabolizes glucagon-like peptide-1 and various dipeptidyl peptidase-4 enzyme inhibitors (DPP-4i) are also used in the management of diabetes. These antidiabetic agents provide anti-hyperglycemic effects via several molecular mechanisms including promoting insulin secretion, suppression of glucagon secretion and slowing the gastric emptying. There is some research suggesting that they can induce insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues. In this study, we review the possible molecular mechanisms by which GLP-1RA and DPP-4i can improve insulin resistance and increase insulin sensitivity in insulin-dependent peripheral tissues.

Fighting Type-2 Diabetes: Present and Future Perspectives

BACKGROUND

Type-2 diabetes mellitus accounts for 80-90% of diabetic patients. So far, the treatment of diabetes mainly aims at elevating insulin level and lowering glucose level in the peripheral blood and mitigating insulin resistance. Physiologically, insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells is delicately regulated. Thus, how insulin-related therapies could titrate blood glucose appropriately and avoid the occurrence of hypoglycemia remains an important issue for decades. Similar question is addressed on how to attenuate vascular complication in diabetic subjects.

METHODS

We overviewed the evolution of each class of anti-diabetic drugs that have been used in clinical practice, focusing on their mechanisms, clinical results and cautions.

RESULTS

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists stimulate β cells for insulin secretion in response to diet but not in fasting stage, which make them superior than conventional insulinsecretion stimulators. DPP-4 inhibitors suppress glucagon-like peptide-1 degradation. Sodium/ glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors enhance glucose clearance through urine excretion. The appearance of these new drugs provides new information about glycemic control. We update the clinical findings of Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, DPP-4 inhibitors and Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in glycemic control and the risk or progression of cardiovascular disease in diabetic patients. Stem cell therapy might be an alternative tool for diabetic patients to improve β cell regeneration and peripheral ischemia. We summarize the clinical results of mesenchymal stem cells transplanted into patients with diabetic limb and foot.

CONCLUSION

A stepwise intensification of dual and triple therapy for individual diabetic patient is required to achieve therapeutic target.

The Role of Anti-Obesity Medication in Prevention of Diabetes and Its Complications

Diabetes is prevalent in obese population, and obesity management is the first step in preventing diabetes. Traditionally, lifestyle modification including reduced-calorie diet, physical activity, and behavior intervention is the core of obesity management. However, pharmacotherapy is frequently required in addition to the lifestyle modification for effective reduction of body weight. There are five classes of anti-obesity medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for chronic treatment used in obesity management. As the goal of obesity management is to prevent obesity-related comorbidities, clinical trials were conducted to evaluate the effect of anti-obesity medications on cardiovascular risk factors including hyperglycemia. Orlistat and liraglutide have been tested for their effect on diabetes prevention as a primary outcome. Cardiovascular safety studies were conducted for lorcaserin and liraglutide (as an anti-diabetic medication). In addition, there are many indirect evidences of the role of anti-obesity medications on diabetes prevention and its microvascular and macrovascular complications. This review focused on current evidences of anti-obesity medications related with diabetes, which is a major complication of obesity.

Long-term liraglutide ameliorates nigrostriatal impairment via regulating AMPK/PGC-1a signaling in diabetic mice

Growing evidence indicates links between type 2 diabetes and Parkinson's disease. The glucagon-like peptide 1 analogue, liraglutide, a commonly used anti-diabetic drug, has protective effects on neurons. The goal of this study was to determine whether long-term liraglutide treatment could reduce the risk of adult type 2 diabetic mice developing Parkinson's disease. Male diabetic db/db mice (12 weeks old) were injected daily with liraglutide (n = 8), or saline (n = 8), and non-diabetic m/m littermates (n = 6) were included as controls. Motor function was assessed every 4 weeks and all mice were sacrificed after 8 weeks of drug intervention for further analysis. The results revealed that long-term treatment of liraglutide protected the db/db mice against the motor function decay and the dopaminergic neuron loss. Liraglutide also restored the impaired AMP kinase (AMPK)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1a (PGC-1a) signaling in the striatum of db/db mice. Further experiments in SH-SY5Y cells supported that AMPK is involved in the neuroprotective effect of liraglutide. In summary, long-term liraglutide ameliorated motor dysfunction and dopaminergic neuron impairment in type 2 diabetic mice, probably via enhancing AMPK/PGC-1a signaling.

