Separation of nucleotides by hydrophilic interaction chromatography using the FRULIC-N column

Analytical Strategies for Nucleosides and Nucleotides in Food: Advances in Sample Preparation and Separation Technologies with Emerging Challenges

Nucleosides and nucleotides are intracellular compounds that are precursors of nucleic acids and which take part in various regulatory and metabolic functions. Sensitive and efficient methods for the analysis and determination of nucleotides and nucleosides in different samples have received increasing attention and are also a hot research topic in food analysis. The determination of nucleotide content is challenging due to the presence of a large number of endogenous interferences in complex matrices and exogenous interferences that may be introduced during manipulation, as well as the high polarity of the phosphate group molecules in nucleotides. This paper presents a review of pretreatment and analytical methods for nucleotides in different food samples. Different solid-phase extraction methods, solid-phase extraction based on novel materials, QuEChERS and other advanced pretreatment methods are discussed, and the characteristics and development of liquid chromatography, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and capillary electrophoresis are reviewed. In addition, the future prospects in the analysis of these compounds in food matrices have also been included.

Applications of hydrophilic interaction and mixed-mode liquid chromatography in pharmaceutical analysis

Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography (HILIC) and Mixed-Mode Chromatography (MMC) excel in separating polar, hydrophilic, and charged analytes due to unique hydrophilic or mixed-mode retention mechanisms. They represent a complementary approach to the widely used Reversed Phase Liquid Chromatography (RPLC). Often, where RPLC struggles, HILIC and MMC thrive. The applications of HILIC and MMC in pharmaceutical analysis are expanding rapidly across a variety of drug modalities. This article reviews advances in the applications of HILIC and MMC in seven major areas of pharmaceutical analysis: synthetic small molecules, counterions and salts, lipids and surfactants, carbohydrates, amino acids and peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids in the past two decades. We aim to provide comprehensive information and strategic guidance to facilitate future research, development and applications in these areas.

Analyzing RNA posttranscriptional modifications to decipher the epitranscriptomic code

The discovery of RNA silencing has revealed that non-protein-coding sequences (ncRNAs) can cover essential roles in regulatory networks and their malfunction may result in severe consequences on human health. These findings have prompted a general reassessment of the significance of RNA as a key player in cellular processes. This reassessment, however, will not be complete without a greater understanding of the distribution and function of the over 170 variants of the canonical ribonucleotides, which contribute to the breathtaking structural diversity of natural RNA. This review surveys the analytical approaches employed for the identification, characterization, and detection of RNA posttranscriptional modifications (rPTMs). The merits of analyzing individual units after exhaustive hydrolysis of the initial biopolymer are outlined together with those of identifying their position in the sequence of parent strands. Approaches based on next generation sequencing and mass spectrometry technologies are covered in depth to provide a comprehensive view of their respective merits. Deciphering the epitranscriptomic code will require not only mapping the location of rPTMs in the various classes of RNAs, but also assessing the variations of expression levels under different experimental conditions. The fact that no individual platform is currently capable of meeting all such demands implies that it will be essential to capitalize on complementary approaches to obtain the desired information. For this reason, the review strived to cover the broadest possible range of techniques to provide readers with the fundamental elements necessary to make informed choices and design the most effective possible strategy to accomplish the task at hand.

A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry based method for the quantification of adenosine nucleotides and NAD precursors and products in various biological samples

Adenine nucleotides (AN) are ubiquitous metabolites that regulate cellular energy metabolism and modulate cell communication and inflammation. To understand how disturbances in AN balance arise and affect cellular function, robust quantification techniques for these metabolites are crucial. However, due to their hydrophilicity, simultaneous quantification of AN across various biological samples has been challenging. Here we present a hydrophilic interaction high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) based method for the quantification of 26 adenosine nucleotides and precursors as well as metabolic products of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) in plasma, liver, and adipose tissue samples as well as cell culture supernatants and cells. Method validation was performed with regard to linearity, accuracy, precision, matrix effects, and carryover. Finally, analysis of cell culture supernatants derived from intestinal organoids and RAW 264.7 cells illustrates that the here described method is a reliable and easy-to-use tool to quantify AN and opens up new avenues to understand the role of AN generation and breakdown for cellular functions.

