Paradoxically increased FOXP3+ T cells in IBD do not preferentially express the isoform of FOXP3 lacking exon 2

Single-cell and spatial multi-omics highlight effects of anti-integrin therapy across cellular compartments in ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is driven by immune and stromal subsets, culminating in epithelial injury. Vedolizumab (VDZ) is an anti-integrin antibody that is effective for treating UC. VDZ is known to inhibit lymphocyte trafficking to the intestine, but its broader effects on other cell subsets are less defined. To identify the inflammatory cells that contribute to colitis and are affected by VDZ, we perform single-cell transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of peripheral blood and colonic biopsies in healthy controls and patients with UC on VDZ or other therapies. Here we show that VDZ treatment is associated with alterations in circulating and tissue mononuclear phagocyte (MNP) subsets, along with modest shifts in lymphocytes. Spatial multi-omics of formalin-fixed biopsies demonstrates trends towards increased abundance and proximity of MNP and fibroblast subsets in active colitis. Spatial transcriptomics of archived specimens pre-treatment identifies epithelial-, MNP-, and fibroblast-enriched genes related to VDZ responsiveness, highlighting important roles for these subsets in UC.

Single-cell and spatial multi-omics highlight effects of anti-integrin therapy across cellular compartments in ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is driven by immune and stromal subsets, culminating in epithelial injury. Vedolizumab (VDZ) is an anti-integrin antibody that is effective for treating UC. VDZ is known to inhibit lymphocyte trafficking to the intestine, but its broader effects on other cell subsets are less defined. To identify the inflammatory cells that contribute to colitis and are affected by VDZ, we performed single-cell transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of peripheral blood and colonic biopsies in healthy controls and patients with UC on VDZ or other therapies. Here we show that VDZ treatment is associated with alterations in circulating and tissue mononuclear phagocyte (MNP) subsets, along with modest shifts in lymphocytes. Spatial multi-omics of formalin-fixed biopsies demonstrates trends towards increased abundance and proximity of MNP and fibroblast subsets in active colitis. Spatial transcriptomics of archived specimens pre-treatment identifies epithelial-, MNP-, and fibroblast-enriched genes related to VDZ responsiveness, highlighting important roles for these subsets in UC.

Metabolic regulation of forkhead box P3 alternative splicing isoforms and their impact on health and disease

Forkhead Box P3 (FOXP3) is crucial for the development and suppressive function of human regulatory T cells (Tregs). There are two predominant FOXP3 splicing isoforms in healthy humans, the full-length isoform and the isoform lacking exon 2, with different functions and regulation mechanisms. FOXP3 splicing isoforms show distinct abilities in the cofactor interaction and the nuclear translocation, resulting in different effects on the differentiation, cytokine secretion, suppressive function, linage stability, and environmental adaptation of Tregs. The balance of FOXP3 splicing isoforms is related to autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and cancers. In response to environmental challenges, FOXP3 transcription and splicing can be finely regulated by T cell antigen receptor stimulation, glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, and reactive oxygen species, with various signaling pathways involved. Strategies targeting energy metabolism and FOXP3 splicing isoforms in Tregs may provide potential new approaches for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and cancers. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries about the FOXP3 splicing isoforms and address the metabolic regulation and specific functions of FOXP3 splicing isoforms in Tregs.

Regulatory T cell homeostasis: Requisite signals and implications for clinical development of biologics

Novel biologics are currently being tested in clinical trials for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and the prevention of transplant allograft rejection. Their premise is to deliver highly efficient immunosuppression while minimizing side-effects, as they specifically target inflammatory mediators involved in the dysregulation of the immune system. However, the pleiotropism of soluble mediators and cell-to-cell interactions with potential to exert both proinflammatory and regulatory influences on the outcome of the immune response can lead to unpredictable results. Predicting responses to biologic drugs requires mechanistic understanding of the cell type-specific effect of immune mediators. Elucidation of the central role of regulatory T cells (Treg), a small subset of T cells dedicated to immune homeostasis, in preventing the development of auto- and allo-immunity has provided a deeper understanding of the signaling pathways that govern immune tolerance. This review focuses on the requisite signals that promote Treg homeostasis and discusses the anticipated outcomes of biologics targeting these signals. Our goal is to inform and facilitate the design of cell-specific biologics that thwart T effector cells (Teff) while promoting Treg function for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and the prevention of transplant rejection.

The frequency of Treg subsets distinguishes disease activity in ANCA vasculitis

Objectives

T regulatory cells (Tregs) are a heterogeneous group of immunoregulatory cells that dampen self-harming immune responses and prevent the development of autoimmune diseases. In anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody (ANCA) vasculitis, Tregs possess diminished suppressive capacity, which has been attributed to the expression of a FOXP3 splice-variant lacking exon 2 in T cells (FOXP3Δ2 CD4+ T cells). However, the suppressive capacity of Tregs varies between subsets. We evaluated the frequency of Treg subsets in ANCA vasculitis as a potential explanation for diminished suppressive capacity.

Methods

We developed a custom mass cytometry panel and performed deep immune profiling of Tregs in healthy controls, patients with active disease and in remission. Using these data, we performed multidimensional reduction and discriminant analysis to identify associations between Treg subsets and disease activity.