Vildagliptin Reduces Stenosis of Injured Carotid Artery in Diabetic Mouse Through Inhibiting Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation via ER Stress/NF-κB Pathway

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors are novel anti-hyperglycemic drugs for type 2 diabetes. It has been reported that DDP-4 inhibitor could exert pleiotropic effects on cardiovascular system. This study was to explore the effect and mechanism of vildagliptin on the stenosis of injured carotid artery in diabetic mouse. Twenty six-week-old male db/db mice (BKS) were randomized into vildagliptin treated and vehicle control groups. Ligation injury was first performed in left carotid arteries of all diabetic mice, then oral vildagliptin or equal amount of PBS was correspondingly administered to the mice from the next day to ligation injury for 4 weeks. Effects on proliferation were detected via histological and morphometric analysis. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) markers were determined by immunoblot analysis. After 4 weeks of vildagliptin delivery, it was observed that the intimal area and neointimal thickness of the ligated carotid arteries were significantly reduced as compared to the control group. In vivo, vildagliptin suppressed the expressions of PCNA and α-SMA, phospho-p65, phospho-IKKα/β, GRP78 and CHOP, as well as IRE-1 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). In vitro, the proliferation and hypertrophy of VSMCs were significantly inhibited by blocking the IRE-1 pathway, and the inhibition of phospho-IRE-1 expression down-regulated the expression of phospho-IKKα/β in VSMCs. Vildagliptin reduced the stenosis of injured carotid arteries in diabetic mice, and this effect was achieved via inhibiting the activation of ER stress/NF-κB pathway.

Modelling pancreatic β-cell inflammation in zebrafish identifies the natural product wedelolactone for human islet protection

Islet inflammation and cytokine production are implicated in pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and diabetes pathogenesis. However, we lack therapeutics to protect the insulin-producing β-cells from inflammatory damage. Closing this clinical gap requires the establishment of new disease models of islet inflammation to facilitate screening efforts aimed at identifying new protective agents. Here, we have developed a genetic model of Interleukin-1β (Il-1β)-driven islet inflammation in zebrafish, a vertebrate that allows for non-invasive imaging of β-cells and in vivo drug discovery. Live imaging of immune cells and β-cells in our model revealed dynamic migration, increased visitation and prolonged macrophage retention in the islet, together with robust activation of NF-κB signalling in β-cells. We find that Il-1β-mediated inflammation does not cause β-cell destruction but, rather, it impairs β-cell function and identity. In vivo, β-cells exhibit impaired glucose-stimulated calcium influx and reduced expression of genes involved in function and maturity. These defects are accompanied by α-cell expansion, glucose intolerance and hyperglycemia following a glucose challenge. Notably, we show that a medicinal plant derivative (wedelolactone) is capable of reducing the immune-cell infiltration while also ameliorating the hyperglycemic phenotype of our model. Importantly, these anti-diabetic properties in zebrafish are predictive of wedelolactone's efficacy in protecting rodent and human islets from cytokine-induced apoptosis. In summary, this new zebrafish model of diabetes opens a window to study the interactions between immune and β-cells in vivo, while also allowing the identification of therapeutic agents for protecting β-cells from inflammation.

Summary: A model of islet inflammation in zebrafish exhibits functional β-cell silencing and a lack of glucose responsiveness. A natural compound that rescues the glucose defect in zebrafish can protect human islets from inflammation.

