Dynamics of thymus function and T cell receptor repertoire breadth in health and disease

Recirculating regulatory T cells mediate thymic regeneration through amphiregulin following damage

Thymic injury associated with disease or cancer treatment reduces T cell production and makes patients more vulnerable to infections and cancers. Here, we examined the role of regulatory T (Treg) cells on thymic regeneration. Treg cell frequencies increased in the thymus in various acute injury models. Depletion of Treg cells impaired thymic regeneration, impacting both the thymocyte compartment and the stromal cell compartment; adoptive transfer of Treg cells enhanced regeneration. Expansion of circulating Treg cells, as opposed to that of tissue resident or recent thymic emigrants, explained this increase, as seen using parabiotic and adoptive transfer models. Single-cell analyses of recirculating Treg cells revealed expression of various regenerative factors, including the cytokine amphiregulin. Deletion of amphiregulin in these Treg cells impaired regeneration in the injured thymus. We identified an analogous population of CD39+ICOS+ Treg cells in the human thymus. Our findings point to potential therapeutic avenues to address aging- and treatment-induced immunosuppression.

Senolytic Vaccines from the Central and Peripheral Tolerance Perspective

Preventive medicine has proven its long-term effectiveness and economic feasibility. Over the last century, vaccination has saved more lives than any other medical technology. At present, preventative measures against most infectious diseases are successfully used worldwide; in addition, vaccination platforms against oncological and even autoimmune diseases are being actively developed. At the same time, the development of medicine led to an increase in both life expectancy and the proportion of age-associated diseases, which pose a heavy socio-economic burden. In this context, the development of vaccine-based approaches for the prevention or treatment of age-related diseases opens up broad prospects for extending the period of active longevity and has high economic potential. It is well known that the development of age-related diseases is associated with the accumulation of senescent cells in various organs and tissues. It has been demonstrated that the elimination of such cells leads to the restoration of functions, rejuvenation, and extension of the lives of experimental animals. However, the development of vaccines against senescent cells is complicated by their antigenic heterogeneity and the lack of a unique marker. In addition, senescent cells are the body's own cells, which may be the reason for their low immunogenicity. This mini-review discusses the mechanisms of central and peripheral tolerance that may influence the formation of an anti-senescent immune response and be responsible for the accumulation of senescent cells with age.

Survey of Changes in Absolute Lymphocyte Counts and Peripheral Immune Repertoire Diversity after External Beam Radiotherapy

Radiation-induced lymphopenia (RIL) is associated with worse outcomes in patients with multiple solid tumors. Hypofractionated radiation therapy (HFRT) reduces RIL compared with conventionally fractionated radiation therapy (CFRT). However, fractionation effects on immune repertoire (IR) diversity are unknown. RNA-based T- and B-cell receptor sequencing was performed on peripheral lymphocytes collected prospectively before radiation therapy and <4 weeks after the final radiation fraction. Patients received CFRT (≤3 Gy/day × ≥10 days ± chemotherapy, n = 13) or HFRT (≥5 Gy/day × ≤5 days, n = 10), per institutional standards of care. Immune repertoire diversity parameters analyzed were number of unique CDR3 receptors (uCDR3), Shannon entropy, and sample clonality (percentage of all receptors represented by the top 10 clones). RIL was severe with concurrent chemotherapy (median %Δ ALC -58.8%, -12.5%, and -28.6% in patients treated with CFRT and chemo, CFRT alone, and HFRT, respectively). CFRT and concurrent chemotherapy was associated with more severe diversity restriction in all examined parameters than either HFRT or CFRT alone. Increased immune repertoire diversity despite decreased ALC was more common in patients treated with HFRT than CFRT and significantly less common in patients treated with concurrent chemotherapy (P < 0.001). Radiation-induced changes in immune repertoire diversity are variably reflected in the peripheral ALC. Both HFRT and CFRT caused RIL, but HFRT was associated with improved immune repertoire diversity despite RIL. The addition of chemotherapy may potentiate radiation-induced restriction in immune repertoire diversity. As immune repertoire diversity is associated with response to immunotherapy, these findings may have implications for radiation therapy/chemotherapy/immunotherapy combinations. Further studies are required to understand the relationship between radiation, circulating lymphocyte populations, immune repertoire diversity and response to treatment.

