Apoptotic Pathways and Alzheimer's Disease: Probing Therapeutic Potential

Targeting amyloidogenic proteins through cyclic peptides - A medicinal chemistry perspective

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is characterized by the formation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the extracellular region, neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the intracellular region accompanied with neuroinflammation and decreased neurotransmitters in various regions of brain leading to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Of the various bioactive molecules, Cyclic Peptides (CPs) are small circular chains of amino acids that can alter the structure and function of the proteins they interact with. They can be synthesized using chemical or genetic approach leading to the generation of diverse libraries of CPs that are screened for binding with desired target proteins. In AD, CPs can interfere at various levels, by either imitating the structure or altering the conformation of amyloidogenic proteins. They can also interfere with signal transduction by competing with amyloid proteins for various receptors which are involved in AD pathology. This review highlights the application of CPs as scaffolds for the identification of novel small molecules that can interfere with amyloid aggregation or for the formulation of vaccination against AD. Other proteins involved in the pathophysiological pathways of AD that can potentially be targeted for CP design have also been discussed.

Regulation of Apoptotic Pathways by MicroRNAs: A Therapeutic Strategy for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder marked by a gradual decline in memory and cognitive functions. It is characterized by the presence of senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal degeneration, affecting a significant portion of the human population. A key feature of various nervous system disorders, including AD, is extensive cellular death caused by apoptosis, which affects not only neurons but also glial cells. While apoptosis plays a vital role in eliminating certain cells and supporting normal development, alterations or disruptions in apoptotic pathways can lead to harmful neurodegenerative conditions such as AD. Thus, targeting apoptosis presents a promising therapeutic approach for these diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of non-coding RNA, play diverse roles in cellular functions, including proliferation, gene expression regulation, programmed cell death, intercellular communication, and angiogenesis. By modulating regulatory genes, miRNAs can influence apoptosis, either promoting or inhibiting it. Aberrant expression of miRNAs can impact multiple apoptotic pathways, potentially driving the progression of AD and related health issues. This review summarizes recent research on miRNAs and their dual role in exacerbating or protecting against neural cell damage in AD by altering apoptotic pathways. The regulation of apoptosis by miRNAs offers a prospective therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease.

Photobiomodulation modulates mitochondrial energy metabolism and ameliorates neurological damage in an APP/PS1 mousmodel of Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease. Amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is one of the key pathological features of AD, which is cytotoxic and can damage neurons, thereby causing cognitive dysfunction. Photobiomodulation (PBM) is a non-invasive physical therapy that induces changes in the intrinsic mechanisms of cells and tissues through low-power light exposure. Although PBM has been employed in the treatment of AD, the effect and precise mechanism of PBM on AD-induced neurological damage are still unclear.

METHODS

In vivo experiments, PBM (808 nm, 20 mW/cm2) was used to continuously interfere with APP/PS1 mice for 6 weeks, and then their cognitive function and AD pathological changes were evaluated. In vitro experiments, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to induce microglia to model inflammation, and the effect of PBM treatment on microglia polarization status and phagocytic Aβ ability was evaluated. Hexokinase 2 (HK2) inhibitor 3-bromopyruvate (3BP) was used to study the effect of PBM treatment on mitochondrial energy metabolism in microglia.

RESULTS

PBM further ameliorates AD-induced cognitive impairment by alleviating neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis, thereby attenuating nerve damage. In addition, PBM can also reduce neuroinflammation by promoting microglial anti-inflammatory phenotypic polarization; Promotes Aβ clearance by enhancing the ability of microglia to engulf Aβ. Among them, PBM regulates microglial polarization and inhibits neuronal apoptosis, which may be related to its regulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism, promotion of oxidative phosphorylation, and inhibition of glycolysis.

CONCLUSION

PBM regulates neuroinflammatory response and inhibits neuronal apoptosis, thereby repairing Aβ-induced neuronal damage and cognitive dysfunction. Mitochondrial energy metabolism plays an important role in PBM in improving nerve injury in AD mice. This study provides theoretical support for the subsequent application of PBM in the treatment of AD.

Combined effects of natural products and exercise on apoptosis pathways in obesity-related skeletal muscle dysfunction

Obesity and related metabolic disorders are closely linked to increased apoptosis in skeletal muscle, leading to muscle degeneration, insulin resistance, and the progression of diseases such as type 2 diabetes and sarcopenia. This review explores the combined effects of natural products, including resveratrol, curcumin, and quercetin, and physical exercise on modulating apoptosis pathways in skeletal muscle. Both natural products and regular physical activity independently reduce oxidative stress and improve mitochondrial function, thereby regulating the balance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals. When combined, these interventions amplify their protective effects on muscle health, promoting mitochondrial biogenesis, reducing apoptosis, and enhancing muscle regeneration. This review also discusses the molecular mechanisms by which these strategies influence apoptosis, with a focus on the Bcl-2 pathway, and explores the clinical implications for the prevention and treatment of obesity-related diseases. The synergistic benefits of combining exercise with natural product supplementation offer a promising therapeutic approach for managing metabolic disorders, preserving muscle function, and improving overall metabolic health.

Interplay between PI3k/AKT signaling and caspase pathway in Alzheimer disease: mechanism and therapeutic implications

Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by cognitive impairment, neuronal loss, and synaptic dysfunction. The interplay between the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway and the caspase-mediated apoptotic cascade plays a pivotal role in its progression. The signaling pathway responsible for neuronal survival also regulates synaptic plasticity and resistance to oxidative stress, whereas caspase activation accelerates neurodegeneration by triggering cell death and inflammation. Dysregulation of these pathways leads to amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation, tau hyperphosphorylation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, creating a negative feedback loop and accelerating disease progression. Emerging treatment methods that target PI3K/AKT activation and caspase inhibition have showed promise in preclinical models, preventing neuronal apoptosis while retaining cognitive function. This review investigates the molecular processes driving PI3K/AKT and caspase crosstalk, their significance in Alzheimer's disease, and prospective therapeutic strategies aiming at regulating these pathways to improve disease outcomes.

Therapeutic modulation of mitochondrial dynamics by agmatine in neurodegenerative disorders

Mitochondrial dysfunction is a pivotal factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, driving neuronal degeneration through mechanisms involving oxidative stress, impaired energy production, and dysregulated calcium homeostasis. Agmatine, an endogenous polyamine derived from arginine, has garnered attention for its neuroprotective properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and antiapoptotic effects. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of agmatine in preserving mitochondrial function and mitigating neurodegeneration, making it a promising candidate for therapeutic intervention. One of the key mechanisms by which agmatine exerts its neuroprotective effects is through the maintenance of mitochondrial homeostasis. Agmatine has been shown to modulate mitochondrial dynamics, promoting mitochondrial fusion and fission balance essential for cellular energy metabolism and signaling. Moreover, agmatine acts as a regulator of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening, preventing excessive calcium influx and subsequent mitochondrial dysfunction. Despite promising findings, challenges such as optimizing agmatine's pharmacokinetics, determining optimal dosing regimens, and elucidating its precise molecular targets within mitochondria remain to be addressed. Future research directions should focus on developing targeted delivery systems for agmatine, investigating its interactions with mitochondrial proteins, and conducting well-designed clinical trials to evaluate its therapeutic efficacy and safety profile in neurodegenerative disorders. Overall, agmatine emerges as a novel therapeutic agent with the potential to modulate mitochondrial homeostasis and alleviate neurodegenerative pathology, offering new avenues for treating these debilitating conditions.

Traditional Chinese Medicine-derived formulations and extracts modulating the PI3K/AKT pathway in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory decline, cognitive impairment, and behavioral abnormalities. Pathologically, AD is marked by neurofibrillary tangles caused by excessive phosphorylation of Tau protein and abnormal deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the brain. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the development, survival, and metabolic regulation of the central nervous system, particularly in neuronal growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. However, this pathway is often inhibited in AD patients.In recent years, studies have shown that herbal formulations and extracts derived from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) can regulate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby improving AD pathological models. This study reviews fundamental research on both active metabolites and compound formulations from TCM for the treatment of AD, targeting the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.Keywords include "Alzheimer's disease" "AD" "dementia" "PI3K" "AKT" "Traditional Chinese Medicine" "Chinese herbology" "Chinese medicine" and "TCM".The study is based on relevant literature published over the past 15 years, primarily sourced from electronic databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang, and VIP databases.The findings indicate that herbal formulations and extracts derived from TCM can mitigate AD pathology by regulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, reducing Tau protein phosphorylation and Aβ deposition, inhibiting inflammatory responses and oxidative stress, and alleviating neuronal apoptosis. This study enhances our understanding of the anti-AD mechanisms of TCM through the PI3K/AKT pathway and offers new insights for the future.