Determination of UDP-Glucose and UDP-Galactose in Maize by Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Nucleotide sugars, the activated forms of monosaccharides, are important intermediates of carbohydrate metabolism in all organisms. Here, we describe a method for the detection and quantification of UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose in maize in order to compare their metabolism in both wild-type and mutated plants. Triple quadrupole operating in a multiple reaction monitoring mode was used to quantify nucleotide sugars. The limits of detection for UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose were 0.50 and 0.70 ng·mL^-1, respectively. The recoveries of the method ranged from 98.3% to 103.6% with the relative standard deviations less than 6.3%. To prove the applicability of this method, we analyzed several sets of maize extracts obtained from different cultivars grown under standardized greenhouse conditions. All the results demonstrated the suitability of the developed method to quantify UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose in maize extracts.

MTBSTFA derivatization-LC-MS/MS approach for the quantitative analysis of endogenous nucleotides in human colorectal carcinoma cells

Endogenous ribonucleotides (RNs) and deoxyribonucleotides (dRNs) are important metabolites related to the pathogenesis of many diseases. In light of their physiological and pathological significances, a novel and sensitive pre-column derivatization method with N-(t-butyldimethylsilyl)-N-methyltrifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) was developed to determine RNs and dRNs in human cells using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A one-step extraction of cells with 85% methanol followed by a simple derivatization reaction within 5 min at room temperature contributed to shortened analysis time. The derivatives of 22 nucleoside mono-, di- and triphosphates were retained on the typical C18 column and eluted by ammonium acetate and acetonitrile in 9 min. Under these optimal conditions, good linearity was achieved in the tested calibration ranges. The lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) was determined to be 0.1-0.4 μM for the tested RNs and 0.001-0.1 μM for dRNs. In addition, the precision (CV) was <15% and the RSD of stability was lower than 10.4%. Furthermore, this method was applied to quantify the endogenous nucleotides in human colorectal carcinoma cell lines HCT 116 exposed to 10-hydroxycamptothecin. In conclusion, our method has proven to be simple, rapid, sensitive, and reliable. It may be used for specific expanded studies on intracellular pharmacology in vitro.

An Overview of Pretreatment and Analysis of Nucleotides in Different Samples (Update since 2010)

Nucleotides, which are important low-molecular-weight compounds present in organisms, are precursors of nucleic acids and participate in various regulatory and metabolic functions. Sensitive and valid methods for monitoring and determining nucleotides and nucleosides in different samples are urgently required. Due to the presence of numerous endogenous interferences in complex matrices and the high polarity of the molecules of the phosphate moiety, the determination of nucleotide content is challenging. This review summarizes the pretreatment and analysis methods of nucleotides in different samples. Advanced pretreatment methods, including different microextraction methods, solid-phase extraction based on novel materials, QuEChERS, are clearly displayed, and continuous progress which has been made in LC, LC-MS/MS and capillary electrophoresis methods are discussed. Moreover, the strengths and weaknesses of different methods are discussed and compared. Highlight:Advanced pretreatment and detection methods of nucleotides were critically reviewed.Microextraction technology was one of the trends of nucleotides pretreatment in the future.Applications of novel materials and supercritical fluid were highlighted.The evolution and advance of HRMS analyzers were in detailed.

Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry and Multivariate Analysis of the De Novo Pyrimidine Pathway Metabolites

In this study, we describe the optimization of a Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS) method for the evaluation of 14 metabolites related to the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines (dnSP) while using multivariate analysis, which is the metabolic pathway for pyrimidine nucleotide production. A multivariate design was used to set the conditions of the column temperature, flow of the mobile phase, additive concentration, gradient rate, and pH of the mobile phase in order to attain higher peak resolution and ionization efficiency in shorter analysis times. The optimization process was carried out while using factorial fractional designs, Box–Behnken design and central composite design while using two zwitterionic columns, ZIC-p-HILIC and ZIC-HILIC, polymeric, and silica-based columns, respectively. The factors were evaluated while using resolution (R), retention factor (k), efficiency of the column (N), and peak height (h) as the response variables. The best optimized conditions were found with the ZIC-p-HILIC column: elution gradient rate 2 min, pH 7.0, temperature 45 °C, mobile phase flow of 0.35 mL min⁻¹, and additive (ammonium acetate) concentration of 6 mM. The total analysis time was 28 min. The ZIC-p-HILIC LC-MS method yielded satisfactory results for linearity of calibration curves, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). The method has been shown to be appropriate for the analysis of dnSP on samples of tomato plants that were infected with Phytophthora infestans.

