Nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma: incidence, causes of death and quality of life in relation to pituitary function

Age-related differences in the clinical features and management of pituitary apoplexy: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Pituitary apoplexy (PA) is a rare and acute condition resulting from hemorrhage or infarction of the pituitary gland. This study aimed to assess clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of PA in patients aged <65 and ≥65 years using data from a Spanish multicenter cohort.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective, multicenter study (2010-2023) of 301 PA patients from 18 Spanish hospitals. Data were analyzed for differences in demographics, clinical presentation, treatment approach, and outcomes.

RESULTS

Patients aged ≥65 years (n = 116, 38.5%) had more comorbidities, compared to younger patients (n = 185, 61.5%). No significant differences were observed in clinical presentation, including PA Score and radiological findings except for higher frequency of cranial nerve palsy (46.2 vs. 64.9%; P = .02) in older patients. Surgical (n = 209), and conservative (n = 92) treatment rates were similar between groups (conservative: 29.9 younger vs. 32.8% older; P = .51). Histopathological analysis revealed more necrosis in patients aged ≥65 years (66.7 vs. 80.6%; P = .04). Surgical resection rates and outcomes including mortality were comparable across age groups.

CONCLUSIONS

PA management and outcomes were comparable in younger and older patients, despite greater comorbidities and more severe symptoms in older individuals. Histopathological findings suggest potential age-related differences in tumor biology, warranting further research. MRI would be preferred for diagnosis, particularly in older patients, as ischemic necrotic PA may be undiagnosed without advanced imaging.

Tumor Control and Long-Term Survival in Non-Functional Pituitary Adenoma Treated with Adjuvant Radiotherapy. A Retrospective Single Institutional Study

BACKGROUND

Radiation therapy (RT) for postoperative residual or progressive non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) has excellent long-term local control (LC) although its use has been limited because of the potential late toxicity related to radiation treatments. Newer techniques have led to better precision.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to review the institutional outcomes of NFPA treated with postoperative RT.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

One hundred forty-seven patients of NFPA were treated at our institution from 2006 to 2018. Ninty-one patients who received RT post-surgery were included in the analysis. RT was delivered to a dose of 45Gy in 25 fractions over 5 weeks using contemporary RT techniques. Patients with residual disease or recurrence after debulking surgery were treated with RT. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for response was available in 70 patients. Effects of age, gender, cavernous sinus invasion (CSI), bony erosion, number of surgeries, MIB index, p53 status, and RT technique on overall survival (OS) were analyzed.

RESULTS

The median follow-up of the patients was 86.5 months (IQR: 53-126). The 10y OS was 88.9%. Of the 70 patients who had follow-up MRI, the 10y LC post-adjuvant RT was 97.1%. On univariate analysis, multiple surgeries were associated with better OS compared to patients who underwent single surgery (P = 0.012), and the presence of both bony erosion and CSI was significantly associated with poorer OS (P = 0.028).

CONCLUSION

Radiotherapy after debulking surgery in a select group of patients with NFPA gives excellent tumor control and survival. The presence of extrasellar extensions results in poor clinical outcomes.

Quality of life in non-functioning pituitary adenoma: A systematic review

Non-Functioning Pituitary Adenomas (pituitary neuroendocrine tumours) (NFPA) have a profound detrimental effect of patient-reported health-related quality of life (QOL). Elucidating the underlying mechanisms by which NFPA influence patients' emotional physical and psychosocial wellbeing would provide the foundation for therapeutic strategies to optimise patient outcomes. A systematic review of the literature was performed in accordance with the PRISMA statement. Studies that utilised validated metrics to report QOL in NFPA were included. Patients with NFPA exhibit worse QOL than healthy controls across both mental and physical domains. Surgery provides significant improvements in QOL within 3 months, and QOL can normalise years after successful treatment. Compared with functioning adenomas, QOL is favourable. The underlying mechanisms for QOL detriment in NFPA is multifactorial and includes visual failure, hypopituitarism, headache, sleep dysfunction, pain, the sick role, treatment-related anxiety, and the morbidity of surgical and radiotherapy treatment. The effects of NFPA on QOL are global, with deficits in physical, psychosocial, and cognitive function. With successful treatment, QOL can return to that of the general population. Targeting hypopituitarism, sleep dysfunction, headache, pain, and disease-related anxiety are paths to improve QOL in NFPA.