Curious Dichotomies of Apolipoprotein E Function in Alzheimer's Disease and Cancer-One Explanatory Mechanism of Inverse Disease Associations?

An apparent "inverse" relationship exists between two seemingly unconnected conditions, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and cancer, despite sharing similar risk factors, like increased age and obesity. AD is associated with amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles that cause neural degeneration; cancer, in contrast, is characterized by enhanced cell survival and proliferation. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is the main lipoprotein found in the central nervous system and via its high affinity with lipoprotein receptors plays a critical role in cholesterol transport and uptake. ApoE has 3 protein isoforms, ApoE E2, ApoE E3, and ApoE E4, respectively encoded for by 3 allelic variants of APOE (ε2, ε3, and ε4). This review examines the characteristics and function of ApoE described in both AD and cancer to assimilate evidence for its potential contribution to mechanisms that may underly the reported inverse association between the two conditions. Of the genetic risk factors relevant to most cases of AD, the most well-known with the strongest contribution to risk is APOE, specifically the ε4 variant, whereas for cancer risk, APOE has not featured as a significant genetic contributor to risk. However, at the protein level in both conditions, ApoE contributes to disease pathology via affecting lipid physiology and transport. In AD, Aβ-dependent and -independent interactions have been suggested, whereas in cancer, ApoE plays a role in immunoregulation. Understanding the mechanism of action of ApoE in these diametrically opposed diseases may enable differential targeting of therapeutics to provide a beneficial outcome for both.

Potential role and therapeutic implications of glutathione peroxidase 4 in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder with a complex and incompletely understood pathogenesis. Despite extensive research, a cure for Alzheimer's disease has not yet been found. Oxidative stress mediates excessive oxidative responses, and its involvement in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis as a primary or secondary pathological event is widely accepted. As a member of the selenium-containing antioxidant enzyme family, glutathione peroxidase 4 reduces esterified phospholipid hydroperoxides to maintain cellular redox homeostasis. With the discovery of ferroptosis, the central role of glutathione peroxidase 4 in anti-lipid peroxidation in several diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, has received widespread attention. Increasing evidence suggests that glutathione peroxidase 4 expression is inhibited in the Alzheimer's disease brain, resulting in oxidative stress, inflammation, ferroptosis, and apoptosis, which are closely associated with pathological damage in Alzheimer's disease. Several therapeutic approaches, such as small molecule drugs, natural plant products, and non-pharmacological treatments, ameliorate pathological damage and cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease by promoting glutathione peroxidase 4 expression and enhancing glutathione peroxidase 4 activity. Therefore, glutathione peroxidase 4 upregulation may be a promising strategy for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. This review provides an overview of the gene structure, biological functions, and regulatory mechanisms of glutathione peroxidase 4, a discussion on the important role of glutathione peroxidase 4 in pathological events closely related to Alzheimer's disease, and a summary of the advances in small-molecule drugs, natural plant products, and non-pharmacological therapies targeting glutathione peroxidase 4 for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Most prior studies on this subject used animal models, and relevant clinical studies are lacking. Future clinical trials are required to validate the therapeutic effects of strategies targeting glutathione peroxidase 4 in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Structural characterization, antioxidant activity, and mechanism of polysaccharides isolated from Dictyophora rubrovalvata stipet

Dictyophora rubrovalvata is a valuable edible fungus. Its stipe, is rich in polysaccharides, possesses potential biological activity and medicinal value. In this study, we isolated a new polysaccharide, DRP-L, from the stipe of D. rubrovalvata, characterized its structure, and used PC12 to examine its antioxidant effect and mechanism. The results of structural analysis showed that the molecular weight of DRP-L was approximately 2.14 × 103 kDa. The monosaccharide composition included D-galactose, D-mannose, and d-glucose with a relative molar ratio of 0.41:1:0.37. In the activity study, in vitro antioxidant experiments demonstrated that DRP-L has commendable antioxidant activity. Simultaneously, DRP-L can protect PC12 cells from oxidative damage by reducing the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and increasing the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in a dose-dependent manner, with the best effect at a concentration of 1.6 mg/mL. Western blotting results indicated that DRP-L could shield PC12 cells from H2O2-induced oxidative damage by managing the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, suppressing the expression of Caspase-3 and BAX, and boosting Bcl-2 expression and Akt phosphorylation. In conclusion, with its unique structure and remarkable antioxidant activity, DRP-L offers new insights and directions for developing antioxidants based on natural products.

Pharmacological modulation of PI3K/PTEN/Akt/mTOR/ERK signaling pathways in ischemic injury: a mechanistic perspective

Ischemia, also known as ischemia, relates to the reduced blood movement to a cells, muscle group, or organ in the body, culminating in an insufficient amount of oxygen required for cellular metabolism and the maintenance of tissue viability. There are different types of stroke (ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage), and different causes of stroke (e.g., cardioembolic, atherothrombotic, lacunar ischemic strokes, aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage). It also includes other disorders affecting the blood vessels in the brain (e.g., vascular malformations, unruptured aneurysms). Each of these conditions has different characteristics in terms of how common they are and how they are managed. Stroke is the primary and catastrophic clinical presentation of all cerebrovascular diseases. In this review we focused about the importance of PI3K/AKT signaling pathways which are important in the onset of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. In addition, mTOR, a target that is activated by the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, is both required and capable of providing enough protection to the heart against harm caused by I/R. Moreover, the signaling pathways that involve PI3K/Akt/Erk/PTEN/mTOR play a crucial role in facilitating the proliferation and maintenance of neurons following an ischemic stroke. The current review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of various signaling pathways in ischemic diseases and suggests targeting its receptors as a preventive approach based on pre-clinical and clinical studies.

Unlocking the Neuroprotective Potential of Silymarin: A Promising Ally in Safeguarding the Brain from Alzheimer's Disease and Other Neurological Disorders

Medicinal plants and their phytochemicals have been extensively employed worldwide for centuries to address a diverse range of ailments, boasting a history that spans several decades. These plants are considered the source of numerous medicinal compounds. For instance, silymarin is a polyphenolic flavonoid extract obtained from the milk thistle plant or Silybum marianum which has been shown to have significant neuroprotective effects and great therapeutic benefits. Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a class of neurological diseases that have become more prevalent in recent years, and although treatment is available, there is no complete cure developed yet. Silymarin utilizes a range of molecular mechanisms, including modulation of MAPK, AMPK, NF-κB, mTOR, and PI3K/Akt pathways, along with various receptors, enzymes, and growth factors. These mechanisms collectively contribute to its protective effects against NDs such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and depression. Despite its safety and efficacy, silymarin faces challenges related to bioavailability and aqueous solubility, hindering its development as a clinical drug. This review highlights the molecular mechanisms underlying silymarin's neuroprotective effects, suggesting its potential as a promising therapeutic strategy for NDs.

Long Non-Coding RNAs: Crucial Regulators in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis and Prospects for Precision Medicine

Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) have emerged as pivotal regulators in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline and memory loss. With the capacity to modulate gene expression at various levels, LncRNAs are implicated in multiple pathological mechanisms of AD, including amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation, tau protein phosphorylation, neuroinflammation, and neuronal apoptosis. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of LncRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets due to their differential expression patterns in AD patients. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the role of LncRNAs in AD, focusing on their involvement in key molecular pathways and their promise as indicators for early diagnosis and prognosis. We discuss the regulatory networks of LncRNAs in the context of AD, their interaction with miRNAs, and the implications for developing novel therapeutic strategies. Despite the complexity and variability in LncRNA function, the prospect of harnessing these molecules for precision medicine in AD is gaining momentum. The translational potential of LncRNA-based interventions offers a new frontier in the quest for effective treatments and a deeper understanding of the molecular underpinnings of AD.