Cyclofructans as Chiral Selectors: An Overview

Cyclofructans are cyclic oligosaccharides made of β-2,1-linked fructofuranose units. They have been utilized as chiral selectors, usually after derivatization, with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). The focus herein will be directed to their development and applications as chiral selectors in various chiral separation techniques. Discussion of their use in hydrophilic liquid interaction chromatography (HILIC) will be limited. Their use in liquid chromatography, especially their improvements with the use of superficially porous particles (SPPs) will be emphasized. Method parameters and future directions are also discussed.

Method for Quantification of Ribonucleotides and Deoxyribonucleotides in Human Cells Using (Trimethylsilyl)diazomethane Derivatization Followed by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Investigation into intracellular ribonucleotides (RNs) and deoxyribonucleotides (dRNs) is important for studies of the mechanism of many biological processes, such as RNA and DNA synthesis and DNA repair, as well as metabolic and therapeutic efficacy of nucleoside analogues. However, current methods are still unsatisfactory for determination of nucleotides in complex matrixes. Here we describe a novel method for the determination of RN and dRN pools in cells based on fast derivatization with (trimethylsilyl)diazomethane (TMSD) followed by quantification using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Derivatization was accomplished in 3 min, and each derivatized nucleotide not only had a sufficient retention on reversed-phase column by introduction of methyl groups but also exhibited a unique ion transition which consequently eliminated mutual interference in LC-MS/MS. Chromatographic separation was performed on a C₁₈ column with a simple acetonitrile-water gradient elution system, which avoided contamination and ion suppression caused by ion-pairing reagents. The developed method was fully validated and applied to the analysis of RNs and dRNs in cell samples. Moreover, results demonstrated that the applicability of this method could be extended to nucleoside analogues and their metabolites and could facilitate many applications in future studies.

Generic anion-exchange chromatography method for analytical and preparative separation of nucleotides in the development and manufacture of drug substances

Nucleotides are among the most frequently used chemical building blocks in the research, development and manufacture of drug substances. They are composed of three highly polar subunit molecules (a nucleobase, a sugar, and at least one phosphate group), which makes their separation and analysis very challenging by conventional liquid chromatography techniques. Herein, we describe a simple, efficient, and cost-effective ion-exchange chromatography (IEC) method for the separation and purification of over 20 nucleotides. This method combines the use of a Tosoh TSKgel SuperQ-5P W resin in conjunction with a fully aqueous eluent profile (ammonium bicarbonate-based) that allows for a straightforward scale-up transition and convenient drying process with minimal environmental impact. This generic method was optimized using chromatography simulation software (ACD Labs/LC Simulator) and successfully applied to the preparative purification of multicomponent nucleotide mixtures using readily available Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography (FPLC) instrumentation. These IEC method conditions can be effectively applied as the starting point for method development and isolation of other highly polar nucleotide species beyond those investigated in this study.

A rapid UHPLC-HILIC method for algal guanosine 5'-diphosphate 3'-diphosphate (ppGpp) and the potential separation mechanism

A fast and facile hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) method was developed and applied to quantify physiologically important ppGpp and its analogues in a tough sample, the astaxanthin-accumulating alga Hameatococcus pluvialis. The method is able to analyze simultaneously seven nucleotides, including ppGpp at the order of pmol g^-1 cells within 12 min. Mechanism on the elution order was investigated. It was found that 1) phosphate salt competed for the amide groups on the HILIC column with the phosphate groups of the nucleotides; 2) intramolecular hydrogen bonds might contribute to the elution order by offsetting and reducing the number of free hydrogen acceptor/donor of the nucleotide molecules interacting with the amide groups. This is the first HILIC method for ppGpp, which is feasible and applicable to a wide range of samples, especially tough samples, e.g., algae and plants.

Capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry employing hexafluoro-2-propanol for the determination of nucleosides and nucleotide mono-, di- and tri-phosphates in baby foods

The present work describes a method for the simultaneous determination of unmodified nucleosides and nucleotide mono-, di- and tri-phosphates by capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry (CE-MS). The use of hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) in the separation medium, and as an additive to the sheath liquid of the electrospray interface (ESI), generated a highly efficient and sensitive method. Instrumental limits of detection in the range of 14-53ngmL^-1 for nucleosides and 7-23, 20-49 and 64-124ngmL^-1 for nucleotide mono-, di-, and tri-phosphates, respectively, were found. Sample treatment involved diluting an aliquot of baby food with ultra-high quality water and applying centrifugation-assisted ultrafiltration (CUF). The proposed method was validated and used to analyse a variety of baby food samples (16 in total) such as fish, meat, fruits, and baby dairy desserts that may endogenously contain these analytes.