Characteristics of T-Cell Receptor Repertoire for Differential Response to Methotrexate Treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis

BACKGROUND

Methotrexate (MTX) serves as the initial treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, a substantial proportion of RA patients, estimated between 30% and 50%, do not respond positively to MTX. While the T-cell receptor (TCR) is crucial for the immune response during RA, its role in differentiating MTX responsiveness has not been thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

This study used next-generation sequencing to analyze the TCR β-chain complementary determining region sequences in peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from RA patients before MTX treatment. This study aimed to compare the characteristics of the TCR repertoire between the MTX responder and non-responder groups.

RESULTS

The study identified a significant difference in the TRBV6-6 gene (p = .003) concerning MTX treatment response. Additionally, a significant difference was found in the number of "3" nucleotide deletions at the 5'Jdels site (p = .023) in the VDJ rearrangement.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest distinct TCR repertoire characteristics between MTX responder and non-responder groups among RA patients. This discovery offers new insights into understanding the variable responses of RA patients to MTX therapy.

Age-related epithelial defects limit thymic function and regeneration

The thymus is essential for establishing adaptive immunity yet undergoes age-related involution that leads to compromised immune responsiveness. The thymus is also extremely sensitive to acute insult and although capable of regeneration, this capacity declines with age for unknown reasons. We applied single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, lineage-tracing and advanced imaging to define age-related changes in nonhematopoietic stromal cells and discovered the emergence of two atypical thymic epithelial cell (TEC) states. These age-associated TECs (aaTECs) formed high-density peri-medullary epithelial clusters that were devoid of thymocytes; an accretion of nonproductive thymic tissue that worsened with age, exhibited features of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and was associated with downregulation of FOXN1. Interaction analysis revealed that the emergence of aaTECs drew tonic signals from other functional TEC populations at baseline acting as a sink for TEC growth factors. Following acute injury, aaTECs expanded substantially, further perturbing trophic regeneration pathways and correlating with defective repair of the involuted thymus. These findings therefore define a unique feature of thymic involution linked to immune aging and could have implications for developing immune-boosting therapies in older individuals.

The clinical applications of immunosequencing

Technological advances in high-throughput sequencing have opened the door for the interrogation of adaptive immune responses at unprecedented scale. It is now possible to determine the sequences of antibodies or T-cell receptors produced by individual B and T cells in a sample. This capability, termed immunosequencing, has transformed the study of both infectious and non-infectious diseases by allowing the tracking of dynamic changes in B and T cell clonal populations over time. This has improved our understanding of the pathology of cancers, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. However, to date there has been only limited clinical adoption of the technology. Advances over the last decade and on the horizon that reduce costs and improve interpretability could enable widespread clinical use. Many clinical applications have been proposed and, while most are still undergoing research and development, some methods relying on immunosequencing data have been implemented, the most widespread of which is the detection of measurable residual disease. Here, we review the diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic applications of immunosequencing for both infectious and non-infectious diseases.

Lack of Specific Immune Response after Five Doses of mRNA SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine in a Patient with CD4+ T-Cell Lymphopenia but Preserved Responses to CMV

Immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines is highly heterogeneous in patients with inborn errors of immunity (IEIs). This case report analyzes the immune response to mRNA COVID-19 two-dose primary vaccination followed by three boosters in an IEI patient with marked CD4+ T-cell cytopenia and diminished thymic output, in comparison with that raised against latent, chronic cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. Serum IgG antibodies anti-spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 and anti-CMV were both determined by chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassays (CMIAs). SARS-CoV-2 and CMV memory CD4+ T-cell responses were simultaneously evaluated in vitro using an activation-induced marker (AIM) assay via multicolor flow cytometry. Throughout the 2-year follow-up that included the administration of five doses of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines, cellular anti-SARS-CoV-2-specific responses remained consistently negative, with extremely weak humoral responses, while the patient showed in vitro persistent CD4+ T-cell reactivity to CMV peptides and high-IgG CMV-specific titers. The assessment of immune responses to vaccines and prevalent viruses is essential in IEI patients in order to take adequate preventive measures.