Results

Total Tregs were expanded in ANCA vasculitis, which was associated with remission and the administration of rituximab and/or prednisone. The frequency of FOXP3Δ2 CD4+ T cells did not distinguish disease activity and this population had high expression levels of CD127 and lacked both CD25 and Helios, suggesting that they are not conventional Tregs. The frequency of CXCR3+, CD103+ and CCR7+ Tregs distinguished disease activity, and the combination of the frequency of these three Treg subsets segregated active patients from patients in remission and healthy controls. From these three subsets, the frequency of CXCR3+ Tregs distinguished patients with active disease with renal involvement.

Conclusion

Treg heterogeneity can discriminate disease activity and should be explored as a biomarker of disease activity in ANCA vasculitis.

Co-Expression of FOXP3FL and FOXP3Δ2 Isoforms Is Required for Optimal Treg-Like Cell Phenotypes and Suppressive Function

FOXP3 is the master transcription factor in both murine and human FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs), a T-cell subset with a central role in controlling immune responses. Loss of the functional Foxp3 protein in scurfy mice leads to acute early-onset lethal lymphoproliferation. Similarly, pathogenic FOXP3 mutations in humans lead to immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, and X-linked (IPEX) syndrome, which are characterized by systemic autoimmunity that typically begins in the first year of life. However, although pathogenic FOXP3 mutations lead to overlapping phenotypic consequences in both systems, FOXP3 in human Tregs, but not mouse, is expressed as two predominant isoforms, the full length (FOXP3FL) and the alternatively spliced isoform, delta 2 (FOXP3Δ2). Here, using CRISPR/Cas9 to generate FOXP3 knockout CD4⁺ T cells (FOXP3KO^GFP CD4+ T cells), we restore the expression of each isoform by lentiviral gene transfer to delineate their functional roles in human Tregs. When compared to FOXP3FL or FOXP3Δ2 alone, or double transduction of the same isoform, co-expression of FOXP3FL and FOXP3Δ2 induced the highest overall FOXP3 protein expression in FOXP3KO^GFP CD4+ T cells. This condition, in turn, led to optimal acquisition of Treg-like cell phenotypes including downregulation of cytokines, such as IL-17, and increased suppressive function. Our data confirm that co-expression of FOXP3FL and FOXP3Δ2 leads to optimal Treg-like cell function and supports the need to maintain the expression of both when engineering therapeutics designed to restore FOXP3 function in otherwise deficient cells.

HLA-Restriction of Human Treg Cells Is Not Required for Therapeutic Efficacy of Low-Dose IL-2 in Humanized Mice

Regulatory T (T_reg) cells are essential to maintain immune homeostasis in the intestine and T_reg cell dysfunction is associated with several inflammatory and autoimmune disorders including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Efforts using low-dose (LD) interleukin-2 (IL-2) to expand autologous T_reg cells show therapeutic efficacy for several inflammatory conditions. Whether LD IL-2 is an effective strategy for treating patients with IBD is unknown. Recently, we demonstrated that LD IL-2 was protective against experimental colitis in immune humanized mice in which human CD4⁺ T cells were restricted to human leukocyte antigen (HLA). Whether HLA restriction is required for human T_reg cells to ameliorate colitis following LD IL-2 therapy has not been demonstrated. Here, we show that treatment with LD IL-2 reduced 2,4,6-trinitrobenzensulfonic acid (TNBS) colitis severity in NOD.Prkdc^scidIl2rg^-/- (NSG) mice reconstituted with human CD34⁺ hematopoietic stem cells. These data demonstrate the utility of standard immune humanized NSG mice as a pre-clinical model system to evaluate therapeutics targeting human T_reg cells to treat IBD.

Impaired estrogen signaling underlies regulatory T cell loss-of-function in the chronically inflamed intestine

Signaling of 17β-estradiol (estrogen) through its two nuclear receptors, α and β (ERα, ERβ), is an important mechanism of transcriptional regulation. Although ERs are broadly expressed by cells of the immune system, the mechanisms by which they modulate immune responses remain poorly understood. ERβ-specific signaling is reduced in patients with chronic inflammatory diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus and inflammatory bowel disease, and our previous work suggests that dysregulation of ERβ-specific signaling contributes to enhanced intestinal inflammation in female SAMP/YitFC mice, a spontaneous model of Crohn's disease-like ileitis. The present study builds on these prior observations to identify a nonredundant, immunoprotective role for ERβ-specific signaling in TGF-β-dependent regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation. Using a strain of congenic SAMP mice engineered to lack global expression of ERβ, we observed dramatic, female-specific exacerbation of intestinal inflammation accompanied by significant reductions in intestinal Treg frequency and function. Impaired Treg suppression in the absence of ERβ was associated with aberrant overexpression of Tsc22d3 (GILZ), a glucocorticoid-responsive transcription factor not normally expressed in mature Tregs, and ex vivo data reveal that forced overexpression of GILZ in mature Tregs inhibits their suppressive function. Collectively, our findings identify a pathway of estrogen-mediated immune regulation in the intestine, whereby homeostatic expression of ERβ normally functions to limit Treg-specific expression of GILZ, thereby maintaining effective immune suppression. Our data suggest that transcriptional cross-talk between glucocorticoid and steroid sex hormone signaling represents an important and understudied regulatory node in chronic inflammatory disease.