Replacement with sex steroids in hypopituitary men and women: implications for gender differences in morbidities and mortality

Hypopituitarism is a heterogenous disorder characterised by a deficiency in one or more anterior pituitary hormones. There are marked sex disparities in the morbidity and mortality experienced by patients with hypopituitarism. In women with hypopituitarism, the prevalence of many cardiovascular risk factors, myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality are significantly elevated compared to the general population, however in men, they approach that of the general population. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG) is the most sexually dimorphic pituitary hormone axis. Gonadotropin deficiency is caused by a deficiency of either hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) or pituitary gonadotropins, namely follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH). HPG axis dysfunction results in oestrogen and testosterone deficiency in women and men, respectively. Replacement of deficient sex hormones is the mainstay of treatment in individuals not seeking fertility. Oestrogen and testosterone replacement in women and men, respectively, have numerous beneficial health impacts. These benefits include improved body composition, enhanced insulin sensitivity, improved atherogenic lipid profiles and increased bone mineral density. Oestrogen replacement in women also reduces the risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. When women and men are considered together, untreated gonadotropin deficiency is independently associated with an increased mortality risk. However, treatment with sex hormone replacement reduces the mortality risk comparable to those with an intact gonadal axis. The reasons for the sex disparities in mortality remain poorly understood. Potential explanations include the reversal of women's natural survival advantage over men, premature loss of oestrogen's cardioprotective effect, less aggressive cardiovascular risk factor modification and inadequate oestrogen replacement in women with gonadotropin deficiency. Regrettably, historical inertia and unfounded concerns about the safety of oestrogen replacement in women of reproductive age have impeded the treatment of gonadotropin deficiency.

Excess mortality in patients with non-functioning pituitary adenoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Patients with non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA) often present with a variety of clinical manifestations and comorbidities, mainly determined by the local mass effect of the tumor and by hypopituitarism. Whether this has an impact on overall mortality, however, is still unclear.

METHODS

PubMed/Medline, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases were systematically searched until May 2023 for studies reporting data either about standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) or about predictors of mortality in patients with NFPA. Effect sizes were pooled through a random-effect model. This systematic review and meta-analysis was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, #CRD42023417782).

RESULTS

Eleven studies were eligible for inclusion in the systematic review; among these, five studies reported data on SMRs, with a total follow-up time of approximately 130,000 person-years. Patients with NFPA showed an increased mortality risk compared to the general population (SMR = 1.57 [95%CI: 1.20-1.99], p < 0.01). Age and sex appeared to act as effect modifiers, with a trend towards higher SMRs in females (SMR = 1.57 [95%CI: 0.91-2.41], p = 0.10) than in males (SMR = 1.00 [95%CI: 0.89-1.11], p = 0.97), and in patients diagnosed at age 40 years or younger (SMR = 3.19 [95%CI: 2.50-3.97], p < 0.01) compared to those with later onset of the disease (SMR = 1.26 [95%CI: 0.93-1.65], p = 0.13). The trend towards excess mortality was similar in patients with normal (SMR = 1.22 [95%CI: 0.94-1.53], p = 0.13) or deficient (SMR = 1.26 [95%CI: 0.82-1.79], p = 0.27) pituitary function.

CONCLUSIONS

Excess mortality is observed in patients with NFPA, regardless of pituitary function, especially in women and in patients with a younger age at diagnosis.