A review of cumulative toxic effects of environmental endocrine disruptors on the zebrafish immune system: Characterization methods, toxic effects and mechanisms

Environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), are a type of exogenous organic pollutants, are ubiquitous in natural aquatic environments. Currently, in addition to neurological, endocrine, developmental and reproductive toxicity, ecotoxicology studies on immunotoxicity are receiving increasing attention. In this review, the composition of immune system of zebrafish, the common indicators of immunotoxicity, the immunotoxicity of EDCs and their molecular mechanism were summarized. We reviewed the immunotoxicity of EDCs on zebrafish mainly in terms of immune organs, immunocytes, immune molecules and immune functions, meanwhile, the possible molecular mechanisms driving these effects were elucidated in terms of endocrine disruption, dysregulation of signaling pathways, and oxidative damage. Hopefully, this review will provide a reference for further investigation of the immunotoxicity of EDCs.

Morphometric Analysis of the Thymic Epithelial Cell (TEC) Network Using Integrated and Orthogonal Digital Pathology Approaches

The thymus, a central primary lymphoid organ of the immune system, plays a key role in T cell development. Surprisingly, the thymus is quite neglected with regards to standardized pathology approaches and practices for assessing structure and function. Most studies use multispectral flow cytometry to define the dynamic composition of the thymus at the cell population level, but they are limited by lack of contextual insight. This knowledge gap hinders our understanding of various thymic conditions and pathologies, particularly how they affect thymic architecture, and subsequently, immune competence. Here, we introduce a digital pathology pipeline to address these challenges. Our approach can be coupled to analytical algorithms and utilizes rationalized morphometric assessments of thymic tissue, ranging from tissue-wide down to microanatomical and ultrastructural levels. This pipeline enables the quantitative assessment of putative changes and adaptations of thymic structure to stimuli, offering valuable insights into the pathophysiology of thymic disorders. This versatile pipeline can be applied to a wide range of conditions that may directly or indirectly affect thymic structure, ranging from various cytotoxic stimuli inducing acute thymic involution to autoimmune diseases, such as myasthenia gravis. Here, we demonstrate applicability of the method in a mouse model of age-dependent thymic involution, both by confirming established knowledge, and by providing novel insights on intrathymic remodeling in the aged thymus. Our orthogonal pipeline, with its high versatility and depth of analysis, promises to be a valuable and practical toolset for both basic and translational immunology laboratories investigating thymic function and disease.

Primary and secondary defects of the thymus

The thymus is the primary site of T-cell development, enabling generation, and selection of a diverse repertoire of T cells that recognize non-self, whilst remaining tolerant to self- antigens. Severe congenital disorders of thymic development (athymia) can be fatal if left untreated due to infections, and thymic tissue implantation is the only cure. While newborn screening for severe combined immune deficiency has allowed improved detection at birth of congenital athymia, thymic disorders acquired later in life are still underrecognized and assessing the quality of thymic function in such conditions remains a challenge. The thymus is sensitive to injury elicited from a variety of endogenous and exogenous factors, and its self-renewal capacity decreases with age. Secondary and age-related forms of thymic dysfunction may lead to an increased risk of infections, malignancy, and autoimmunity. Promising results have been obtained in preclinical models and clinical trials upon administration of soluble factors promoting thymic regeneration, but to date no therapy is approved for clinical use. In this review we provide a background on thymus development, function, and age-related involution. We discuss disease mechanisms, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches for primary and secondary thymic defects.

T-cell receptor sequencing reveals hepatocellular carcinoma immune characteristics according to Barcelona Clinic liver cancer stages within liver tissue and peripheral blood