IPEX as a Consequence of Alternatively Spliced FOXP3

The transcription factor FOXP3 controls the immunosuppressive program in CD4⁺ T cells that is crucial for systemic immune regulation. Mutations of the single X-chromosomal FOXP3 gene in male individuals cause the inherited autoimmune disease immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, and X-linked (IPEX) syndrome. Insufficient gene expression and impaired function of mutant FOXP3 protein prevent the generation of anti-inflammatory regulatory T (Treg) cells and fail to inhibit autoreactive T cell responses. Diversification of FOXP3 functional properties is achieved through alternative splicing that leads to isoforms lacking exon 2 (FOXP3Δ2), exon 7 (FOXP3Δ7), or both (FOXP3Δ2Δ7) specifically in human CD4⁺ T cells. Several IPEX mutations targeting these exons or promoting their alternative splicing revealed that those truncated isoforms cannot compensate for the loss of the full-length isoform (FOXP3fl). In this review, IPEX mutations that change the FOXP3 isoform profile and the resulting consequences for the CD4⁺ T-cell phenotype are discussed.

Immunological mechanisms underpinning faecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic gastrointestinal disease that results from a dysregulated immune response against specific environmental triggers in a genetically predisposed individual. Increasing evidence has indicated a causal role for changes in gut microbiota (dysbiosis) contributing to this immune-mediated intestinal inflammation. These mechanisms involve dysregulation of multiple facets of the host immune pathways that are potentially reversible. Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is the transfer of processed stool from a healthy donor into an individual with an illness. FMT has shown promising results in both animal model experiments and clinical studies in IBD in the resolution of intestinal inflammation. The underlying mechanisms, however, are unclear. Insights from these studies have shown interactions between modulation of dysbiosis via changes in abundances of specific members of the gut microbial community and changes in host immunological pathways. Unravelling these causal relationships has promising potential for a translational therapy role to develop targeted microbial therapies and understand the mechanisms that underpin IBD aetiopathogenesis. In this review, we discuss current evidence for the contribution of gut microbiota in the disruption of intestinal immune homeostasis and immunoregulatory mechanisms that are associated with the resolution of inflammation through FMT in IBD.

Reappraisal of antibodies against Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ASCA) as persistent biomarkers in quiescent Crohn's disease

A clear correlation exists between microbiota and the dysregulation of the immune response in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD), which comprise Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). These unbalanced reactions also involve humoral responses, with antibodies against Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Thus, here we aimed to quantify IgA and IgG specific to S. cerevisiae (ASCA) in quiescent CD and UC, to correlate the production of these antibodies with patient's inflammatory response and disease clinical presentation. Twenty-nine subjects (16 CD and 13 UC) and 45 healthy controls were enrolled in this study and had plasma samples tested for ASCA and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ, TNF-α), besides clinical evaluation. IBD patients had increase IgA and IgG ASCA, especially those with colonic (L2) and fistulizing (B3) CD. Similarly, patients who dropped out the treatment had augmented ASCA, while IgG was reduced in those receiving sulfasalazine treatment. Furthermore, the quiescent CD patients had elevated IL-6 on plasma, especially in the absence of treatment, together with increased counter regulatory response of IL-10. There was a positive correlation between IgA and IgG on CD but not UC, as well as between IgA and TNF in total IBD patients. In addition, the levels of IgG x TNF, IgA x IL-10 and IgG x IL-10 were also correlated in CD, indicating that ASCA production may be influenced by the inflammatory response. Finally, we concluded that ASCA could be pointed as relevant biomarker of CD presentation and residual inflammation, even in clinical remission patients.

The Effect of Butyrate-Supplemented Parenteral Nutrition on Intestinal Defence Mechanisms and the Parenteral Nutrition-Induced Shift in the Gut Microbiota in the Rat Model

Butyrate produced by the intestinal microbiota is essential for proper functioning of the intestinal immune system. Total dependence on parenteral nutrition (PN) is associated with numerous adverse effects, including severe microbial dysbiosis and loss of important butyrate producers. We hypothesised that a lack of butyrate produced by the gut microbiota may be compensated by its supplementation in PN mixtures. We tested whether i.v. butyrate administration would (a) positively modulate intestinal defence mechanisms and (b) counteract PN-induced dysbiosis. Male Wistar rats were randomised to chow, PN, and PN supplemented with 9 mM butyrate (PN+But) for 12 days. Antimicrobial peptides, mucins, tight junction proteins, and cytokine expression were assessed by RT-qPCR. T-cell subpopulations in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were analysed by flow cytometry. Microbiota composition was assessed in caecum content. Butyrate supplementation resulted in increased expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin-7, E-cadherin), antimicrobial peptides (Defa 8, Rd5, RegIIIγ), and lysozyme in the ileal mucosa. Butyrate partially alleviated PN-induced intestinal barrier impairment and normalised IL-4, IL-10, and IgA mRNA expression. PN administration was associated with an increase in Tregs in MLN, which was normalised by butyrate. Butyrate increased the total number of CD4+ and decreased a relative amount of CD8+ memory T cells in MLN. Lack of enteral nutrition and PN administration led to a shift in caecal microbiota composition. Butyrate did not reverse the altered expression of most taxa but did influence the abundance of some potentially beneficial/pathogenic genera, which might contribute to its overall beneficial effect.