Role of Flavonoids in Mitigating the Pathological Complexities and Treatment Hurdles in Alzheimer's Disease

With the passage of time, people step toward old age and become more prone to several diseases associated with the age. One such is Alzheimer's disease (AD) which results into neuronal damage and dementia with the progression of age. The existing therapeutics has been hindered by various enkindles like less eminent between remote populations, affordability issues and toxicity profiles. Moreover, lack of suitable therapeutic option further worsens the quality of life in older population. Developing an efficient therapeutic intervention to cure AD is still a challenge for medical fraternity. Recently, alternative approaches attain the attention of researchers to focus on plant-based therapy in mitigating AD. In this context, flavonoids gained centrality as a feasible treatment in modifying various neurological deficits. This review mainly focuses on the pathological facets and economic burden of AD. Furthermore, we have explored the possible mechanism of flavonoids with the preclinical and clinical aspects for curing AD. Flavonoids being potential therapeutic, target the pathogenic factors of AD such as oxidative stress, inflammation, metal toxicity, Aβ accumulation, modulate neurotransmission and insulin signaling. In this review, we emphasized on potential neuroprotective effects of flavonoids in AD pathology, with focus on both experimental and clinical findings. While preclinical studies suggest promising therapeutic benefits, clinical data remains limited and inconclusive. Thus, further high-quality clinical trials are necessary to validate the efficacy of flavonoids in AD. The study aim is to promote the plant-based therapies and encourage people to add flavonoids to regular diet to avail the beneficial effects in preventive therapy for AD.

Shenghui decoction inhibits neuronal cell apoptosis to improve Alzheimer's disease through the PDE4B/cAMP/CREB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Shenghui Decoction (SHD) is a frequently utilized traditional Chinese medicine formula in clinical settings for addressing cognitive impairment in elderly individuals. Nevertheless, the precise mechanism by which SHD exerts its effects on the most prevalent form of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD), remains to be elucidated.

METHODS

Temperature-induced transgenic C. elegans assess Aβ deposition and toxicity. Behavioral experiments are utilized to assess learning and memory capabilities as well as cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice. Immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry are employed to identify Aβ deposits, while UHPLCOE/MS combine network pharmacology is utilized to characterize chemical composition, predict target and analyze the biological processes and signaling pathways modulated by SHD. Molecular biology methodologies confirm the functionality of regulatory pathways. Molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations (MD) and ultrafiltration-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) are employed for the assessment of the binding interactions between active ingredients of SHD and target proteins.

RESULTS

SHD effectively reduced the deposition of Aβ in the head of C. elegans and mitigated its toxicity, as well as improved the learning deficits and cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice. Network pharmacology analyses revealed that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and cell apoptosis are the primary biological processes modulated by SHD, with KEEG results indicating that SHD regulated the cAMP signaling pathway. Subsequent experimental investigations demonstrated that SHD attenuated the loss of neurons in APP/PS1 mice, upregulated the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and downregulated the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins like cleave-Caspase-3 both in vivo and in vitro. Additionally, SHD decreased intracellular AMP levels while increasing cAMP levels, leading to the phosphorylation of PKA to activate CREB. This process ultimately regulated the expression of Bcl-2, Bdnf, among others, to prevent cell apoptosis and safeguard neurons. Molecular docking, MD, and ultrafiltration-LC/MS revealed that the active constituents of SHD formed stable interactions with the cAMP hydrolysis enzyme phosphodiesterase 4B (PDE4B).

CONCLUSION

SHD regulated the cAMP/CREB signaling pathway to inhibit neuronal cell apoptosis and improve AD. Furthermore, it is worth noting that this mechanism may be associated with the specific and consistent binding of SHD active ingredients to PDE4B, potentially offering promising candidates for drug development aimed at addressing AD.

A Mouse Model of Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease with Elements of Major Depression

After olfactory bulbectomy, animals are often used as a model of major depression or sporadic Alzheimer's disease and, hence, the status of this model is still disputable. To elucidate the nature of alterations in the expression of the genome after the operation, we analyzed transcriptomes of the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum of the olfactory bulbectomized (OBX) mice. Analysis of the functional significance of genes in the brain of OBX mice indicates that the balance of the GABA/glutamatergic systems is disturbed with hyperactivation of the latter in the hippocampus, leading to the development of excitotoxicity and induction of apoptosis in the background of severe mitochondrial dysfunction and astrogliosis. On top of this, the synthesis of neurotrophic factors decreases leading to the disruption of the cytoskeleton of neurons, an increase in the level of intracellular calcium, and the activation of tau protein hyperphosphorylation. Moreover, the acetylcholinergic system is deficient in the background of the hyperactivation of acetylcholinesterase. Importantly, the activity of the dopaminergic, endorphin, and opiate systems in OBX mice decreases, leading to hormonal dysfunction. On the other hand, genes responsible for the regulation of circadian rhythms, cell migration, and innate immunity are activated in OBX animals. All this takes place in the background of a drastic downregulation of ribosomal protein genes in the brain. The obtained results indicate that OBX mice represent a model of Alzheimer's disease with elements of major depression.

Glymphatic system clearance and Alzheimer's disease risk: a CSF proteome-wide study

BACKGROUND

The emerging evidence of the role of the glymphatic system (GS) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) provides new opportunities for intervention from the earliest stages of the disease. The aim of the study is to evaluate the efficacy of GS in AD to identify new disease biomarkers.

METHODS

We performed a two-stage proteomic study to evaluate the GS health using intravenous gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) with serial T1 3T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in individuals with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). In Stage 1 (evaluated in the Cohort 1 of aMCI participants (n = 11)), we correlated the levels of 7K cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteins (estimated by SOMAscan) with GS health in 78 Freesurfer-segmented brain regions of interest (ROIs).

RESULTS

A total of seven different proteins were significantly associated with GS health (p-value < 6.4 × 10-4). The stronger correlations were identified for NSUN6, GRAAK, OLFML3, ACTN2, RUXF, SHPS1 and TIM-4. A pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the proteins associated with GS health were mainly implicated in neurodegenerative processes, immunity and inflammation. In Stage 2, we validated these proteomic results in a new cohort of aMCI participants (with and without evidence of AD pathology in CSF (aMCI(-) and aMCI/AD( +); n = 22 and 7, respectively) and healthy controls (n = 10). Proteomic prediction models were generated in each ROI. These were compared with demographic-only models for identifying participants with aMCI(-) and aMCI/AD( +) vs controls. This analysis was repeated to determine if the models could identify those with aMCI/AD( +) from both aMCI(-) and controls. The proteomic models were found to outperform the demographic-only models.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study identifies proteins linked with GS health and involved the immune system in aMCI participants.

Multi-target-directed therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease: controlling amyloid-β aggregation, metal ion homeostasis, and enzyme inhibition

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative dementia, marked by progressive cognitive decline and memory impairment. Despite advances in therapeutic research, single-target-directed treatments often fall short in addressing the complex, multifactorial nature of AD. This arises from various pathological features, including amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregate deposition, metal ion dysregulation, oxidative stress, impaired neurotransmission, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal cell death. This review illustrates their interrelationships, with a particular emphasis on the interplay among Aβ, metal ions, and AD-related enzymes, such as β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and monoamine oxidase B (MAOB). We further underscore the potential of therapeutic strategies that simultaneously inhibit Aβ aggregation and address other pathogenic mechanisms. These approaches offer a more comprehensive and effective method for combating AD, overcoming the limitations of conventional therapies.

TESC overexpression mitigates amyloid-β-induced hippocampal atrophy and memory decline

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified numerous candidate genes for human brain-imaging phenotypes; however, the biological relevance of many of these genes remains unconfirmed. This study aimed to investigate the causal relationships among tescalcin (TESC) (a GWAS-indicated gene), hippocampal volume, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and the underlying biological mechanisms.