Analysis of T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoires in different stages of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) might help to elucidate its pathogenesis and progression. This study aimed to investigate TCR profiles in liver biopsies and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in different Barcelona Clinic liver cancer (BCLC) stages of HCC. Ten patients in early stage (BCLC_A), 10 patients in middle stage (BCLC_B), and 10 patients in late stage (BCLC_C) cancer were prospectively enrolled. The liver tumor tissues, adjacent tissues, and PBMCs of each patient were collected and examined by TCR β sequencing. Based on the ImMunoGeneTics (IMGT) database, we aligned the V, D, J, and C gene segments and identified the frequency of CDR3 sequences and amino acids sequence. Diversity of TCR in PBMCs was higher than in both tumor tissues and adjacent tissues, regardless of BCLC stage and postoperative recurrence. TCR clonality was increased in T cells from peripheral blood in advanced HCC, compared with the early and middle stages. No statistical differences were observed between different BCLC stages, either in tumors or adjacent tissues. TCR clonality revealed no significant difference between recurrent tumor and non-recurrent tumor, therefore PBMCs was better to be representative of TCR characteristics in different stages of HCC compared to tumor tissues. Clonal expansion of T cells was associated with low risk of recurrence in HCC patients.

Severe lympho-depletion, abrogated thymopoiesis and systemic EBV positive T-cell lymphoma of childhood, a case

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) associated T-cell and NK-cell lymphoproliferative diseases are lethal and extremely rare in Caucasians. We expand on the clinical, immunological and histogenetic characteristics associated with this second European case (19 years old, previously healthy, Caucasian boy) of systemic EBV positive T-cell lymphoma of childhood. We report, as novel findings, severe lympho-depletion and abrogation of thymopoiesis secondary to severe EBV activation and excessive immune activation. Similar to the first European case, we also detected a somatic missense variant in the proto-oncogene FYN. In the first European patient however, the FYN variant allele frequency (VAF) was 10% and the patient only experienced moderate leukopenia, whereas in our case, the VAF was 48% and the patient experienced severe leukopenia and lymphopenia. This could suggest a pathogenic role of these FYN variants in driving excessive T cell activation. If confirmed, FYN might become target in future treatments of this fatal disorder.

Immune Responses to Influenza D Virus in Calves Previously Infected with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 2

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) induces immunosuppression and thymus depletion in calves. This study explores the impact of prior BVDV-2 exposure on the subsequent immune response to influenza D virus (IDV). Twenty 3-week-old calves were divided into four groups. Calves in G1 and G3 were mock-treated on day 0, while calves in G2 and G4 received BVDV. Calves in G1 (mock) and G2 (BVDV) were necropsied on day 13 post-infection. IDV was inoculated on day 21 in G3 calves (mock + IDV) and G4 (BVDV + IDV) and necropsy was conducted on day 42. Pre-exposed BVDV calves exhibited prolonged and increased IDV shedding in nasal secretions. An approximate 50% reduction in the thymus was observed in acutely infected BVDV calves (G2) compared to controls (G1). On day 42, thymus depletion was observed in two calves in G4, while three had normal weight. BVDV-2-exposed calves had impaired CD8 T cell proliferation after IDV recall stimulation, and the α/β T cell impairment was particularly evident in those with persistent thymic atrophy. Conversely, no difference in antibody levels against IDV was noted. BVDV-induced thymus depletion varied from transient to persistent. Persistent thymus atrophy was correlated with weaker T cell proliferation, suggesting correlation between persistent thymus atrophy and impaired T cell immune response to subsequent infections.

A Novel CDC42 Variant with Impaired Thymopoiesis, IL-7R Signaling, PAK1 Binding, and TCR Repertoire Diversity

Genetic variants in cell division cycle 42 (CDC42) can manifest with dysmorphic features, autoinflammation, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and thrombocytopenia, whereas defective thymopoiesis is a rare disease manifestation. We report a novel CDC42 missense variant (c.46A > G, p.Lys16Glu) resulting in infection and HPV-driven carcinogenesis in the mosaic mother and impaired thymopoiesis and profound T cell lymphopenia in the heterozygous daughter identified through newborn screening for SCID. We found that surface expression of IL-7Rα (CD127) was decreased, consistent with reduced IL-7-induced STAT5 phosphorylation and accelerated apoptotic T cell death. Consistent with the vital role of IL-7 in regulating thymopoiesis, both patients displayed reduced T cell receptor CDR3 repertoires. Moreover, the CDC42 variant prevented binding to the downstream effector, p21-activated kinase (PAK)1, suggesting this impaired interaction to underlie reduced IL-7Rα expression and signaling. Here, we provide the first report of severely compromised thymopoiesis and perturbed IL-7Rα signaling caused by a novel CDC42 variant and presenting with diverging clinical and immunological phenotypes in patients.