Mass spectrometric detection of trace anions: The evolution of paired-ion electrospray ionization (PIESI)

The negative-ion mode of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) is intrinsically less sensitive than the positive-ion mode. The detection and quantitation of anions can be performed in positive-ion mode by forming specific ion-pairs during the electrospray process. The paired-ion electrospray ionization (PIESI) method uses specially synthesized multifunctional cations to form positively charged adducts with the anions to be analyzed. The adducts are detected in the positive-ion mode and at higher m/z ratios to produce excellent signal-to-noise ratios and limits of detection that often are orders of magnitude better than those obtained with native anions in the negative-ion mode. This review briefly summarizes the different analytical approaches to detect and separate anions. It focuses on the recently introduced PIESI method to present the most effective dicationic, tricationic, and tetracationic reagents for the detection of singly and multiply charged anions and some zwitterions. The mechanism by which specific structural molecular architectures can have profound effects on signal intensities is also addressed.

Target-based metabolomics for the quantitative measurement of 37 pathway metabolites in rat brain and serum using hydrophilic interaction ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Amino acids, neurotransmitters, purines, and pyrimidines are bioactive molecules that play fundamental roles in maintaining various physiological functions. Their metabolism is closely related to the health, growth, development, reproduction, and homeostasis of organisms. Most recently, comprehensive measurements of these metabolites have shown their potential as innovative approaches in disease surveillance or drug intervention. However, simultaneous measurement of these metabolites presents great difficulties. Here, we report a novel quantitative method that uses hydrophilic interaction ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-UPLC-MS/MS), which is highly selective, high throughput, and exhibits better chromatographic behavior than existing methods. The developed method enabled the rapid quantification of 37 metabolites, spanning amino acids, neurotransmitters, purines, and pyrimidines pathways, within 6.5 min. The compounds were separated on an ACQUITY UPLC® BEH Amide column. Serum and brain homogenate were extracted by protein precipitation. The intra- and interday precision of all of the analytes was less than 11.34 %, and the accuracy was between -11.74 and 11.51 % for all quality control (QC) levels. The extraction recoveries of serum ranged from 84.58 % to 116.43 % and those of brain samples from 80.80 % to 119.39 %, while the RSD was 14.61 % or less for all recoveries. This method was used to successfully characterize alterations in the rat brain and, in particular, their dynamics in serum. The following study was performed to simultaneously test global changes of these metabolites in a serotonin antagonist p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA)-induced anxiety and insomnia rat model to understand the effect and mechanism of PCPA. Taken together, these results show that the method is able to simultaneously monitor a large panel of metabolites and that this protocol may represent a metabolomic method to diagnose toxicological and pathophysiological states.

Development of a nucleotide sugar purification method using a mixed mode column & mass spectrometry detection

Analysis of nucleotide sugars, nucleoside di- and triphosphates and sugar-phosphates is an essential step in the process of understanding enzymatic pathways. A facile and rapid separation method was developed to analyze these compounds present in an enzymatic reaction mixture utilized to produce nucleotide sugars. The Primesep SB column explored in this study utilizes hydrophobic interactions as well as electrostatic interactions with the phosphoric portion of the nucleotide sugars. Ammonium formate buffer was selected due to its compatibility with mass spectrometry. Negative ion mode mass spectrometry was adopted for detection of the sugar phosphate (fucose-1-phophate), as the compound is not amenable to UV detection. Various mobile phase conditions such as pH, buffer concentration and organic modifier were explored. The semi-preparative separation method was developed to prepare 30mg of the nucleotide sugar. (19)F NMR was utilized to determine purity of the purified fluorinated nucleotide sugar. The collected nucleotide sugar was found to be 99% pure.

Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous quantification of eight endogenous nucleotides and the intracellular gemcitabine metabolite dFdCTP in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Quantification of endogenous nucleotides is of interest for investigation of numerous cellular biochemical processes, such as energy metabolism and signal transduction, and may also be applied in cancer and antiretroviral therapies in which nucleoside analogues are used. For these purposes we developed and validated a sensitive and high accuracy ion-pair liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (IP LC-MS/MS) method for simultaneous quantification of eight endogenous nucleotides (ATP, CTP, GTP, UTP, dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP) and 2',2'-difluoro-2'-deoxycytidine triphosphate (dFdCTP), an intracellular metabolite of the nucleoside analogue gemcitabine. The assay was validated using 200μL aliquots of peripheral blood mononuclear cell (20×10(6)cells/ml, 4×10(6)cells) extracts, pretreated with activated charcoal and spiked with unlabeled nucleotides, deoxynucleotides and dFdCTP. Analytes were extracted by simple precipitation with cold 60% methanol containing isotope labeled internal standards and separated on a porous graphitic carbon column. For method validation, the concentration ranges were: 0.125-20.8pmol injected for deoxynucleotides, 0.25-312.5pmol injected for dFdCTP and 5-3200pmol injected for nucleotides. The highest coefficients of variation (CV) were 12.1% for within run assay and 11.4% for between run assay, both representing the precision at the lowest analyte concentrations. The method was applied to monitor dFdCTP and changes in endogenous nucleotides in patients who were receiving gemcitabine infusions.

Silica-based 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)-1,3-propanediol hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography stationary phase for separating cephalosporins and carbapenems

A silica-based stationary phase bearing both hydrophilic hydroxyl and amino groups was developed by covalently bonding a small molecular N,N-dimethylamino 1,3-propanediol moiety onto silica beads via copper(I)-catalyzed Huisgen azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC). This new stationary phase showed good HILIC characteristics and high column efficiency (the theoretical plate number is up to 37000 plates m(-1) in the case of inosine) in the separation of polar compounds, such as nucleosides and bases, organic acids, cephalosporins, and carbapenems.

Quantitation of endogenous nucleoside triphosphates and nucleosides in human cells by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

Nucleosides and nucleoside triphosphates are the building blocks of nucleic acids and important bioactive metabolites, existing in all living cells. In the present study, two liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry methods were developed to quantify both groups of compounds from the same sample with a shared extraction procedure. After a simple protein precipitation with methanol, the nucleosides were separated with reversed phase chromatography on an Atlantis T3 column while for the separation of the nucleoside triphosphates, an anion exchange column (BioBasic AX) was used. No addition of ion pair reagent was required. A 5500 QTrap was used as analyzer, operating as triple quadrupole. The analytical method for the nucleoside triphosphates has been validated according to the guidelines of the US Food and Drug Administration. The lower limit of quantification values were determined as 10 pg on column (0.5 ng/mL in the injection solution) for deoxyadenosine triphosphate and deoxyguanosine triphosphate, 20 pg (1 ng/mL) for deoxycytidine triphosphate and thymidine triphosphate, 100 pg (5 ng/mL) for cytidine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate, and 500 pg (25 ng/mL) for adenosine triphosphate und uridine triphosphate respectively. This methodology has been applied to the quantitation of nucleosides and nucleoside triphosphates in primary human CD4 T lymphocytes and macrophages. As expected, the concentrations for ribonucleosides and ribonucleoside triphophates were considerably higher than those obtained for the deoxy derivatives. Upon T cell receptor activation, the levels of all analytes, with the notable exceptions of deoxyadenosine triphosphate and deoxyguanosine triphosphate, were found to be elevated in CD4 T cells.

Comparison of superficially porous and fully porous silica supports used for a cyclofructan 6 hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatographic stationary phase

A new HILIC stationary phase comprised of native cyclofructan-6 (CF6) bonded to superficially porous silica particles (2.7μm) was developed. Its performance was evaluated and compared to fully porous silica particles with 5μm (commercially available as FRULIC-N) and 3μm diameters. Faster and more efficient chromatography was achieved with the superficially porous particles (SPPs). The columns were also evaluated in the normal phase mode. The peak efficiency, analysis time, resolution, and overall separation capabilities in both HILIC and normal phase modes were compared. The analysis times using the superficially porous based column in HILIC mode were shorter and the theoretical plates/min were higher over the entire range of flow rates studied. The column containing the superficially porous particles demonstrated higher optimum flow rates than the fully porous particle packed columns. At higher flow rates, the advantages of the superficially porous particles was more pronounced in normal phase separations than in HILIC, clearly demonstrating the influence that the mode of chromatography has on band broadening. However, the minimum reduced plate heights (hmin) were typically lower in HILIC than in the normal phase mode. Overall, the superficially porous particle based CF6 column showed clear advantages over the fully porous particle columns, in terms of high throughput and efficient separations of polar compounds in the HILIC mode.