METHODS

Human transcriptional data were analyzed to confirm relative TESC expression in the hippocampus. In cell experiments, RNA-seq analysis was used to identify the potential biological pathways for TESC overexpression, and immunofluorescence imaging and cell viability assays were used to evaluate the effect of TESC overexpression on neuronal structure and survival. In animal experiments, the effects of TESC overexpression on hippocampal volume and cognitive function in normal mice and amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced AD mice were investigated by 9.4 T magnetic resonance imaging and behavioral tests. Underlying mechanisms were further assessed via western blotting and electrophysiological recordings.

RESULTS

Human transcriptional data demonstrated that TESC is primarily expressed in the hippocampus and neurons. TESC overexpression enhanced the viability of HT22 cells and reduced Aβ-induced cell death. In mouse models, Tesc-overexpressing mice revealed increased hippocampal volume, likely owing to enhanced cell viability and long-term potentiation (LTP), and reducing apoptotic- and oxidation-induced hippocampal damage. TESC overexpression could significantly mitigate Aβ-induced hippocampal atrophy and memory impairment, potentially by reducing Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis and LTP weakening.

CONCLUSION

This study exemplifies the translation of GWAS findings into actionable biological knowledge and suggests that upregulation of TESC may offer a promising therapeutic strategy for AD.

Investigating the therapeutic effects of Shenzhiling oral liquid on Alzheimer's disease: a network pharmacology and experimental approach

There is currently no effective treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD). This research explored Shenzhiling Oral Liquid (SZLD) against AD by pinpointing crucial elements and understanding its molecular mechanisms through network pharmacology and in vitro experiment. First, we used network pharmacology to screen the main targets and mechanisms of SZLD to improve AD. Then we conducted experiments with Aβ42-induced SH-SY5Y cells to assess SZLD's impact, focusing particularly on apoptotic pathways, thereby uncovering its mechanism of action in AD. Through our analysis, we discovered a notable link between SZLD's effect on AD and apoptosis processes. Specifically, the critical proteins Casapse3 and BCL-2 showed strong correlations in this context. Through systematic data analysis and experimental verification, we unveiled the healing advantages and the foundational molecular mechanisms of SZLD in AD. These findings underscore the promising and compelling potential of targeting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and apoptosis with SZLD as a therapeutic strategy to ameliorate AD.

Hippocampal GPR35 Participates in the Pathogenesis of Cognitive Deficits and Emotional Alterations Induced by Aβ1-42 in Mice

The amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) triggers neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration, which lead to cognitive deficits along with other neuropsychiatric symptoms, including depression and anxiety. G protein-coupled receptor 35 (GPR35) is expressed in the brain and is involved in metabolic stresses. However, the role of GPR35 in AD pathogenesis remains unknown. Herein, pharmacological blockade, shRNA-mediated knockdown or knockout of GPR35 was performed to investigate the role and mechanisms of GPR35 in Aβ1-42-induced cognitive impairment and emotional alterations in mice. A series of behavioral, histopathological, and biochemical tests were performed in mice. Our results showed that hippocampal GPR35 expression was significantly increased in Aβ1-42-induced and APP/PS1 AD mouse models. Pharmacological blockade or knockdown of GPR35 ameliorated cognitive impairment and emotional alterations induced by Aβ1-42 in mice. We also found that blockade or knockdown of GPR35 decreased the accumulation of Aβ, and improved neuroinflammation, cholinergic system deficiency, and neuronal apoptosis via the RhoA/ROCK2 pathway in Aβ1-42-treaed mice. However, activation of GPR35 aggravates Aβ1-42-induced cognitive deficits and emotional alterations in mice. In addition, genetic deletion of GPR35 protects against the Aβ1-42-induced cognitive deficits and emotional alterations in mice. Moreover, GPR35 could bind to TLR4. These results indicate that GPR35 participates in the pathogenesis of cognitive deficits and emotional alterations induced by Aβ1-42 in mice, suggesting that GPR35 could be a potential therapeutic target for AD.

Protective Role of Electroacupuncture Against Cognitive Impairment in Neurological Diseases

Many neurological diseases can lead to cognitive impairment in patients, which includes dementia and mild cognitive impairment and thus create a heavy burden both to their families and public health. Due to the limited effectiveness of medications in treating cognitive impairment, it is imperative to develop alternative treatments. Electroacupuncture (EA), a required method for Traditional Chinese Medicine, has the potential treatment of cognitive impairment. However, the molecular mechanisms involved have not been fully elucidated. Considering the current research status, preclinical literature published within the ten years until October 2022 was systematically searched through PubMed, Web of Science, MEDLINE, Ovid, and Embase. By reading the titles and abstracts, a total of 56 studies were initially included. It is concluded that EA can effectively ameliorate cognitive impairment in preclinical research of neurological diseases and induce potentially beneficial changes in molecular pathways, including Alzheimer's disease, vascular cognitive impairment, chronic pain, and Parkinson's disease. Moreover, EA exerts beneficial effects through the same or diverse mechanisms for different disease types, including but not limited to neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and autophagy. However, these findings raise further questions that need to be elucidated. Overall, EA therapy for cognitive impairment is an area with great promise, even though more research regarding its detailed mechanisms is warranted.

Nrf2 and Ferroptosis: Exploring Translational Avenues for Therapeutic Approaches to Neurological Diseases

Nrf2, a crucial protein involved in defense mechanisms, particularly oxidative stress, plays a significant role in neurological diseases (NDs) by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. NDs, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke, epilepsy, schizophrenia, depression, and autism, exhibit ferroptosis, iron-dependent regulated cell death resulting from lipid and iron-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. Nrf2 has been shown to play a critical role in regulating ferroptosis in NDs. Age-related decline in Nrf2 expression and its target genes (HO-1, Nqo-1, and Trx) coincides with increased iron-mediated cell death, leading to ND onset. The modulation of iron-dependent cell death and ferroptosis by Nrf2 through various cellular and molecular mechanisms offers a potential therapeutic pathway for understanding the pathological processes underlying these NDs. This review emphasizes the mechanistic role of Nrf2 and ferroptosis in multiple NDs, providing valuable insights for future research and therapeutic approaches.

The Interplay Between Accumulation of Amyloid-Beta and Tau Proteins, PANoptosis, and Inflammation in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common progressive neurodegenerative disorder, and the vast majority of cases occur in elderly patients. Recently, the accumulation of Aβ and tau proteins has drawn considerable attention in AD research. This review explores the multifaceted interactions between these proteins and their contribution to the pathological landscape of AD, encompassing synaptic dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and PANoptosis. PANoptosis is a collective term for programmed cell death (PCD) modalities that encompass elements of apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis. The accumulation of Aβ peptides and tau proteins, along with the immune response in brain cells, may trigger PANoptosis, thus advancing the progression of the disease. Recent advancements in molecular imaging and genetics have provided deeper insights into the interactions between Aβ peptides, tau proteins, and the immune response. The review also discusses the role of mitochondrial dysregulation in AD. The exploration of the interplay between neurodegeneration, immune responses, and cell death offers promising avenues for the development of innovative treatments.

Therapeutic impact of a benzofuran derivative on Aluminium chloride-induced Alzheimer's disease-like neurotoxicity in rats via modulating apoptotic and Insulin 1 genes

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are age-related and are fatal in advanced cases. There is a limited efficacy of drugs used for the management of these diseases. Herein, the neurotherapeutic efficacy of a benzofuran-derivative-7 (BF-7) was investigated. Aluminum chloride (AlCl3) was employed to induce AD-like brain toxicity in rats. The rats were divided into four groups: Negative control, AlCl3-induced AD rats (100 mg/kg body weight, orally), AlCl3-AD induced rats treated with BF-7 (10 mg/kg body weight, orally), AlCl3-AD-induced rats treated with the standard drug "Donepezil" (10 mg/kg body weight, orally). The behavioral performance was tested using a beam-balance test. Brain and serum acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities and the brain levels of norepinephrine, dopamine (DA), and serotonin (5-HT) were measured. The genetic expression of Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3, and insulin 1 were assayed. The histopathological imaging and the immunohistochemical evaluation of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) were investigated in the cerebral cortex. Treatment of AD-rats with BF-7 mitigated AlCl3-induced neurotoxicity by improving motor functions, counteracting apoptosis, and exerting cholinergic functions. In addition, the genetic expression of Insulin 1 was upregulated significantly in AD-induced rats treated with BF-7. This compound could be used as a promising candidate for neurotherapeutic drug discovery against AD or any other toxic brain disorders.