Pleiotropic Effects of GLP-1 and Analogs on Cell Signaling, Metabolism, and Function

The incretin hormone Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) is best known for its "incretin effect" in restoring glucose homeostasis in diabetics, however, it is now apparent that it has a broader range of physiological effects in the body. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that GLP-1 mimetics alleviate endoplasmic reticulum stress, regulate autophagy, promote metabolic reprogramming, stimulate anti-inflammatory signaling, alter gene expression, and influence neuroprotective pathways. A substantial body of evidence has accumulated with respect to how GLP-1 and its analogs act to restore and maintain normal cellular functions. These findings have prompted several clinical trials which have reported GLP-1 analogs improve cardiac function, restore lung function and reduce mortality in patients with obstructive lung disease, influence blood pressure and lipid storage, and even prevent synaptic loss and neurodegeneration. Mechanistically, GLP-1 elicits its effects via acute elevation in cAMP levels, and subsequent protein kinase(s) activation, pathways well-defined in pancreatic β-cells which stimulate insulin secretion in conjunction with elevated Ca2+ and ATP. More recently, new studies have shed light on additional downstream pathways stimulated by chronic GLP-1 exposure, findings which have direct relevance to our understanding of the potential therapeutic effects of longer lasting analogs recently developed for clinical use. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of the diverse roles for GLP-1 across multiple tissues, describe downstream pathways stimulated by acute and chronic exposure, and discuss novel pleiotropic applications of GLP-1 mimetics in the treatment of human disease.

The Development of Immunotherapy Strategies for the Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes

Optimized insulin therapies, increased use of continuous glucose monitoring/insulin pumps and most importantly the arrival of reliable closed loop systems will undeniably lead to a reduction in the burden of complications that arise from type 1 diabetes. However, insulin therapy will only ever treat the symptoms of the disease and will not alter the underlying pathology. The aim of immunotherapy treatment is to modulate the immune system, a strategy that has been successful in autoimmune conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. However, the success rate of immunotherapy treatment in type 1 diabetes has been low. There are several distinct stages of T1D development. In this review, we summarize the most important immunotherapeutic approaches tested thus far and focus on the characteristic features and unmet need within the different stages of the disease.

Protective effects of the SGLT2 inhibitor luseogliflozin on pancreatic β-cells in db/db mice: The earlier and longer, the better

AIMS

We compared the protective effects of sodium glucose co-transporter (SGLT) 2 inhibitor luseogliflozin on pancreatic β-cells between early and advanced stages of diabetes and between short- and long-term use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Diabetic db/db mice were treated with luseogliflozin for 2 weeks in an early stage of diabetes (7-9 weeks of age) and an advanced stage of diabetes (16-18 weeks) for a longer period of time (7-18 weeks). We performed various morphological analyses of pancreatic islets and examined gene expression profiles in islets after such treatment.

RESULTS

In diabetic db/db mice, insulin biosynthesis and secretion were markedly increased by luseogliflozin in an early stage of diabetes but not in an advanced stage. In addition, β-cell mass was preserved by luseogliflozin only in an early stage. Furthermore, when db/db mice were treated with luseogliflozin for a longer period of time, starting from an early stage, β-cell function and mass were markedly preserved even after a longer period of time compared to untreated db/db mice.

CONCLUSION

Luseogliflozin exerts more protective effects in an early stage of diabetes compared to an advanced stage, and longer-term use of luseogliflozin exerts more beneficial effects on pancreatic β-cells compared to short-term use.

Xiaokeping-induced autophagy protects pancreatic β-cells against apoptosis under high glucose stress

Xiaokeping (XKP), a prescribed Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), has been used to treat patients with type Ⅱ diabetes mellitus for many years; however, the molecular mechanism of its effects is unknown. As the only insulin producer, the pancreatic β cell plays an important role in diabetes. Whether XKP influences the viability of pancreatic β cells remains to be substantiated. In the present study, autophagy/apoptosis analyses were used to evaluate the therapeutic effect of XKP on pancreatic β-cells induced by high glucose levels and to investigate a potential causal molecular mechanism of XKP effect on the cells. The pancreatic β-cell lines MIN-6 were divided into four groups: control, high glucose (33.3 mmol/L), high glucose with XKP, high glucose with XKP and 3-Methyladenine (3-MA). Immunofluorescence assay was employed to determine autophagosome formation and flow cytometry was used to determine apoptotic rates of the β cells by the detecting expression of autophagy- and apoptosis-related proteins. High glucose increased the apoptotic rate of β-cells from 5.37% to 23.24%; however addition of XKP mitigated the rate at 10.92%. Data indicate that autophagy of β-cells was induced by XKP via the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Where the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA was added, the apoptotic rate was 23.94%, similar to the high glucose group rate. The results suggest a potential cytoprotective effect of XKP from high glucose toxicity by its induction of autophagy which may be linked to mTOR-mediated autophagy.