Complete fatty degeneration of thymus associates with male sex, obesity and loss of circulating naïve CD8+ T cells in a Swedish middle-aged population

BACKGROUND

Fatty degeneration of thymus (or thymus involution) has long been considered a normal ageing process. However, there is emerging evidence that thymic involution is linked to T cell aging, chronic inflammation and increased morbidity. Other factors, aside from chronological age, have been proposed to affect the involution rate. In the present study, we investigated the imaging characteristics of thymus on computed tomography (CT) in a Swedish middle-aged population. The major aims were to establish the prevalence of fatty degeneration of thymus and to determine its associations with demographic, lifestyle and clinical factors, as well as inflammation, T cell differentiation and thymic output.

RESULTS

In total, 1 048 randomly invited individuals (aged 50-64 years, 49% females) were included and thoroughly characterized. CT evaluation of thymus included measurements of attenuation, size and a 4-point scoring system, with scale 0-3 based on the ratio of fat and soft tissue. A majority, 615 (59%) showed complete fatty degeneration, 259 (25%) predominantly fatty attenuation, 105 (10%) half fatty and half soft-tissue attenuation, while 69 (6.6%) presented with a solid thymic gland with predominantly soft-tissue attenuation. Age, male sex, high BMI, abdominal obesity and low dietary intake of fiber were independently associated with complete fatty degeneration of thymus. Also, fatty degeneration of thymus as well as low CT attenuation values were independently related to lower proportion of naïve CD8+ T cells, which in turn was related to lower thymic output, assessed by T-cell receptor excision circle (TREC) levels.

CONCLUSION

Among Swedish middle-aged subjects, nearly two-thirds showed complete fatty degeneration of thymus on CT. This was linked to depletion of naïve CD8+ T cells indicating that CT scans of thymus might be used to estimate immunological aging. Furthermore, our findings support the intriguing concept that obesity as well as low fiber intake contribute to immunological aging, thereby raising the possibility of preventive strategies.

Epigenomic variability is associated with age-specific naïve CD4 T cell response to activation in infants and adolescents

Childhood is a critical period of immune development. During this time, naïve CD4 (nCD4) T cells undergo programmed cell differentiation, mediated by epigenetic changes, in response to external stimuli leading to a baseline homeostatic state that may determine lifelong disease risk. However, the ontogeny of epigenetic signatures associated with CD4 T cell activation during key developmental periods are yet to be described. We investigated genome-wide DNA methylation (DNAm) changes associated with nCD4 T activation following 72 h culture in media+anti-CD3/CD28 beads in healthy infants (aged 12 months, n = 18) and adolescents (aged 10-15 years, n = 15). We integrated these data with transcriptomic and cytokine profiling from the same samples. nCD4 T cells from both age groups show similar extensive epigenetic reprogramming following activation, with the majority of genes involved in the T cell receptor signaling pathway associated with differential methylation. Additionally, we identified differentially methylated probes showing age-specific responses, that is, responses in only infants or adolescents, including within a cluster of T cell receptor (TCR) genes. These encoded several TCR alpha joining (TRAJ), and TCR alpha variable (TRAV) genes. Cytokine data analysis following stimulation revealed enhanced release of IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-10, in nCD4 T cells from adolescents compared with infants. Overlapping differential methylation and cytokine responses identified four probes potentially underpinning these age-specific responses. We show that DNAm in nCD4T cells in response to activation is dynamic in infancy and adolescence, with additional evidence for age-specific effects potentially driving variation in cytokine responses between these ages.