Mucosal Immunity Related to FOXP3+ Regulatory T Cells, Th17 Cells and Cytokines in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease

BACKGROUND

We aimed to investigate mucosal immunity related to forkhead box P3 (FOXP3+) regulatory T (Treg) cells, T helper 17 (Th17) cells and cytokines in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

METHODS

Mucosal tissues from terminal ileum and colon and serum samples were collected from twelve children with IBD and seven control children. Immunohistochemical staining was done using anti-human FOXP3 and anti-RORγt antibodies. Serum levels of cytokines were analyzed using a multiplex assay covering interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A/F, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-25, IL-31, IL-33, interferon (IFN)-γ, soluble CD40L, and tumor necrosis factor-α.

RESULTS

FOXP3+ Treg cells in the lamina propria (LP) of terminal ileum of patients with Crohn's disease were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those in the healthy controls. RORγt+ T cells of terminal ileum tended to be higher in Crohn's disease than those in the control. In the multiplex assay, serum concentrations (pg/mL) of IL-4 (9.6 ± 1.5 vs. 12.7 ± 3.0), IL-21 (14.9 ± 1.5 vs. 26.4 ± 9.1), IL-33 (14.3 ± 0.9 vs. 19.1 ± 5.3), and IFN-γ (15.2 ± 5.9 vs. 50.2 ± 42.4) were significantly lower in Crohn's disease than those in the control group. However, serum concentration of IL-6 (119.1 ± 79.6 vs. 52.9 ± 39.1) was higher in Crohn's disease than that in the control. Serum concentrations of IL-17A (64.2 ± 17.2 vs. 28.3 ± 10.0) and IL-22 (37.5 ± 8.8 vs. 27.2 ± 3.7) were significantly higher in ulcerative colitis than those in Crohn's disease.

CONCLUSION

Mucosal immunity analysis showed increased FOXP3+ T reg cells in the LP with Crohn's disease while Th17 cell polarizing and signature cytokines were decreased in the serum samples of Crohn's disease but increased in ulcerative colitis.

Regulatory T Cells and Profile of FOXP3 Isoforms Expression in Peripheral Blood of Patients with Myelodysplastic Syndromes

We have investigated the frequencies of regulatory T cells and the level of FOXP3 isoforms expression in peripheral blood of patients with myelodysplastic syndromes and found the significant reduction of regulatory T cells at all stages of the disease. At the same time in untreated patients, we observed the shift in the FOXP3 isoforms expression profile towards the full-length molecule possibly due to inflammation. Based on the already known information about the potentially higher functional activity of FOXP3 molecule lacking exon 2, we have also hypothesized that our finding may explain the high risk of autoimmune disorders in this disease.

Enteric infection coupled with chronic Notch pathway inhibition alters colonic mucus composition leading to dysbiosis, barrier disruption and colitis

Intestinal mucus layer disruption and gut microflora modification in conjunction with tight junction (TJ) changes can increase colonic permeability that allows bacterial dissemination and intestinal and systemic disease. We showed previously that Citrobacter rodentium (CR)-induced colonic crypt hyperplasia and/or colitis is regulated by a functional cross-talk between the Notch and Wnt/β-catenin pathways. In the current study, mucus analysis in the colons of CR-infected (10⁸ CFUs) and Notch blocker Dibenzazepine (DBZ, i.p.; 10μmol/Kg b.w.)-treated mice revealed significant alterations in the composition of trace O-glycans and complex type and hybrid N-glycans, compared to CR-infected mice alone that preceded/accompanied alterations in 16S rDNA microbial community structure and elevated EUB338 staining. While mucin-degrading bacterium, Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) along with Enterobacteriaceae belonging to Proteobacteria phyla increased in the feces, antimicrobial peptides Angiogenin-4, Intelectin-1 and Intelectin-2, and ISC marker Dclk1, exhibited dramatic decreases in the colons of CR-infected/DBZ-treated mice. Also evident was a loss of TJ and adherens junction protein immuno-staining within the colonic crypts that negatively impacted paracellular barrier. These changes coincided with the loss of Notch signaling and exacerbation of mucosal injury. In response to a cocktail of antibiotics (Metronidazole/ciprofloxacin) for 10 days, there was increased survival that coincided with: i) decreased levels of Proteobacteria, ii) elevated Dclk1 levels in the crypt and, iii) reduced paracellular permeability. Thus, enteric infections that interfere with Notch activity may promote mucosal dysbiosis that is preceded by changes in mucus composition. Controlled use of antibiotics seems to alleviate gut dysbiosis but may be insufficient to promote colonic crypt regeneration.