Exploring therapeutic potential: Targeting TRPM7 in neurodegenerative diseases

The ions Ca2+ and Mg2+, which are both present in the body, have been demonstrated to be crucial in the control of a variety of neuronal processes. Transient melastatin-7 (TRPM7) channel plays an important role in controlling Ca2+ and Mg2+ homeostasis, which is crucial for biological processes. The review will also examine how changes in TRPM7 function or expression can lead to neurodegeneration.Even though eight different TRPM channels have been found so far, the channel properties, activation mechanisms, and physiological responses exhibited by these channels can vary greatly from one another. Only TRPM6 and TRPM7 out of the eight TRPM channels were found to have a high permeability to both Ca2+ and Mg2+. In contrast to TRPM6 channels, which are not highly expressed in neuronal cells, TRPM7 channels are widely distributed throughout the nervous system, so they will be the sole focus of this article. It is possible that, in the future, for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorder new therapeutic drug targets will be developed as a direct result of research into the specific roles played by TRPM7 channels in several different neurodegenerative conditions as well as the factors that are responsible for TRPM7 channel regulation.

Ganoderic acid a alleviates Aβ25-35-induced HT22 cell apoptosis through the ERK/MAPK pathway: a system pharmacology and in vitro experimental validation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that occurs with aging. Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis.) P. Karst. (G. lucidum) is a traditional medicinal fungus believed to nourish the brain and anti-aging. Ganoderic acid A (GAA), a triterpenoid from G. lucidum, has demonstrated natural neuroprotective effects. This study aims to explore the therapeutic effect and molecular mechanism of GAA on AD. Systematic network pharmacology identified 95 targets, 8 biological functions, and multiple pathways. The results highlighted MAPK family members as core genes, with MAPK1 (ERK2) showing the highest binding affinity to GAA in molecular docking. In vitro experiments revealed that GAA dose-dependently increased the viability of Aβ25-35-injured HT22 cells and inhibited MAPK pathway-related protein expression. Similar to FR180204, 100 µM GAA significantly reversed ERK protein expression, oxidative stress markers, and mitochondrial damage in AD cell model. GAA also downregulated cleaved caspase-3 protein levels, apoptosis rates, Aβ and p-Tau expression by inhibiting the ERK signaling pathway. The therapeutic effect of GAA on AD was predicted and validated through network pharmacology and in vitro experiments. The ability of GAA to inhibit apoptosis via the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway positions it as a promising candidate for AD treatment.

Molecular and Cellular Foundations of Aging of the Brain: Anti-aging Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a condition characterized by the gradual degeneration of the nervous system that poses significant challenges to cognitive function and overall mental health. Given the increasing global life expectancy, there is an urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and manage Alzheimer's disease, with a particular focus on anti-aging interventions. Recent scientific advancements have unveiled several promising strategies for combating Alzheimer's disease (AD), ranging from lifestyle interventions to cutting-edge pharmacological treatments and therapies targeting the underlying biological processes of aging and AD. Regular physical exercise, cognitive engagement, a balanced diet, and social interaction serve as key pillars in maintaining brain health. At the same time, therapies target key pathological mechanisms of AD, such as amyloid-beta accumulation, tau abnormalities, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and synaptic loss, offering potential breakthroughs in treatment. Moreover, cutting-edge innovations such as gene therapy, stem cell transplantation, and novel drug delivery systems are emerging as potential game-changers in the fight against AD. This review critically evaluates the latest research on anti-aging interventions and their potential in preventing and treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) by exploring the connections between aging mechanisms and AD pathogenesis. It provides a comprehensive analysis of both well-established and emerging strategies, while also identifying key gaps in current knowledge to guide future research efforts.

In Vivo and Computational Studies on Sitagliptin's Neuroprotective Role in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Implications for Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Diabetes mellitus (DM), a widespread endocrine disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia, can cause nerve damage and increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Effective blood glucose management is essential, and sitagliptin (SITG), a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor, may offer neuroprotective benefits in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

T2DM was induced in rats using nicotinamide (NICO) and streptozotocin (STZ), and biomarkers of AD and DM-linked enzymes, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis were evaluated in the brain. Computational studies supported the in vivo findings.

RESULTS

SITG significantly reduced the brain enzyme levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), beta-secretase-1 (BACE-1), DPP-4, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) in T2DM-induced rats. It also reduced inflammation by lowering cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Additionally, SITG improved oxidative stress markers by reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) and enhancing glutathione (GSH). It increased anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2) while reducing pro-apoptotic markers such as Bcl-2-associated X (BAX) and Caspace-3. SITG also lowered blood glucose levels and improved plasma insulin levels. To explore potential molecular level mechanisms, docking was performed on AChE, COX-2, GSK-3β, BACE-1, and Caspace-3. The potential binding affinity of SITG for the above-mentioned target enzymes were 10.8, 8.0, 9.7, 7.7, and 7.9 kcal/mol, respectively, comparable to co-crystallized ligands. Further binding mode analysis of the lowest energy conformation revealed interactions with the critical residues.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight SITG's neuroprotective molecular targets in T2DM-associated neurodegeneration and its potential as a therapeutic approach for AD, warranting further clinical investigations.

Different amyloid β42 preparations induce different cell death pathways in the model of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells

Amyloid β42 (Aβ42) plays a decisive role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. The Aβ42 peptide can aggregate into various supramolecular structures, with oligomers being the most toxic form. However, different Aβ species that cause different effects have been described. Many cell death pathways can be activated in connection with Aβ action, including apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, oxidative stress, ferroptosis, alterations in mitophagy, autophagy, and endo/lysosomal functions. In this study, we used a model of differentiated SH-SY5Y cells and applied two different Aβ42 preparations for 2 and 4 days. Although we found no difference in the shape and size of Aβ species prepared by two different methods (NaOH or NH4OH for Aβ solubilization), we observed strong differences in their effects. Treatment of cells with NaOH-Aβ42 mainly resulted in damage of mitochondrial function and increased production of reactive oxygen species, whereas application of NH4OH-Aβ42 induced necroptosis and first steps of apoptosis, but also caused an increase in protective Hsp27. Moreover, the two Aβ42 preparations differed in the mechanism of interaction with the cells, with the effect of NaOH-Aβ42 being dependent on monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1) content, whereas the effect of NH4OH-Aβ42 was independent of GM1. This suggests that, although both preparations were similar in size, minor differences in secondary/tertiary structure are likely to strongly influence the resulting processes. Our work reveals, at least in part, one of the possible causes of the inconsistency in the data observed in different studies on Aβ-toxicity pathways.

Identifying Alzheimer's disease-associated genes using PhenoGeneRanker

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurogenerative disease that affects millions worldwide with no effective treatment. Several studies have been conducted to decipher to genomic underpinnings of AD. Due to its complex nature, many genes have been found to be associated with AD. Despite these findings, the pathophysiology of the disease is still elusive. To discover new putative AD-associated genes, in this study, we integrated multimodal gene and phenotype datasets of AD using network biology methods to prioritize potential AD-related genes. We constructed a multiplex heterogeneous network composed of patient and gene similarity networks utilizing phenotypic and omics datasets of AD patients from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) database. We applied PhenoGeneRanker to traverse this network to discover potential AD-associated genes. To assess the impact of each network layer and seed gene, we also run PhenoGeneRanker on different variants of the network and seed genes. Our results showed that top-ranked genes captured several known AD-related genes and were enriched in Gene Ontology (GO) terms related to AD. We also observed that several top-ranked genes that are not in AD-associated gene list had literature supporting their potential relevance to AD.