The history of Danish neuroscience

The history of Danish neuroscience starts with an account of impressive contributions made at the 17th century. Thomas Bartholin was the first Danish neuroscientist, and his disciple Nicolaus Steno became internationally one of the most prominent neuroscientists in this period. From the start, Danish neuroscience was linked to clinical disciplines. This continued in the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries with new initiatives linking basic neuroscience to clinical neurology and psychiatry in the same scientific environment. Subsequently, from the middle of the 20th century, basic neuroscience was developing rapidly within the preclinical university sector. Clinical neuroscience continued and was even reinforced during this period with important translational research and a close co-operation between basic and clinical neuroscience. To distinguish 'history' from 'present time' is not easy, as many historical events continue in present time. Therefore, we decided to consider 'History' as new major scientific developments in Denmark, which were launched before the end of the 20th century. With this aim, scientists mentioned will have been born, with a few exceptions, no later than the early 1960s. However, we often refer to more recent publications in documenting the developments of initiatives launched before the end of the last century. In addition, several scientists have moved to Denmark after the beginning of the present century, and they certainly are contributing to the present status of Danish neuroscience-but, again, this is not the History of Danish neuroscience.

Health-related quality of life analyses in nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenoma patients identifies at-risk populations

PURPOSE

The quality of life (QoL) impact of multidisciplinary treatment for patients with nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas (NFPMA) is unclear. We sought to investigate associations between patient factors, clinical data, and patient-reported QoL in patients with NFPMA.

METHODS

Patients with treated NFPMA and > 1 year of follow up after transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) and with no evidence of progressive disease were evaluated utilizing the following patient-reported outcome measures: RAND-36-Item Health Survey, Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory, Cognitive Failures Questionnaire.

RESULTS

229 eligible patients completed QoL questionnaires a median of 7.7 years after initial transsphenoidal surgery (TSS). 25% of participants received radiation therapy (RT) a median of 2.0 years (0.1-22.5) after initial TSS. Patients who received RT were younger (median age 46 v 58, p < 0.0001), had larger tumors (28 mm v 22 mm, p < 0.0001), were more likely to have visual symptoms (65% v 34%, p = 0.0002), and were more likely to have hypopituitarism (93% v 62%, p < 0.0001). Patients with hypopituitarism reported worse energy and fatigue and cognitive function (p < 0.03). Patients who received RT reported significantly worse general health, physical health, physical fatigue and cognitive functioning (p < 0.05). The largest QoL differences were in patients who experienced a financial stressor, independent of treatment type.

CONCLUSION

Hypopituitarism, radiation therapy after TSS, and financial stressors are associated with more impaired QoL in patients with NFPMA. Awareness of these factors can better guide use and timing of radiation therapy in addition to identifying patients who can benefit from multidisciplinary surveillance.

The impact of transsphenoidal surgery on pituitary function in patients with non-functioning macroadenomas

PURPOSE

Transsphenoidal surgery for non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) can alter pituitary function. We assessed the rates of improvement and deterioration of pituitary function by axis and searched for predictive factors of these outcomes.

METHODS

We reviewed consecutive medical files from patients having had transsphenoidal surgery for NFPA between 2004 and 2018. Pituitary functions and MRI imaging were analyzed prior and after surgery. The occurrence of recovery and new deficit were documented per axis. Prognostic factors of hormonal recovery and new deficits were searched.

RESULTS

Among 137 patients analyzed, median tumor size of the NFPA was 24.8 mm and 58.4% of patients presented visual impairment. Before surgery, 91 patients (67%) had at least one abnormal pituitary axis (hypogonadism: 62.4%; hypothyroidism: 41%, adrenal insufficiency: 30.8%, growth hormone deficiency: 29.9%; increased prolactin: 50.8%). Following surgery, the recovery rate of pituitary deficiency of one axis or more was 46% and the rate of new pituitary deficiency was 10%. Rates of LH-FSH, TSH, ACTH and GH deficiency recovery were 35.7%, 30.4%, 15.4%, and 45.5% respectively. Rates of new LH-FSH, TSH, ACTH and GH deficiencies were 8.3%, 1.6%, 9.2% and 5.1% respectively. Altogether, 24.6% of patients had a global pituitary function improvement and only 7% had pituitary function worsening after surgery. Male patients and patients with hyperprolactinemia upon diagnosis were more likely to experience pituitary function recovery. No prognostic factors for the risk of new deficiencies were identified.