Using murine colitis models to analyze probiotics-host interactions

Probiotics are defined as 'live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host'. So, to consider a microorganism as a probiotic, a demonstrable beneficial effect on the health host should be shown as well as an adequate defined safety status and the capacity to survive transit through the gastrointestinal tract and to storage conditions. In this review, we present an overview of the murine colitis models currently employed to test the beneficial effect of the probiotic strains as well as an overview of the probiotics already tested. Our aim is to highlight both the importance of the adequate selection of the animal model to test the potential probiotic strains and of the value of the knowledge generated by these in vivo tests.

Alternative Splicing of FOXP3-Virtue and Vice

FOXP3 is the lineage-defining transcription factor of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells. While many aspects of its regulation, interaction, and function are conserved among species, alternatively spliced FOXP3 isoforms are expressed only in human cells. This review summarizes current knowledge about alternative splicing of FOXP3 and the specific functions of FOXP3 isoforms in health and disease. Future perspectives in research and the therapeutic potential of manipulating alternative splicing of FOXP3 are discussed.

Crossover Subsets of CD4+ T Lymphocytes in the Intestinal Lamina Propria of Patients with Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis

BACKGROUND

Hovhannisyan et al. first showed evidence of plasticity between Treg and Th17 in the inflamed intestine of Crohn's disease (CD) patients. Our previous report suggests that the inflammatory cytokine milieu generates IL-17⁺ Foxp3⁺ CD4⁺ T lymphocytes which is a crossover population converting Treg subset to Th17 in the peripheral blood of IBD patients. This is considered as an evidence of Treg/Th17 plasticity.

AIM

The aim of this study was to characterize a variety of helper T cell crossover population, not limited to IL-17⁺ Foxp3⁺ CD4⁺ T lymphocytes, in the lamina propria (LP) of IBD patients.

METHODS

Fresh colonoscopic biopsies were obtained from patients with CD (n = 50) and ulcerative colitis (UC, n = 32) and from healthy controls (HC, n = 25). LP mononuclear cells were assessed for intracellular cytokines and transcription factors such as IFNγ, IL-13, IL-17, IL-22, T-bet, Gata-3, RORγt, and Foxp3 using multicolor flow cytometry to detect subsets of LP CD4⁺ T lymphocytes.

RESULTS

Patients with IBD demonstrated increased crossover populations in IL-17⁺ Foxp3⁺, T-bet⁺ Foxp3⁺, Gata3⁺ Foxp3⁺, RORγt⁺ Foxp3⁺ populations compared to HC. There was an inverse correlation of Harvey-Bradshaw index with Gata3⁺ Foxp3⁺ population in CD patients, while IL-13⁺ Foxp3⁺ population was directly correlated with Mayo clinical scores in UC patients. Furthermore, total IL-22 expressing cells as well as Th22 and IL-22⁺ Th1 populations were decreased in UC compared to CD and HC.

CONCLUSION

IBD patients exhibit the increased crossover populations in LP Treg cells toward Th2 and Th17 compared to HC. The prevalence of Treg/Th2 crossover populations is associated with clinical disease score of IBD.

An expanded population of pathogenic regulatory T cells in giant cell arteritis is abrogated by IL-6 blockade therapy

OBJECTIVES

Randomised-controlled trials have recently proven the efficacy of the interleukin (IL)-6 receptor antagonist tocilizumab (TCZ) in giant cell arteritis (GCA). However, the mechanism of action of IL-6 blockade in this disease is unknown. Moreover, the role of regulatory T (Treg) cells in the pathogenesis of GCA remains underexplored. Given the plasticity of Tregs and the importance of IL-6 in their biology, we hypothesised that TCZ might modulate the Treg response in GCA. We therefore characterised the Treg compartment of patients with GCA treated with TCZ.

METHODS

We classified 41 patients with GCA into three groups: active disease (aGCA, n=11), disease remission on corticosteroids (rGCA-CS, n=19) and disease remission on TCZ (rGCA-TCZ, n=11). Healthy controls (HCs) were included for comparison. We determined the frequency, phenotype and function of peripheral blood Tregs.

RESULTS

Patients with aGCA demonstrated a hypoproliferating Treg compartment enriched in IL-17-secreting Tregs (IL-17⁺Tregs). Tregs in patients with aGCA disproportionally expressed a hypofunctional isoform of Foxp3 that lacks exon 2 (Foxp3Δ2). Foxp3Δ2-expressing Tregs coexpressed CD161, a marker commonly associated with the Th17 linage, significantly more often than full-length Foxp3-expressing Tregs. Compared with those of HCs, GCA-derived Tregs demonstrated impaired suppressor capacity. Treatment with TCZ, in contrast to CS therapy, corrected the Treg abnormalities observed in aGCA. In addition, TCZ treatment increased the numbers of activated Tregs (CD45RA^-Foxp3^high) and the Treg expression of markers of trafficking (CCR4) and terminal differentiation (CTLA-4).

CONCLUSIONS

TCZ may exert its therapeutic effects in GCA by increasing the proliferation and activation of Tregs, and by reverting the pathogenic Treg phenotype seen during active disease.

Imbalanced expression of dysfunctional regulatory T cells and T-helper cells relates to immunopathogenesis in polyarteritis nodosa

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the characteristics of circulating T-helper (Th) cells and CD4⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) in polyarteritis nodosa (PAN).