Stem cell factor restrains endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated apoptosis through c-Kit receptor activation of JAK2/STAT3 axis in hippocampal neuronal cells

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common elderly disorder characterized by cognitive decline. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. Stem cell factor (SCF) performs its biological functions by binding to and activating receptor tyrosine kinase c-Kit. We aimed to investigate the effects of SCF/c-Kit and JAK2/STAT3 on ER stress and apoptosis in AD.

METHODS

The study employed L-glutamic acid (L-Glu)-treated HT22 cells as sporadic AD cell model and APP/PS1 mice as an animal model of familiar AD. SCF, c-Kit inhibitor ISCK03 or JAK2/STAT3 inhibitor WP1066 was treated to verify the effects of SCF/c-Kit and JAK2/STAT3 on ER stress and apoptosis of L-Glu-exposed HT22 cells. Cell viability was assessed by MTT. BrdU detected cell proliferation. Flow cytometry measured cell apoptosis. The expression levels of ER stress markers GRP78, PERK, CHOP, and apoptosis protein caspase3 were determined by western blot. The effect on the mRNA of ER stress markers GRP78, PERK, CHOP and apoptotic caspase3 were quantified by RT-qPCR in primary cultured hippocampal neurons from APP/PS1 transgenic mice.

RESULTS

Administration of SCF significantly augmented the activity and proliferation of hippocampal neuronal cells, protecting cells against L-Glu induced ER stress-associated apoptosis. Moreover, the addition of ISCK03 (c-Kit inhibitor) or WP1066 (JAK2/STAT3 inhibitor) reversed SCF effects on ER stress and apoptosis in vitro.

CONCLUSION

We found that SCF inhibits L-Glu-induced ER stress-associated apoptosis via JAK2/STAT3 axis in HT22 hippocampal neuronal cells, as well as in primary hippocampal neurons from APP/PS1 mice, which provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of AD and explores novel therapeutic targets for both sporadic and familial AD.

Parkinson's Disease and MicroRNAs: A Duel Between Inhibition and Stimulation of Apoptosis in Neuronal Cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent diseases of central nervous system that is caused by degeneration of the substantia nigra's dopamine-producing neurons through apoptosis. Apoptosis is regulated by initiators' and executioners' caspases both in intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, further resulting in neuronal damage. In that context, targeting apoptosis appears as a promising therapeutic approach for treating neurodegenerative diseases. Non-coding RNAs-more especially, microRNAs, or miRNAs-are a promising target for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases because they are essential for a number of cellular processes, including signaling, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and gene regulation. It is estimated that a substantial portion of coding genes (more than 60%) are regulated by miRNAs. These small regulatory molecules can have wide-reaching consequences on cellular processes like apoptosis, both in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Furthermore, it was recommended that a disruption in miRNA expression levels could also result in perturbation of typical apoptosis pathways, which may be a factor in certain diseases like PD. The latest research on miRNAs and their impact on neural cell injury in PD models by regulating the apoptosis pathway is summarized in this review article. Furthermore, the importance of lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA network for regulating apoptosis pathways in PD models and treatment is explored. These results can be utilized for developing new strategies in PD treatment.

Hypoxic stress caused apoptosis of MDBK cells by p53/BCL6-mitochondrial apoptosis pathway

Hypoxia is an important characteristic of Tibetan plateau environment. It can lead to apoptosis, but the mechanism of apoptosis caused by hypoxic stress needs further clarification. Here, cattle kidney cell MDBK were used as cell model. The effect of hypoxic stress on apoptosis and its molecular mechanism were explored. MDBK cells were treated with hypoxic stress, apoptosis and mitochondrial apoptotic pathway were significantly increased, and the expression of B-cell lymphoma 6 (BCL6) was significantly decreased. Overexpressing or inhibiting BCL6 demonstrated that BCL6 inhibited the apoptosis. And the increase of apoptosis controlled by hypoxic stress was blocked by BCL6 overexpressing. MDBK cells were treated with hypoxic stress, the expression and the nuclear localization of p53 were significantly increased. Overexpressing or inhibiting p53 demonstrated that hypoxic stress suppressed the expression of BCL6 through p53. Together, these results indicated that hypoxic stress induced the apoptosis of MDBK cells, and BCL6 was an important negative factor for this regulation process. In MDBK cells, hypoxic stress suppressed the expression of BCL6 through p53/BCL6-mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. This study enhanced current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of apoptosis by hypoxic stress in MDBK cells.

Norboldine improves cognitive impairment and pathological features in Alzheimer's disease by activating AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm is a common traditional herb that has multiple bioactivities. Radix Linderae (LR), the dry roots of Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm, is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, first found in Kaibao Era. Norboldine (Nor) is an alkaloid extracted from LR and is one of the primary active ingredients of LR. However, the pharmacological functions and mechanism of Nor in Alzheimer's disease (AD) are still unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to investigate the effect and mechanism of Nor therapy in improving the cognitive impairment and pathological features of 3 × Tg mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3 × Tg mice were treated with two concentrations of Nor for one month and then the memory and cognitive abilities of mice were assessed by novel object recognition experiment and Morris water maze. The impact of Nor on the pathology of ADwere examined in PC12 cells and animal tissues using western blotting and immunofluorescence. Finally, western blotting was used to verify the anti-apoptotic effect of Nor by activating AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway at animal and cellular levels.

RESULTS

In this study, we showed that Nor treatment improved the capacity of the learning and memory of 3 × Tg mice and alleviated AD pathology such as Aβ deposition. In addition, Nor restored the abnormalities of mitochondrial membrane potential, significantly reduced the production of intracellular ROS and neuronal cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, we combined network pharmacology and experimental verification to show that Nor may exert antioxidant stress and anti-apoptotic through the AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our data provide some evidence that Nor exerts a neuroprotective effect through the AMPK/GSK3β/Nrf2 pathway, thereby improving cognitive impairment in AD model mice. Natural products derived from traditional Chinese medicines are becoming increasingly popular in the process of new drug development and discovery, and our findings provide new perspectives for the discovery of improved treatment strategies for AD.

Ginsenoside Re Regulates Oxidative Stress through the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 Signaling Pathway in Mice with Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairments

While Ginsenoside Re has been shown to protect the central nervous system, reports of its effects on memory in the model of scopolamine-induced memory impairment are rare. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Ginsenoside Re on scopolamine (SCOP)-induced memory damage and the mechanism of action. Male ICR mice were treated with SCOP (3 mg/kg) for 7 days and with or without Ginsenoside Re for 14 days. As evidenced by behavioral studies (escape latency and cross platform position), brain tissue morphology, and oxidative stress indicators after Ginsenoside Re treatment, the memory damage caused by SCOP was significantly ameliorated. Further mechanism research indicated that Ginsenoside Re inhibited cell apoptosis by regulating the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 pathway, thereby exerting a cognitive impairment improvement effect. This research suggests that Ginsenoside Re could protect against SCOP-induced memory defects possibly through inhibiting oxidative stress and cell apoptosis.

Identification of cuproptosis-related genes in Alzheimer's disease based on bioinformatic analysis

OBJECTIVE

To explore the role of cuproptosis in Alzheimer's disease (AD).

METHODS

An AD-related microarray dataset was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (GSE140830). Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to identify AD-related modular genes. The Venn analysis was performed to obtain module genes associated with apoptosis and cuproptosis. Besides, we conducted an enrichment analysis of overlapped genes and constructed the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, followed by screening hub genes and those significantly associated with AD were used to construct models of apoptosis and cuproptosis, respectively. Further, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, decision curve analysis (DCA), and subgroup analysis were used to compare the AD prediction performance of two models. Finally, the accuracy and reliability of AD prediction models were verified by GSE26927.

RESULTS

We obtained 42 module genes related to apoptosis and 9 module genes related to cuproptosis. The enrichment analysis results revealed MAPK signaling pathway as the common signaling pathway of apoptosis- and cuproptosis-related genes. Next, the hub genes associated with apoptosis (TRADD, FADD, BIRC2, and CASP2) and cuproptosis (MAP2K1, SLC31A1, and PDHB) in AD were identified, which were used to construct apoptosis and cuproptosis models to distinguish AD patients from the control group (P < 0.05). The ROC, DCA, and subgroup analysis results showed that apoptosis-related models and cuproptosis-related models had comparable ability in predicting AD. GSE26927 further confirmed that the two models have comparable predictive effects for AD.