CONCLUSION

In a real-life cohort of patients with NFPAs, recovery of hypopituitarism after surgery is more frequent than the occurrence of new deficiencies. Hence, hypopituitarism could be considered a relative indication for surgery in patients with NFPAs.

Why do patients with hypopituitarism still present an increased mortality?

Hypopituitarism is defined as a lack or decreased secretion of one or several pituitary hormones. It can result from diseases of the pituitary gland or from pathologies of the superior regulatory center, i.e. the hypothalamus, thereby decreasing hypothalamic releasing hormones and consequently the pituitary hormones. It is still a rare disease with an estimated prevalence of 30-45 patients/100,000 and an incidence of 4-5/100,000/year. This review summarizes the currently available data with a focus on etiologies of hypopituitarism, evidence on mortality rates in patients with hypopituitarism, temporal trends in mortality , and associated diseases, pathophysiological mechanisms and risk factors that affect mortality risk in these patients.

Current opinion on the diagnosis and management of non-functioning pituitary adenomas

INTRODUCTION

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) are clinically silent tumors and the second most common pituitary adenoma. Surgery is the mainstay of treatment as there is, as yet, no effective medical treatment.

AREAS COVERED

We present current knowledge on the clinical diagnosis, histopathological classification, molecular data, and management strategies in NFPA.

EXPERT OPINION

NFPA is a heterogeneous group of tumors, in respect to their origin and clinical course. In recent years, research on pathology and molecular biology have advanced our knowledge of NFPA pathogenesis. NFPA exhibit, in the majority of cases, an indolent behavior, with satisfactory response to treatment. In aggressive cases, multimodal management is needed; however, even this approach may be insufficient, so the development of new treatments is warranted for better management. In this setting, the understanding of the mechanisms involved in the genesis and progression of NFPA is crucial for the identification and development of directed treatments with higher chances of response.

Olfactory outcomes after endonasal skull base surgery: a systematic review

For the last two decades, endonasal approach has been regularly applied to treat skull base lesions. However, postoperative olfactory dysfunction remains an unsolved problem. This systematic review aimed to identify factors that might affect postoperative olfactory prognosis of patients undergoing endonasal surgery for resection of sellar/parasellar lesions. The literature search was conducted comprehensively to exhaust studies which focused on patients' olfaction with objective olfactory assessments after endonasal skull base surgery. We sought to characterize the potential factors that might affect postoperative olfactory outcomes. Nineteen articles met inclusion criteria. We found that (1) endoscopic surgery was beneficial to patients' olfactory prognosis than microscopic surgery (incidence of postoperative decreased olfactory function: 18.48% (39/211) for the endoscopic group and 36.88% (52/141) for the microscopic group, P < 0.01); meta-analysis for single rate, 20% (95% CI 9-30%) for the endoscopic group and 35% (95% CI 0-72%) for the microscopic group); (2) harvesting septal flaps was an unfavorable factor for olfactory recovery and the rescue flap technique should be preferred compared with the HB flap; (3) no evidence showed that resection of the middle turbinate was detrimental to recovery of olfaction. Patients undergoing endoscopic endonasal surgery may have better olfactory outcomes than those undergoing microscopic endonasal surgery for resection of sellar/parasellar lesions. Special attention should be paid when using septal flaps is planned and the rescue flap technique should be the preferred choice. After resecting the middle turbinate, patients' olfaction still has a great chance of returning to the baseline. More homogeneous and high-quality studies are needed for further assessment.