METHODS

Peripheral blood samples were obtained from 14 patients with PAN. Nine patients having granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and 11 healthy individuals (HC) were enrolled as controls. Th cells and Tregs were analyzed by flow cytometry. Suppression assay of Tregs was simultaneously performed by evaluating the proliferation of conventional CD4⁺ T cells cocultured with Tregs.

RESULTS

The frequencies of Th cells were significantly higher in PAN than in HC. In comparison with GPA, the expression of Th1 cells was higher but that of Th17 cells was lower. Additionally, significant increase in Tregs was observed in PAN, which was correlated with the expression of Th1 cells; however, defects in suppressive ability and CTLA-4 expression were observed. The Th1-cell frequency was significantly decreased after immunosuppressive therapy in PAN; however, there were no improvements in other phenotypes or in Treg function.

CONCLUSION

T-helper cell expansion and Treg dysfunction are thought to be associated with the pathogenesis of PAN. Th1 cells show a response to immunosuppressive therapy; however, the persistent immune abnormalities may interfere with complete recovery in patients with PAN.

The Role of T-Cell Subsets in Chronic Inflammation in Celiac Disease and Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients: More Common Mechanisms or More Differences?

Background

Chronic intestinal inflammation due to noninfectious causes represents a growing health issue all over the world. Celiac disease as well as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) like Crohn's disease and ulcerative and microscopic colitis involve uncontrolled T-cell activation and T-cell-mediated damage as common denominators. Therefore, diagnosis and treatment decisions clearly benefit from the knowledge of the intricacies of the systemic and the local T-cell activity.

Summary

Depending on the cytokine milieu, CD4⁺ T cells can differentiate into proinflammatory T helper 1 (Th1), anti-inflammatory Th2, antimicrobial Th17, pleiotropic Th9, tissue-instructing Th22 cells, and in the regulatory compartment forkhead box protein 3⁺ Treg, suppressive Tr1 or Th3 cells. Additionally, follicular Th cells provide B-cell help in antibody class switching; cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells target virus-infected or tumor cells. This review discusses our current knowledge on the contribution of defined T-cell subpopulations to establishing and maintaining chronic intestinal inflammation in either of the above entities. It also puts emphasis on the differences in the prevalence of these diseases between Eastern and Western countries.

Key Messages

In celiac disease, the driving role of T cells in the lamina propria and in the epithelium mainly specific for two defined antigens is well established. Differences in genetics and lifestyle between Western and Eastern countries were instrumental in understanding underlying mechanisms. In IBD, the vast amount of potential antigens and the corresponding antigen-specific T cells makes it unlikely to find universal triggers. Increased mucosal CD4⁺ regulatory T cells in all four entities fail to control or abrogate local inflammatory processes. Thus, prevailing differences in the functional T-cell subtypes driving chronic intestinal inflammation in celiac disease and IBD at best allow some overlap in the treatment options for either disease.

Immune Responses to Intestinal Microbes in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are characterized by chronic, T-cell-mediated inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause significant, lifelong morbidity. Data from both human and animal studies indicate that IBDs are likely caused by dysregulated immune responses to resident intestinal microbes. Certain products from mycobacteria, fungi, and Clostridia stimulate increased effector T cell responses during intestinal inflammation, whereas other bacterial products from Clostridia and Bacteroides promote anti-inflammatory regulatory T cell responses. Antibody responses to bacterial and fungal components may help predict the severity of IBDs. While most currently approved treatments for IBDs generally suppress the patient's immune system, our growing understanding of microbial influences in IBDs will likely lead to the development of new diagnostic tools and therapies that target the intestinal microbiota.

Diversity of Intestinal Macrophages in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Macrophages as innate immune cells and fast responders to antigens play a central role in protecting the body from the luminal content at a huge interface. Chronic inflammation in inflammatory bowel diseases massively alters the number and the subset diversity of intestinal macrophages. We here address the diversity within the human intestinal macrophage compartment at the level of similarities and differences between homeostasis and chronic intestinal inflammation as well as between UC and CD, including the potential role of macrophage subsets for intestinal fibrosis. Hallmark of macrophages is their enormous plasticity, i.e., their capacity to integrate signals from their environment thereby changing their phenotype and functions. Tissue-resident macrophages located directly beneath the surface epithelium in gut homeostasis are mostly tolerogenic. The total number of macrophages increases with luminal contents entering the mucosa through a broken intestinal barrier in ulcerative colitis (UC) as well as in Crohn's disease (CD). Although not fully understood, the resulting mixtures of tissue-resident and tissue-infiltrating macrophages in both entities are diverse with respect to their phenotypes and their distribution. Macrophages in UC mainly act within the intestinal mucosa. In CD, macrophages can also be found in the muscularis and the mesenteric fat tissue compartment. Taken together, the present knowledge on human intestinal macrophages so far provides a good starting point to dig deeper into the similarities and differences of functional subsets and to finally use their phenotypical diversity as markers for complex local milieus in health and disease.