CONCLUSIONS

The cuproptosis model had a certain performance in predicting AD. Three hub genes (MAP2K1, SLC31A1, and PDHB) closely related to cuproptosis in AD might serve as biomarkers for AD diagnosis and treatment.

Therapeutic potential of fucoidan in central nervous system disorders: A systematic review

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders have a complicated pathogenesis, and to date, no single mechanism can fully explain them. Most drugs used for CNS disorders primarily aim to manage symptoms and delay disease progression, and none have demonstrated any pathological reversal. Fucoidan is a safe, sulfated polysaccharide from seaweed that exhibits multiple pharmacological effects, and it is anticipated to be a novel treatment for CNS disorders. To assess the possible clinical uses of fucoidan, this review aims to provide an overview of its neuroprotective mechanism in both in vivo and in vitro CNS disease models, as well as its pharmacokinetics and safety. We included 39 articles on the pharmacology of fucoidan in CNS disorders. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that fucoidan has important roles in regulating lipid metabolism, enhancing the cholinergic system, maintaining the functional integrity of the blood-brain barrier and mitochondria, inhibiting inflammation, and attenuating oxidative stress and apoptosis, highlighting its potential for CNS disease treatment. Fucoidan has a protective effect against CNS disorders. With ongoing research on fucoidan, it is expected that a natural, highly effective, less toxic, and highly potent fucoidan-based drug or nutritional supplement targeting CNS diseases will be developed.

MST1 selective inhibitor Xmu-mp-1 ameliorates neuropathological changes in a rat model of sporadic Alzheimer's Disease by modulating Hippo-Wnt signaling crosstalk

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent form of dementia, is characterized by progressive cognitive impairment accompanied by aberrant neuronal apoptosis. Reports suggest that the pro-apoptotic mammalian set20-like kinase 1/2 (MST1/2) instigates neuronal apoptosis via activating the Hippo signaling pathway under various stress conditions, including AD. However, whether inhibiting MST1/2 has any therapeutic benefits in AD remains unknown. Thus, we tested the therapeutic effects of intervening MST1/2 activation via the pharmacological inhibitor Xmu-mp-1 in a sporadic AD rat model. Sporadic AD was established in adult rats by intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (ICV-STZ) injection (3 mg/kg body weight). Xmu-mp-1 (0.5 mg/kg/body weight) was administered once every 48 h for two weeks, and Donepezil (5 mg/kg body weight) was used as a reference standard drug. The therapeutic effects of Xmu-mp-1 on ICV-STZ rats were determined through various behavioral, biochemical, histopathological, and molecular tests. At the behavioral level, Xmu-mp-1 improved cognitive deficits in sporadic AD rats. Further, Xmu-mp-1 treatment reduced STZ-associated tau phosphorylation, amyloid-beta deposition, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, neuronal apoptosis, and neurodegeneration. Mechanistically, Xmu-mp-1 exerted these neuroprotective actions by inactivating the Hippo signaling while potentiating the Wnt/β-Catenin signaling in the AD rats. Together, the results of the present study provide compelling support that Xmu-mp-1 negated the neuronal dysregulation in the rat model of sporadic AD. Therefore, inhibiting MST/Hippo signaling and modulating its crosstalk with the Wnt/β-Catenin pathway can be a promising alternative treatment strategy against AD pathology. This is the first study providing novel mechanistic insights into the therapeutic use of Xmu-mp-1 in sporadic AD.

An insight into the concept of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease: targeting molecular approach Nrf2, NF-κB, and CREB

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a most prevalent neurologic disorder characterized by cognitive dysfunction, amyloid-β (Aβ) protein accumulation, and excessive neuroinflammation. It affects various life tasks and reduces thinking, memory, capability, reasoning and orientation ability, decision, and language. The major parts responsible for these abnormalities are the cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. Excessive inflammatory markers release, and microglial activation affect post-synaptic neurotransmission. Various mechanisms of AD pathogenesis have been explored, but still, there is a need to debate the role of NF-κB, Nrf2, inflammatory markers, CREB signaling, etc. In this review, we have briefly discussed the signaling mechanisms and function of the NF-ĸB signaling pathway, inflammatory mediators, microglia activation, and alteration of autophagy. NF-κB inhibition is a current strategy to counter neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the brain of individuals with AD. In clinical trials, numbers of NF-κB modulators are being examined. Recent reports revealed that molecular and cellular pathways initiate complex pathological competencies that cause AD. Moreover, this review will provide extensive knowledge of the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) and how these nuclear proteins affect neuronal plasticity.

The role and mechanism of dapagliflozin in Alzheimer disease: A review

Alzheimer disease (AD), as the main type of dementia, is primarily characterized by cognitive dysfunction across multiple domains. Current drugs for AD have not achieved the desired clinical efficacy due to potential risks, inapplicability, high costs, significant side effects, and poor patient compliance. However, recent findings offer new hope by suggesting that sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT-2i) may possess neuroprotective properties, potentially opening up novel avenues for the treatment of AD. This review delves deeply into the multifaceted mechanisms of action of SGLT-2i in AD, encompassing antioxidative stress, antineuroinflammation, upregulation of autophagy, antiapoptosis, acetylcholinesterase inhibitor activity, and protection of endothelial cells against atherosclerosis and damage to the blood-brain barrier, among others. Furthermore, it provides an overview of recent advances in clinical research on this drug. These findings suggest that SGLT-2i is poised to emerge as a pivotal candidate for the treatment of AD, given its diverse functional effects.

Molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial homeostasis regulation in neurons and possible therapeutic approaches for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological disease with memory loss and cognitive decline, which affects a large proportion of the aging population. Regrettably, there are no drug to reverse or cure AD and drug development for the primary theory of amyloid beta deposition has mostly failed. Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate novel strategies for preventing AD. Recent studies demonstrate that imbalance of mitochondrial homeostasis is a driver in Aβ accumulation, which can lead to the occurrence and deterioration of cognitive impairment in AD patients. This suggests that regulating neuronal mitochondrial homeostasis may be a new strategy for AD. We summarize the importance of mitochondrial homeostasis in AD neuron and its regulatory mechanisms in this review. In addition, we summarize the results of studies indicating mitochondrial dysfunction in AD subjects, including impaired mitochondrial energy production, oxidative stress, imbalance of mitochondrial protein homeostasis, imbalance of fusion and fission, imbalance of neuronal mitochondrial biogenesis and autophagy, and altered mitochondrial motility, in hope of providing possible therapeutic approaches for AD.

Integrating large-scale single-cell RNA sequencing in central nervous system disease using self-supervised contrastive learning

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises a diverse range of brain cell types with distinct functions and gene expression profiles. Although single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) provides new insights into the brain cell atlases, integrating large-scale CNS scRNA-seq data still encounters challenges due to the complexity and heterogeneity among CNS cell types/subtypes. In this study, we introduce a self-supervised contrastive learning method, called scCM, for integrating large-scale CNS scRNA-seq data. scCM brings functionally related cells close together while simultaneously pushing apart dissimilar cells by comparing the variations of gene expression, effectively revealing the heterogeneous relationships within the CNS cell types/subtypes. The effectiveness of scCM is evaluated on 20 CNS datasets covering 4 species and 10 CNS diseases. Leveraging these strengths, we successfully integrate the collected human CNS datasets into a large-scale reference to annotate cell types and subtypes in neural tissues. Results demonstrate that scCM provides an accurate annotation, along with rich spatial information of cell state. In summary, scCM is a robust and promising method for integrating large-scale CNS scRNA-seq data, enabling researchers to gain insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying CNS functions and diseases.

Basic approach on the protective effects of hesperidin and naringin in Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVES

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive impairment. This situation imposes a great burden on individuals, both economically and socially. Today, an effective method for treating the disease and protective approach to tau accumulation has not been developed yet. Studies have been conducted on the effects of hesperidin and naringin flavonoids found in citrus fruits on many diseases.

METHODS

In this review, the pathophysiology of AD is defined, and the effects of hesperidin and naringin on these factors are summarized.