TCR_Explore: A novel webtool for T cell receptor repertoire analysis

T cells expressing either alpha-beta or gamma-delta T cell receptors (TCR) are critical sentinels of the adaptive immune system, with receptor diversity being essential for protective immunity against a broad array of pathogens and agents. Programs available to profile TCR clonotypic signatures can be limiting for users with no coding expertise. Current analytical pipelines can be inefficient due to manual processing steps, open to data entry errors and have multiple analytical tools with unique inputs that require coding expertise. Here we present a bespoke webtool designed for users irrespective of coding expertise, coined 'TCR_Explore', enabling analysis either derived via Sanger sequencing or next generation sequencing (NGS) platforms. Further, TCR_Explore incorporates automated quality control steps for Sanger sequencing. The creation of flexible and publication ready figures are enabled for different sequencing platforms following universal conversion to the TCR_Explore file format. TCR_Explore will enhance a user's capacity to undertake in-depth TCR repertoire analysis of both new and pre-existing datasets for identification of T cell clonotypes associated with health and disease. The web application is located at https://tcr-explore.erc.monash.edu for users to interactively explore TCR repertoire datasets.

Damage-induced pyroptosis drives endog thymic regeneration via induction of Foxn1 by purinergic receptor activation

Endogenous thymic regeneration is a crucial process that allows for the renewal of immune competence following stress, infection or cytoreductive conditioning. Fully understanding the molecular mechanisms driving regeneration will uncover therapeutic targets to enhance regeneration. We previously demonstrated that high levels of homeostatic apoptosis suppress regeneration and that a reduction in the presence of damage-induced apoptotic thymocytes facilitates regeneration. Here we identified that cell-specific metabolic remodeling after ionizing radiation steers thymocytes towards mitochondrial-driven pyroptotic cell death. We further identified that a key damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), ATP, stimulates the cell surface purinergic receptor P2Y2 on cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTECs) acutely after damage, enhancing expression of Foxn1, the critical thymic transcription factor. Targeting the P2Y2 receptor with the agonist UTPγS promotes rapid regeneration of the thymus in vivo following acute damage. Together these data demonstrate that intrinsic metabolic regulation of pyruvate processing is a critical process driving thymus repair and identifies the P2Y2 receptor as a novel molecular therapeutic target to enhance thymus regeneration.

Dynamics of T cell repertoire renewal following autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis

Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (aHSCT) is a highly effective treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). It depletes autoreactive cells and subsequently renews adaptive immune cells. The possible proinflammatory potential of surviving T cells early after aHSCT has not been studied. Here, we examined the dynamics of new and surviving T cells in 27 patients after aHSCT by multidimensional flow cytometry, T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing, specificity testing, telomere length profiling, and HLA genotyping. Early after aHSCT, naïve T cells are barely detectable, whereas effector memory (EM) T cells quickly reconstitute to pre-aHSCT values. EM CD4+T cells early after aHSCT have shorter telomeres, have higher expression of senescence and exhaustion markers, and proliferate less than those before aHSCT. We find a median TCR repertoire overlap of 26% between the early post-aHSCT EM CD4+T cells and pre-aHSCT, indicating persistence of EM CD4+T cells early after transplantation. The EM CD4+TCR repertoire overlap declines to 15% at 12 months after aHSCT, whereas the naïve TCR repertoire entirely renews. HLA-DR–associated EM CD4+T cell reactivity toward MS-related antigens decreased after aHSCT, whereas reactivity toward EBV increased. Our data show substantial survival of pre-aHSCT EM CD4+T cells early after transplantation but complete renewal of the T cell repertoire by nascent T cells later.

Activation of the zinc-sensing receptor GPR39 promotes T-cell reconstitution after hematopoietic cell transplant in mice

Prolonged lymphopenia represents a major clinical problem after cytoreductive therapies such as chemotherapy and the conditioning required for hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HCT), contributing to the risk of infections and malignant relapse. Restoration of T-cell immunity depends on tissue regeneration in the thymus, the primary site of T-cell development, although the capacity of the thymus to repair itself diminishes over its lifespan. However, although boosting thymic function and T-cell reconstitution is of considerable clinical importance, there are currently no approved therapies for treating lymphopenia. Here we found that zinc (Zn) is critically important for both normal T-cell development and repair after acute damage. Accumulated Zn in thymocytes during development was released into the extracellular milieu after HCT conditioning, where it triggered regeneration by stimulating endothelial cell production of BMP4 via the cell surface receptor GPR39. Dietary supplementation of Zn was sufficient to promote thymic function in a mouse model of allogeneic HCT, including enhancing the number of recent thymic emigrants in circulation although direct targeting of GPR39 with a small molecule agonist enhanced thymic function without the need for prior Zn accumulation in thymocytes. Together, these findings not only define an important pathway underlying tissue regeneration but also offer an innovative preclinical approach to treat lymphopenia in HCT recipients.