Promises and paradoxes of regulatory T cells in inflammatory bowel disease

Since their discovery two decades ago, CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) have become the subject of intense investigation by immunologists. Unlike other T cells, which promote an immune response, Tregs actively inhibit inflammation when activated by their cognate antigen, thus raising hope that these cells could be engineered into a highly targeted, antigen-specific, immunosuppressant therapy. Although Tregs represent less than 10% of circulating CD4(+)T cells, they have been shown to play an essential role in preventing or limiting inflammation in a variety of animal models and human diseases. In particular, spontaneous intestinal inflammation has been shown to occur in the absence of Tregs, suggesting that there may be a Treg defect central to the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, over the past decade, multiple groups have reported no qualitative or quantitative deficits in Tregs from the intestines and blood of IBD patients to explain why these cells fail to regulate inflammation in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In this review, we will discuss the history of Tregs, what is known about them in IBD, and what progress and obstacles have been seen with efforts to employ them for therapeutic benefit.

IL-1β promotes Th17 differentiation by inducing alternative splicing of FOXP3

CD4⁺FOXP3⁺ regulatory T (Treg) cells are essential for maintaining immunological self-tolerance. Treg cell development and function depend on the transcription factor FOXP3, which is present in several distinct isoforms due to alternative splicing. Despite the importance of FOXP3 in the proper maintenance of Treg cells, the regulation and functional consequences of FOXP3 isoform expression remains poorly understood. Here, we show that in human Treg cells IL-1β promotes excision of FOXP3 exon 7. FOXP3 is not only expressed by Treg cells but is also transiently expressed when naïve T cells differentiate into Th17 cells. Forced splicing of FOXP3 into FOXP3Δ2Δ7 strongly favored Th17 differentiation in vitro. We also found that patients with Crohn’s disease express increased levels of FOXP3 transcripts lacking exon 7, which correlate with disease severity and IL-17 production. Our results demonstrate that alternative splicing of FOXP3 modulates T cell differentiation. These results highlight the importance of characterizing FOXP3 expression on an isoform basis and suggest that immune responses may be manipulated by modulating the expression of FOXP3 isoforms, which has broad implications for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Human Blood and Mucosal Regulatory T Cells Express Activation Markers and Inhibitory Receptors in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Background

FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical for preventing intestinal inflammation. However, FOXP3⁺ T cells are paradoxically increased in the intestines of patients with the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) ulcerative colitis (UC) or Crohn’s disease (CD). We determined whether these FOXP3⁺ cells in IBD patients share or lack the phenotype of such cells from patients without IBD.

Methods

We quantified and characterized FOXP3⁺ Treg populations, as well as FOXP3^- CD4⁺ T cells, in the lamina propria lymphocytes (LPL) of intestine surgically resected from patients with and without IBD, and in the blood of controls or Crohn’s patients with or without disease activity.

Results

In all samples, a similar fraction of FOXP3⁺ cells expressed the “natural” Treg (nTreg) marker Helios, suggesting that, in IBD, these cells are not entirely “induced” Tregs (iTregs) derived from activated effector T cells. Helios⁺ and Helios^- FOXP3⁺ T cells demonstrated similar expression of maturation markers, activation markers, and inhibitory molecules between IBD patients and controls, while FOXP3^- cells paradoxically expressed more of the inhibitory receptors CD39, CTLA4, and PD-1 in inflamed mucosa. Greater expression of activation markers was also seen in both Helios⁺ and Helios^- Tregs, relative to FOXP3^- cells, in both IBD patients and controls, indicating that Tregs are effectively activated by antigen in IBD.

Conclusions

Extensive immunophenotyping revealed that Helios⁺ and Helios^- mucosal Tregs exist at a similar frequency, and have a similar expression of inhibitory molecules and activation markers in patients with IBD as in healthy controls.

Experimental Models of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

The understanding of the intestinal inflammation occurring in the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) has been immeasurably advanced by the development of the now numerous murine models of intestinal inflammation. The usefulness of this research tool in IBD studies has been enabled by our improved knowledge of mucosal immunity and thus our improved ability to interpret the complex responses of mice with various causes of colitis; in addition, it has been powered by the availability of models in which the mice have specific genetic and/or immunologic defects that can be related to the origin of the inflammation. Finally, and more recently, it has been enhanced by our newly acquired ability to define the intestinal microbiome under various conditions and thus to understand how intestinal microorganisms impact on inflammation. In this brief review of murine models of intestinal inflammation we focus mainly on the most often used models that are, not incidentally, also the models that have yielded major insights into IBD pathogenesis.

T-cell receptor sequencing reveals the clonal diversity and overlap of colonic effector and FOXP3+ T cells in ulcerative colitis

BACKGROUND

FOXP3 regulatory T cell prevent inflammation but are paradoxically increased in ulcerative colitis (UC). Local T-cell activation has been hypothesized to account for increased FOXP3 expression in colon lamina propria (LP) T cells.

METHODS

To see if human FOXP3 LP T cells are an activated fraction of otherwise FOXP3 effector T cells and explore their clonal diversity in health and disease, we deep sequenced clonally unique T-cell receptor hypervariable regions of FOXP3 and FOXP3CD4 T-cell subpopulations from inflamed versus noninflamed colon LP or mesenteric lymph nodes of patients with or without UC.