Incidence, demographics, and survival of patients with primary pituitary tumors: a SEER database study in 2004-2016

Comprehensive investigations on the incidence and prognosis of pituitary tumors are still lacking. The present study aims to summarize the incidence, demographics, and survival outcome of pituitary adenoma on a population-based level. This study includes all pituitary adenomas reported in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database from 2004 to 2016 in the United States. Extensive clinical and demographic characteristics were extracted and submitted to group comparisons. The standardized incidence rate was calculated and stratified by year at diagnosis, age/sex and age/treatment groups. The Kaplan–Meier analysis and multivariable regressions were performed to identify the factors associated with overall survival. A total of 47,180 pituitary tumors were identified, including 47,030 typical adenomas, 111 uncertain behavior pituitary adenomas, and 39 pituitary carcinomas. The overall standardized incidence rate was 4.8 cases per 100,000 person-years and the annual incidence rate continually trended upwards, with a peak seen in 2015. We noticed a bimodal age-related distribution in females and a unimodal distribution in males. In the multivariate regression analysis, the factors associated with prolonged survival included typical adenoma, younger age, and smaller tumor size. Whereas, black and male patients had worse overall survival. Our study provides a reliable estimate on the incidence of pituitary adenoma and confirms that the annual standardized incidence rate is increasing. Pituitary adenomas have a satisfactory long-term prognosis and age, tumor size, and tumor subtypes are related to overall survival. Though statistically significant, our inferential findings should be constrained within the limitations of SEER database.

Increased Mortality Risk in Patients With Primary and Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency

CONTEXT

Mortality data in patients with adrenal insufficiency are inconsistent, possibly due to temporal and geographical differences between patients and their reference populations.

OBJECTIVE

To compare mortality risk and causes of death in adrenal insufficiency with an individually matched reference population.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was done using a UK general practitioner database (CPRD). A total of 6821 patients with adrenal insufficiency (primary, 2052; secondary, 3948) were compared with 67564 individually-matched controls (primary, 20366; secondary, 39134). Main outcomes were all-cause and cause-specific mortality, and hospital admission from adrenal crisis.

RESULTS

With follow-up of 40 799 and 406 899 person-years for patients and controls respectively, the hazard ratio (HR [95% CI]) for all-cause mortality was 1.68 [1.58-1.77]. HRs were greater in primary (1.83 [1.66-2.02]) than in secondary (1.52 [1.40-1.64]) disease; primary versus secondary disease (1.16 [1.03-1.30]). The leading cause of death was cardiovascular disease (HR 1.54 [1.32-1.80]), along with malignant neoplasms and respiratory disease. Deaths from infection were also relatively high (HR 4.00 [2.15-7.46]). Adrenal crisis contributed to 10% of all deaths. In the first 2 years following diagnosis, the patients' mortality rate and hospitalization from adrenal crisis were higher than in later years.

CONCLUSION

Mortality was increased in adrenal insufficiency, especially primary, even with individual matching and was observed early in the disease course. Cardiovascular disease was the major cause but mortality from infection was also high. Adrenal crisis was a common contributor. Early education for prompt treatment of infections and avoidance of adrenal crisis hold potential to reduce mortality.

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas and pregnancy: one-center experience and review of the literature

The usual clinical presentation of non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA) consists of symptoms of mass effect and hypopituitarism. NFPA is a rare condition in young women and an uncommon complication during pregnancy. We present the outcome of three patients with NFPA during pregnancy. Case 1: a 38-year-old woman was referred at 32^nd week of spontaneous pregnancy because of diagnosis of a pituitary macroadenoma discovered in the context of progressive visual loss. Hormonal deficiency and hypersecretion were ruled out. Prolactin levels were high as expected. She developed diplopia and severe headache despite the use of dopamine agonists and corticosteroids, so pregnancy was interrupted at 34^th week. After an uncomplicated delivery of a healthy newborn, transsphenoidal surgery was performed. The pathology was consistent with a gonadotroph adenoma. She recovered visual field, and remained with normal pituitary function. Postsurgical tumor remnant increased in size during the follow-up. Case 2: a 34-year-old woman was referred due to secondary amenorrhea and galactorrhea. A macroadenoma with suprasellar extension was discovered. Transsphenoidal surgery confirmed a gonadotroph adenoma. Two years after surgery she had a normal pregnancy. Six years after surgery a small tumor recurrence occurred. Case 3: a 23-year-old woman was referred due to a microincidental pituitary adenoma. Laboratory testing was normal. No findings on physical examination. A wait and see approach was decided. Two years after diagnosis, the patient got pregnant without complications. Image remained stable. This article may contribute new cases and provides an extensive review of NFPA during pregnancy.