Quantitative restoration of immune defense in old animals determined by naive antigen-specific CD8 T-cell numbers

Older humans and animals often exhibit reduced immune responses to infection and vaccination, and this often directly correlates to the numbers and frequency of naive T (Tn) cells. We found such a correlation between reduced numbers of blood CD8+ Tn cells and severe clinical outcomes of West Nile virus (WNV) in both humans naturally exposed to, and mice experimentally infected with, WNV. To examine possible causality, we sought to increase the number of CD8 Tn cells by treating C57BL/6 mice with IL-7 complexes (IL-7C, anti-IL-7 mAb bound to IL-7), shown previously to efficiently increase peripheral T-cell numbers by homeostatic proliferation. T cells underwent robust expansion following IL-7C administration to old mice increasing the number of total T cells (>fourfold) and NS4b:H-2D^b -restricted antigen-specific CD8 T cells (twofold). This improved the numbers of NS4b-specific CD8 T cells detected at the peak of the response against WNV, but not survival of WNV challenge. IL-7C-treated old animals also showed no improvement in WNV-specific effector immunity (neutralizing antibody and in vivo T-cell cytotoxicity). To test quantitative limits to which CD8 Tn cell restoration could improve protective immunity, we transferred graded doses of Ag-specific precursors into old mice and showed that injection of 5400 (but not of 1800 or 600) adult naive WNV-specific CD8 T cells significantly increased survival after WNV. These results set quantitative limits to the level of Tn reconstitution necessary to improve immune defense in older organisms and are discussed in light of targets of immune reconstitution.

Post-Irradiation Thymic Regeneration in B6C3F1 Mice Is Age Dependent and Modulated by Activation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR Pathway

Simple Summary

Because children have a long life expectancy relative to adults and their tissues and organs are growing and developing rapidly, the risk of radiation carcinogenesis for children is considered higher than that for adults. However, the underlying mechanism(s) is unclear. To uncover the mechanism, we previously revealed that principal causative genes in mouse thymic lymphomas arising in irradiated infants or adults as Pten or Ikzf1, respectively, suggesting that cells with mutation in these genes might be the origin of lymphomas arising after irradiation depending on age at exposure. Here, we clarified the age-dependent differences in thymus-cell dynamics in mice during the initial post-irradiation period. Our results demonstrate that the dynamics of thymocytes during the post-irradiation period depends on the age at exposure. For irradiated infants in particular, the number of proliferating cells increase dramatically, and this correlate with activation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. Thus, we conclude that the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway in infants contributed, at least in part, to thymus-cell dynamics through the modification of cell proliferation and survival after irradiation, which may be associated with the risk of Pten mutation-associated thymic lymphoma.

Abstract

The risk of radiation-induced carcinogenesis depends on age at exposure. We previously reported principal causative genes in lymphomas arising after infant or adult exposure to 4-fractionated irradiation as Pten or Ikzf1, respectively, suggesting that cells with mutation in these genes might be the origin of lymphomas arising after irradiation depending on age at exposure. Here, we clarified the age-dependent differences in thymus-cell dynamics in mice during the initial post-irradiation period. The thymocyte number initially decreased, followed by two regeneration phases. During the first regeneration, the proportion of phosphorylated-AKT-positive (p-AKT⁺) cells in cell-cycle phases S+G2/M of immature CD4⁻CD8⁻ and CD4⁺CD8⁺ thymocytes and in phases G0/G1 of mature CD4⁺CD8⁻ and CD4⁻CD8⁺ thymocytes was significantly greater in irradiated infants than in irradiated adults. During the second regeneration, the proportion of p-AKT⁺ thymocytes in phases G0/G1 increased in each of the three populations other than CD4⁻CD8⁻ thymocytes more so than during the first regeneration. Finally, PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling in infants contributed, at least in part, to biphasic thymic regeneration through the modification of cell proliferation and survival after irradiation, which may be associated with the risk of Pten mutation-associated thymic lymphoma.