RESULTS

The clonal diversity of each LP T-cell population was not different between patients with versus without UC. Repertoire overlap was only seen between a minority of FOXP3 and FOXP3 cells, including recently activated CD38 cells and Th17-like CD161 effector T cells, but this repertoire overlap was not different between patients with versus without UC and was no larger than the overlap between Helios and Helios FOXP3 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, at steady state, only a minority of FOXP3, and particularly Helios, T cells share a T-cell receptor sequence with FOXP3 effector populations in the colon LP, even in UC, revealing distinct clonal origins for LP regulatory T cell and effector T cells in humans.

Control of tissue-localized immune responses by human regulatory T cells

Treg cells control immune responses to self and nonharmful foreign antigens. Emerging data from animal models indicate that Treg cells function in both secondary lymphoid organs and tissues, and that these different microenvironments may contain specialized subsets of Treg cells with distinct mechanisms of action. The design of therapies for the restoration of tissue-localized immune homeostasis is dependent upon understanding how local immune responses are influenced by Treg cells in health versus disease. Here we review the current state of knowledge about human Treg cells in four locations: the skin, lung, intestine, and joint. Despite the distinct biology of these tissues, there are commonalities in the biology of their resident Treg cells, including phenotypic and functional differences from circulating Treg cells, and the presence of cytokine-producing (e.g. IL-17(+)) FOXP3(+) cells. We also highlight the challenges to studying tissue Treg cells in humans, and opportunities to use new technologies for the detailed analysis of Treg cells at the single-cell level. As emerging biological therapies are increasingly targeted toward tissue-specific effects, it is critical to understand their potential impact on local immune regulation.

Regulatory T-cell homeostasis: steady-state maintenance and modulation during inflammation

Regulatory T (Treg) cells play a vital role in the prevention of autoimmunity and the maintenance of self-tolerance, but these cells also have an active role in inhibiting immune responses during viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections. Although excessive Treg activity can lead to immunodeficiency, chronic infection, and cancer, too little Treg activity results in autoimmunity and immunopathology and impairs the quality of pathogen-specific responses. Recent studies have helped define the homeostatic mechanisms that support the diverse pool of peripheral Treg cells under steady-state conditions and delineate how the abundance and function of Treg cells changes during inflammation. These findings are highly relevant for developing effective strategies to manipulate Treg cell activity to promote allograft tolerance and treat autoimmunity, chronic infection, and cancer.

T cell-associated α4β7 but not α4β1 integrin is required for the induction and perpetuation of chronic colitis

Anti-adhesion therapies that target α(4) integrins (e.g., natalizumab) are thought to work by blocking T-cell recruitment to the intestinal tissues in patients with Crohn's disease (CD); however, little direct evidence is available to confirm this contention. We wished to evaluate the importance of T cell-associated α(4) integrins in a chronic colitis model in mice and to determine the effect of natalizumab treatment on intestinal tissue T-cell accumulation in human CD. Adoptive transfer of T cells lacking α(4) (α(4)(-/-)) but not β(1) integrin into immunodeficient mice produced significantly attenuated disease. This was correlated with reduced numbers of colon CD4 T cells compared with the control mice; however, tissue distribution of T helper type 1 (Th1) and T helper type 17 (Th17) cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs) was not affected by the lack of α(4). Furthermore, α(4)(-/-) T cells demonstrated defective homing to the chronically inflamed small intestines and colons. Finally, patients treated with natalizumab showed significant reduction in mucosal CD4 T cells and no skewing in the foxp3(+) Treg or T-bet(+)Th1 fractions thereof. These results demonstrate a direct role for T cell-associated α(4)β(7) but not α(4)β(1) integrins during initiation and perpetuation of chronic colitis. Moreover, our data demonstrated that natalizumab treatment reduced mucosal CD4 T-cell accumulation in CD patients.

Patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis have defective Treg cell function exacerbated by the presence of a suppression-resistant effector cell population

OBJECTIVE

The development of pathogenic antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) can result in systemic small vessel vasculitis. However, the breakdown in immune tolerance that results in the induction and persistence of ANCAs is not well understood. We undertook this study to test our hypothesis that abnormal T cell regulation is central to disease pathogenesis in patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV).

METHODS

Peripheral blood samples were obtained from 62 patients with AAV and 19 healthy controls for flow cytometric analysis of CD4+ T cell populations. Functional T cell studies were performed with fluorescence-activated cell sorted CD4+ T cell populations stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28.

RESULTS

We demonstrated two separate abnormalities in T cell regulation in patients with AAV. First, we showed that the Treg cell frequency was increased in the peripheral blood of patients with active disease, but Treg cells from patients with AAV had decreased suppressive function. Treg cells from patients with active disease disproportionately used a FoxP3 isoform lacking exon 2, which might alter Treg cell function. Second, we identified a CD4+ T cell population with increased frequency that was resistant to Treg cell suppression, produced proinflammatory cytokines, and was antigen experienced.

CONCLUSION

AAV is associated with disruption of the suppressive Treg cell network and with increased frequency of a distinct proinflammatory effector T cell subset that comprises the majority of peripheral CD4+ T cells.