Is there any gender difference in epidemiology, clinical presentation and co-morbidities of non-functioning pituitary adenomas? A prospective survey of a National Referral Center and review of the literature

PURPOSE

Gender differences in patients diagnosed with non-functioning Pituitary Adenomas (NFPA) in a National Referral Center for Pituitary Tumors at the Federico II University of Naples, Italy.

METHODS

Patients newly diagnosed with non-functioning sellar masses found on pituitary Magnetic Resonance Imaging from January 1st 2016 to December 31th 2018 underwent anthropometric measurements, basal evaluation of pituitary function, and metabolic assessment. Fatty live index (FLI) and visceral adiposity index (VAI) were calculated.

RESULTS

Seventy-three patients (35 males, 51.1 ± 17.0 years; 38 females, 41.8 ± 18.1 years) presented with NFPA. Lesions > 1 cm (85.7% vs. 47.3%; χ² = 10.26, p = 0.001) and hypopituitarism (77.1% vs. 7.9%; χ² = 33.29, p = 0.001) were more frequent in males than females. The highest sizes of pituitary adenomas were significantly associated with male gender (OR = 1.05, p = 0.049; R² = 0.060; IC 1.00-1.10). Headache (62.8% vs. 31.6%; χ² = 5.96, p = 0.015) and visual field deficits (57.1% vs. 26.3%; χ² = 5.93, p = 0.015) were significantly more frequent in males than in females. There was no sex difference in obesity prevalence, but the metabolic syndrome was more common among males than females (60.6% vs. 26.3%; χ² = 7.14, p = 0.001). FLI was also higher in males (69.6 ± 27.3 vs. 49.2 ± 31.3; p < 0.001), while there were no differences in VAI.

CONCLUSIONS

Apart from the possible delay in the diagnosis induced by the gender differences in symptom presentation, the higher prevalence of macroadenomas amongst NFPA in males compared with females let to hypothesize a key role of the sex hormone profile as predictive factors of their biological behavior and metabolic profile. Further studies are, however, mandatory to better support the influence of gender differences on onset, progression, and metabolic consequences of NFPA.

Cardiovascular Disease in Patients With Primary and Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency and the Role of Comorbidities

CONTEXT

Mortality studies have established that cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in patients with adrenal insufficiency and the risk is greater than that observed in individually matched controls.

OBJECTIVE

Here we have performed a detailed analysis of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, taking account of the role of comorbidities.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study using the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD), a UK general practitioner database. The participant population comprised 6821 patients with adrenal insufficiency (primary, 2052; secondary, 3948) compared with 67 564 individually matched controls, with and without adjustment for comorbidities (diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, previous cardiovascular disease, and smoking). The main outcome measures were composite cardiovascular events recorded in the CPRD and cardiovascular mortality in participants with linked national mortality data.

RESULTS

Hazard ratios (95% CI) for composite cardiovascular events in patients with adrenal insufficiency of any cause were 1.28 (1.20-1.36, unadjusted) and 1.07 (1.01-1.14, adjusted). Increased cerebrovascular events in patients with secondary adrenal insufficiency accounted for most of the increased hazard (1.53 [1.34-1.74, adjusted]) and were associated with cranial irradiation therapy. Cardiovascular mortality data were available for 3547 patients and 34 944 controls. The adjusted hazard ratio for ischemic heart disease mortality was 1.86 (1.25-2.78) for primary adrenal insufficiency and 1.39 (1.02-1.89) for secondary.