RESULTS

Studies have shown that both components may potentially affect AD due to their antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Based on these effects of the components, it has been shown that they may have ameliorative effects on Aβ, α-synuclein aggregation, tau pathology, and cognitive functions in the pathophysiology of AD.

DISCUSSION

There are studies suggesting that hesperidin and naringin may be effective in the prevention/treatment of AD. When these studies are examined, it is seen that more studies should be conducted on the subject.

Small molecule and big function: MicroRNA-mediated apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common autoimmune condition and chronic inflammatory disease, mostly affecting synovial joints. The complex pathogenesis of RA is supportive of high morbidity, disability, and mortality rates. Pathological changes a common characteristic in RA synovial tissue is attributed to the inadequacy of apoptotic pathways. In that regard, apoptotic pathways have been the center of attention in RA therapeutic approaches. As the regulators in the complex network of apoptosis, microRNAs (miRNAs) are found to be vital modulators in both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways through altering their regulatory genes. Indeed, miRNA, a member of the family of non-coding RNAs, are found to be an important player in not even apoptosis, but proliferation, gene expression, signaling pathways, and angiogenesis. Aberrant expression of miRNAs is implicated in attenuation and/or intensification of various apoptosis routes, resulting in culmination of human diseases including RA. Considering the need for more studies focused on the underlying mechanisms of RA in order to elevate the unsatisfactory clinical treatments, this study is aimed to delineate the importance of apoptosis in the pathophysiology of this disease. As well, this review is focused on the critical role of miRNAs in inducing or inhibiting apoptosis of RA-synovial fibroblasts and fibroblast-like synoviocytes and how this mechanism can be exerted for therapeutic purposes for RA.

mosGraphGPT: a foundation model for multi-omic signaling graphs using generative AI

Generative pretrained models represent a significant advancement in natural language processing and computer vision, which can generate coherent and contextually relevant content based on the pre-training on large general datasets and fine-tune for specific tasks. Building foundation models using large scale omic data is promising to decode and understand the complex signaling language patterns within cells. Different from existing foundation models of omic data, we build a foundation model, mosGraphGPT, for multi-omic signaling (mos) graphs, in which the multi-omic data was integrated and interpreted using a multi-level signaling graph. The model was pretrained using multi-omic data of cancers in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), and fine-turned for multi-omic data of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). The experimental evaluation results showed that the model can not only improve the disease classification accuracy, but also is interpretable by uncovering disease targets and signaling interactions. And the model code are uploaded via GitHub with link: https://github.com/mosGraph/mosGraphGPT.

Fisetin-loaded pluronic-based nanogel: Radiation synthesis for alleviating neurocognitive impairments in a rat model of alzheimer's disease via modulation of the apoptotic cascade

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by cognitive impairment and memory loss. In this study, AD was experimentally induced in rats using aluminum chloride (AlCl3) and D-galactose (D-gal). Fisetin (Fis), a natural compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has potential for neurodegeneration management, but its low bioavailability limits clinical applications. To address this, we synthesized and characterized Pluronic-2-Acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (PLUR-PAMPS) nanogels using gamma radiation and successfully loaded Fis onto them (Fis-PLUR-PAMPS). The optimal formulation exhibited minimal particle size, a highly acceptable polydispersity index, and the highest zeta-potential, enhancing stability and solubilization efficiency. Our goal was to improve Fis's bioavailability and assess its efficacy against AlCl3/D-gal-induced AD. Male albino Wistar rats were pre-treated orally with Fis (40 mg/kg) or Fis-PLUR-PAMPS for seven days, followed by a seven-day intraperitoneal injection of AlCl3 and D-gal. Behavioral assessments, histopathological analysis, and biochemical evaluation of markers related to AD pathology were conducted. Results demonstrated that Fis-PLUR-PAMPS effectively mitigated cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative signs induced by AlCl3/D-gal. These findings suggest that Fis-PLUR-PAMPS nanogels enhance Fis's bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy, offering a promising approach for AD management.

From Perspective of Hippocampal Plasticity: Function of Antidepressant Chinese Medicine Xiaoyaosan

The hippocampus is one of the most commonly studied brain regions in the context of depression. The volume of the hippocampus is significantly reduced in patients with depression, which severely disrupts hippocampal neuroplasticity. However, antidepressant therapies that target hippocampal neuroplasticity have not been identified as yet. Chinese medicine (CM) can slow the progression of depression, potentially by modulating hippocampal neuroplasticity. Xiaoyaosan (XYS) is a CM formula that has been clinically used for the treatment of depression. It is known to protect Gan (Liver) and Pi (Spleen) function, and may exert its antidepressant effects by regulating hippocampal neuroplasticity. In this review, we have summarized the association between depression and aberrant hippocampal neuroplasticity. Furthermore, we have discussed the researches published in the last 30 years on the effects of XYS on hippocampal neuroplasticity in order to elucidate the possible mechanisms underlying its therapeutic action against depression. The results of this review can aid future research on XYS for the treatment of depression.

Role of 14-3-3 protein family in the pathobiology of EBV in immortalized B cells and Alzheimer's disease

Background and Aims

Several studies have revealed that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection raised the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) via infecting B lymphocytes. The purpose of the current investigation was to assess the possible association between EBV infection and AD.

Methods

The microarray datasets GSE49628, GSE126379, GSE122063, and GSE132903 were utilized to extract DEGs by using the GEO2R tool of the GEO platform. The STRING tool was used to determine the interaction between the DEGs, and Cytoscape was used to visualize the results. The DEGs that were found underwent function analysis, including pathway and GO, using the DAVID 2021 and ClueGo/CluePedia. By using MNC, MCC, Degree, and Radiality of cytoHubba, we identified seven common key genes. Gene co-expression analysis was performed through the GeneMANIA web tool. Furthermore, expression analysis of key genes was performed through GTEx software, which have been identified in various human brain regions. The miRNA-gene interaction was performed through the miRNet v 2.0 tool. DsigDB on the Enrichr platform was utilized to extract therapeutic drugs connected to key genes.

Results

In GEO2R analysis of datasets with |log2FC|≥ 0.5 and p-value <0.05, 8386, 10,434, 7408, and 759 genes were identified. A total of 141 common DEGs were identified by combining the extracted genes of different datasets. A total of 141 nodes and 207 edges were found during the PPI analysis. The DEG GO analysis with substantial alterations disclosed that they are associated to molecular functions and biological processes, such as positive regulation of neuron death, autophagy regulation of mitochondrion, response of cell to insulin stimulus, calcium signaling regulation, organelle transport along microtubules, protein kinase activity, and phosphoserine binding. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis discovered the correlation between the DEGs in pathways of neurodegeneration: multiple disease, cell cycle, and cGMP-PKG signaling pathway. Finally, YWHAH, YWHAG, YWHAB, YWHAZ, MAP2K1, PPP2CA, and TUBB genes were identified that are strongly linked to EBV and AD. Three miRNAs, i.e., hsa-mir-15a-5p, hsa-let-7a-5p, and hsa-mir-7-5p, were identified to regulate most of hub genes that are associated with EBV and AD. Further top 10 significant therapeutic drugs were predicted.

Conclusion

We have discovered new biomarkers and therapeutic targets for AD, as well as the possible biological mechanisms whereby infection with EBV may be involved in AD susceptibility for the first time.

Naringenin ameliorates amyloid-β pathology and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition, tau hyperphosphorylation, and neuroinflammation. Naringenin (NRG), a natural flavonoid widely present in citrus fruits, has been reported can penetrate the blood-brain barrier and exert anti-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system. Here, we investigate the protective effects of long-term NRG treatment on AD. The novel object recognition test and Morris water maze test reveal that NRG treatment can improve the learning and memory ability of APP/PS1 mice. Besides, we find that NRG can significantly reduce Aβ deposition, microglial and astrocytic activation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in APP/PS1 mice. Results further show that NRG effectively decreases pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS/Aβ-stimulated BV2 cells. Lastly, the molecular mechanistic study reveals that NRG attenuates neuroinflammatory responses via inhibition of the MAPK signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro. Overall, NRG may emerge as a promising compound for the prevention and treatment of AD.