Liraglutide reduces hepatic glucolipotoxicity‑induced liver cell apoptosis through NRF2 signaling in Zucker diabetic fatty rats

The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of liraglutide on glucolipotoxicity-induced liver cell apoptosis and the underlying mechanisms in Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. The results revealed that liraglutide significantly decreased the body weight, hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia of ZDF rats relative to those of Zucker lean (ZL) rats (P<0.05). Furthermore, the reduced liver cell apoptosis was observed in the ZDF rats following 6 weeks of liraglutide therapy. These data validated the beneficial effects of liraglutide on diabetic and obese ZDF rats. In addition, novel data was obtained that demonstrated that liraglutide treatment increased the expression of the antioxidant transcription factor nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), as well as the transcription of downstream target genes, including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate quinone dehydrogenase 1 and heme oxygenase-1 (P<0.05). Additionally, serum and hepatic GSH and SOD levels increased following liraglutide therapy (P<0.05). Hence, it was proposed that liraglutide may enhance the antioxidant activity of liver cells by activating the NRF2 signaling pathway, thereby reducing liver cell apoptosis induced by glucolipotoxicity in ZDF rats, which may shed light on the application of liraglutide in the treatment of diabetes- and obesity-induced liver injury.

Liraglutide downregulates hepatic LDL receptor and PCSK9 expression in HepG2 cells and db/db mice through a HNF-1a dependent mechanism

BACKGROUND

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), a major regulator of cholesterol homeostasis, is associated with glucose metabolism. Liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, can increase insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner and lower blood glucose. We aimed to investigate the relationship between liraglutide and PCSK9.

METHODS

At the cellular level, the expressions of PCSK9 and hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha (HNF1α) protein in HepG2 cells stimulated by liraglutide was examined using Western blot. Seven-week old db/db mice and wild type (WT) mice were administered either liraglutide (200 μg/kg) or equivoluminal saline subcutaneously, twice daily for 7 weeks. Fasting glucose level, food intake and body weight were measured every week. After the 7-week treatment, the blood was collected for lipid and PCSK9 levels detection and the liver was removed from the mice for oil red O staining, immunohistochemical analysis, immunofluorescence test and Western bolt.

RESULTS

Firstly, liraglutide suppressed both PCSK9 and HNF1α expression in HepG2 cells in a time and concentration dependent manner. Secondly, liraglutide induced weight loss in WT and db/db mice, decreased serum PCSK9, glucose and lipid levels and improved hepatic accumulation in db/db but not WT mice. Thirdly, liraglutide reduced both hepatic PCSK9 and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) expression with a decrease in HNF1α in db/db mice but not in WT mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Liraglutide suppressed PCSK9 expression through HNF1α-dependent mechanism in HepG2 cells and db/db mice, and decreased LDLR possibly via PCSK9-independent pathways in db/db mice.

Liraglutide, a human glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue, stimulates AKT-dependent survival signalling and inhibits pancreatic β-cell apoptosis