Estrogens as immunotoxicants: 17α-ethinylestradiol exposure retards thymus development in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Estrogenic endocrine disrupting compounds (EEDCs) can cause alterations in sexual development and reproductive function of fish. Growing evidence suggests that EEDCs can also interfere with development and function of innate immunity of fish. The present study examined a potential disruptive effect of EEDCs at field-relevant concentrations on the development of adaptive immunity, more specifically the thymus. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were exposed from fertilization until 64 days post-fertilization (dpf) to environmentally relevant (3 and 10 ng/L) concentrations of the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). The exposure duration covered the period of initial thymus differentiation to maximum growth. Thymus development was assessed by histological and morphometric (thymus area) analysis, thymocyte number, and transcript levels of thymocyte marker genes. Additionally, transcript levels of the estrogen receptors (esr1 and esr2a) were determined. The EE2 exposure altered sexual development (gonad differentiation, transcript levels of hepatic vitellogenin and estrogen receptors) of zebrafish, as expected. At the same time, the EE2 treatment reduced the thymus growth (thymus area, thymocyte number) and transcript levels of thymus marker genes. The expression of the thymic estrogen receptors responded to the EE2 exposure but in a different pattern than the hepatic estrogen receptors. After the 64-day-exposure period, the juvenile fish were transferred into clean water for another 95 days to assess the reversibility of EE2-induced effects. The thymic alterations were found to be reversible in female zebrafish but persisted in males. The present study provides the first evidence that the development of the fish adaptive immune system is sensitive to EEDCs, and that this takes place at concentrations similar to those that disrupt sexual development.

Early Thymectomy Is Associated With Long-Term Impairment of the Immune System: A Systematic Review

Background and Aims

Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) are diagnosed in approximately 9 in 1,000 newborns, and early cardiac corrective surgery often requires partial or complete thymectomy. As the long-term effect of early thymectomy on the subsequent development of the immune system in humans has not been completely elucidated, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of thymus removal on the functional capacity of the immune system after different periods.

Methods

A systematic review of the literature was performed using MEDLINE, EMBASE, LILACS and Scopus. The inclusion criteria were original studies that analyzed any component of the immune system in patients with CHD who had undergone thymectomy during cardiac surgery in the first years of life. The results were evaluated for the quality of evidence.

Results

Twenty-three studies were selected and showed that patients who underwent a thymectomy in the first years of life tended to exhibit important alterations in the T cell compartment, such as fewer total T cells, CD4+, CD8+, naïve and CD31+ T cells, lower TRECs, decreased diversity of the TCR repertoire and higher peripheral proliferation (increased Ki-67 expression) than controls. However, the numbers of memory T cells and Treg cells differed across the selected studies.

Conclusions

Early thymectomy, either partial or complete, may be associated with a reduction in many T cell subpopulations and TCR diversity, and these alterations may persist during long-term follow-up. Alternative solutions should be studied, either in the operative technique with partial preservation of the thymus or through the autograft of fragments of the gland.

Systematic Review Registration

Prospero [157188].

Attenuation of apoptotic cell detection triggers thymic regeneration after damage

The thymus, which is the primary site of T cell development, is particularly sensitive to insult but also has a remarkable capacity for repair. However, the mechanisms orchestrating regeneration are poorly understood, and delayed repair is common after cytoreductive therapies. Here, we demonstrate a trigger of thymic regeneration, centered on detecting the loss of dying thymocytes that are abundant during steady-state T cell development. Specifically, apoptotic thymocytes suppressed production of the regenerative factors IL-23 and BMP4 via TAM receptor signaling and activation of the Rho-GTPase Rac1, the intracellular pattern recognition receptor NOD2, and micro-RNA-29c. However, after damage, when profound thymocyte depletion occurs, this TAM-Rac1-NOD2-miR29c pathway is attenuated, increasing production of IL-23 and BMP4. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of Rac1-GTPase enhanced thymic function after acute damage. These findings identify a complex trigger of tissue regeneration and offer a regenerative strategy for restoring immune competence in patients whose thymic function has been compromised.