Liraglutide, a human long‐lasting GLP‐1 analogue, is currently regarded as a powerful treatment option for type 2 diabetes. Apart from glucoregulatory and insulinotropic actions, liraglutide increases β‐cell mass through stimulation of β‐cell proliferation and islet neogenesis, as well as inhibition of β‐cell apoptosis. However, the underline molecular mechanisms have not been fully characterized. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which liraglutide preserves islet β‐cells in an animal model of overt diabetes, the obese db/db mice, and protects a mouse pancreatic β‐cell line (βTC‐6 cells) against apoptosis. Treatment of 12‐week‐old diabetic mice with liraglutide for 2 weeks had no appreciable effects on blood non‐fasting glucose concentration, islet insulin content and body weight. However, morphological and biochemical examination of diabetic mouse pancreatic islets demonstrated that liraglutide restores islet size, reduces islet β‐cell apoptosis and improves nephrin expression, a protein involved in β‐cell survival signalling. Our results indicated that liraglutide protects βTC‐6 cells from serum withdrawal‐induced apoptosis through inhibition of caspase‐3 activation. The molecular mechanism of the anti‐apoptotic action of liraglutide in βTC‐6‐cells comprises stimulation of PI3‐kinase‐dependent AKT phosphorylation leading to the phosphorylation, hence inactivation of the pro‐apoptotic protein BAD and inhibition of FoxO1 transcription factor. In conclusion, we provided evidence that the GLP‐1 analogue liraglutide exerts important beneficial effects on pancreatic islet architecture and β‐cell survival by protecting cells against apoptosis. These findings extend our understanding of the actions of liraglutide and further support the use of GLP‐1R agonists in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes.

Genetically engineered pigs as models for human disease

Genetically modified animals are vital for gaining a proper understanding of disease mechanisms. Mice have long been the mainstay of basic research into a wide variety of diseases but are not always the most suitable means of translating basic knowledge into clinical application. The shortcomings of rodent preclinical studies are widely recognised, and regulatory agencies around the world now require preclinical trial data from nonrodent species. Pigs are well suited to biomedical research, sharing many similarities with humans, including body size, anatomical features, physiology and pathophysiology, and they already play an important role in translational studies. This role is set to increase as advanced genetic techniques simplify the generation of pigs with precisely tailored modifications designed to replicate lesions responsible for human disease. This article provides an overview of the most promising and clinically relevant genetically modified porcine models of human disease for translational biomedical research, including cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We briefly summarise the technologies involved and consider the future impact of recent technical advances.

Summary: An overview of porcine models of human disease, including cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We summarise the technologies involved and potential future impact of recent technical advances.

Liraglutide ameliorates beta-cell function, alleviates oxidative stress and inhibits low grade inflammation in young patients with new-onset type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes in youth is escalating rapidly. We aimed to evaluate the effects of liraglutide on beta-cell function, metabolic productions of oxidative stress, low grade inflammation compared with metformin in young patients with recent onset type 2 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

Sixty patients were randomly assigned to receive 8-week liraglutide or metformin treatment. Beta-cell function was assessed by modified beta cell function index (MBCI), early phase of insulin secretion index (ΔI30/ΔG30), proinsuin to insulin ratio (P/I) and the insulin area under the curve (AUCins). The expression of 8-OH-dG and 8-iso-PGF_2α and hs-C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) were measured as indications of oxidative stress and low grade inflammation.

RESULTS

After 8 weeks liraglutide treatment, MBCI, ΔI30/ΔG30, AUCins significantly increased, 8-OH-dG, 8-iso-PGF_2α, P/I and hs-CRP remarkably reduced. The differences before and after 8-week liraglutide treatment in ΔMBCI (11.1 [2.81, 43.08] vs 0.00 [- 8.16, 10.47], P = 0.017), ΔLNΔI30/ΔG30 (0.44 [0.04, 0.85] vs - 0.09 [- 0.33, 0.36], P = 0.049), ΔAUCins (117 [- 8, 376] vs - 21 [- 314, 109] mIU/L, P = 0.013), ΔP/I (- 0.05 [- 0.09, - 0.03] vs - 0.02 [- 0.04, 0.01], P = 0.026)were remarkably enhanced compared to those of the metformin therapy. The expression of 8-OH-dG, 8-iso-PGF_2α and hs-CRP also decreased after 8-week metformin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrated that liraglutide administration was more effective on ameliorating beta-cell function than metformin treatment in young patients with new-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus. Both liraglutide and metformin could alleviate the level of oxidative stress and attenuate low grade inflammatory, we speculate this effect may not the main mechanism of beta-cell function improvement by liraglutide in diabetic patients.Trial registration Chinese Clinical Trials registry, chiCTR1800018008, Registered 27 August 2018-retrospectively registered.