CONCLUSION

Comorbidities largely accounted for the increased cardiovascular events but in secondary adrenal insufficiency, cerebrovascular events were independently increased and associated with irradiation treatment. However, the risk of cardiovascular mortality remained increased even following adjustment for comorbidities in both primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency.

Incidence, mortality, and cardiovascular diseases in pituitary adenoma in Korea: a nationwide population-based study

PURPOSE

Few nationally representative studies have evaluated the epidemiology of PA (pituitary adenoma). This South Korean study evaluated the incidence of different PA subtypes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and related mortality.

METHODS

This population-based study evaluated 31,898 patients with PA during 2005-2015. The incidence of PA, mortality, and CVD occurrence in PA cases were evaluated during a median follow-up of 5.3 years (range: 0-10 years). Cox regression analysis was used to evaluate the associations between CVD and mortality.

RESULTS

The annual incidences (per 100,000 population) were 3.5 for non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA), 1.6 for prolactinoma (PRL), 0.5 for growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma (GH), and 0.2 for adrenocorticotropic or thyroid-stimulating hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma (ACTH + TSH). The standardized mortality ratios were 1.9 for ACTH + TSH, 1.7 for NFPA with hypopituitarism, 1.4 for NFPA without hypopituitarism, 1.3 for GH, and 1.1 for PRL. During 2005-2015, the overall incidence of CVD among PA patients was 6.6% (2106 cases), and the standardized incidence ratios were 4.1 for hemorrhagic stroke, 3.0 for ischemic stroke, and 1.7 for acute myocardial infarction. The standardized incidence ratios for stroke were significantly higher in the ACTH + TSH and NFPA groups, which also had higher risks of CVD-related mortality, relative to the PRL and GH groups.

CONCLUSION

South Korea had a relatively high incidence of NFPA. The incidence of stroke was highest for ACTH + TSH and NFPA, which was directly related to mortality during long-term follow-up. Patients with these types of PA should receive stroke prevention measures to reduce their risk of mortality.

Contemporary Management of Clinically Non-functioning Pituitary Adenomas: A Clinical Review

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) are benign pituitary tumours that constitute about one-third of all pituitary adenomas. They typically present with symptoms of mass effects resulting in hypopituitarism, visual symptoms, or headache. Most NFPAs are macroadenomas (>1 cm in diameter) at diagnosis that can occasionally grow quite large and invade the cavernous sinus causing acute nerve compression and some patients may develop acute haemorrhage due to pituitary apoplexy. The progression from benign to malignant pituitary tumours is not fully understood; however, genetic and epigenetic abnormalities may be involved. Non-functioning pituitary carcinoma is extremely rare accounting for only 0.1% to 0.5 % of all pituitary tumours and presents with cerebrospinal, meningeal, or distant metastasis along with the absence of features of hormonal hypersecretion. Pituitary surgery through trans-sphenoidal approach has been the treatment of choice for symptomatic NFPAs; however, total resection of large macroadenomas is not always possible. Recurrence of tumours is frequent and occurs in 51.5% during 10 years of follow-up and negatively affects the overall prognosis. Adjuvant radiotherapy can decrease and prevent tumour growth but at the cost of significant side effects. The presence of somatostatin receptor types 2 and 3 (SSTR3 and SSTR2) and D2-specific dopaminergic receptors (D2R) within NFPAs has opened a new perspective of medical treatment for such tumours. The effect of dopamine agonist from pooled results on patients with NFPAs has emerged as a very promising treatment modality as it has resulted in reduction of tumour size in 30% of patients and stabilization of the disease in about 58%. Despite the lack of long-term studies on the mortality, the available limited evidence indicates that patients with NFPA have higher standardized mortality ratios (SMR) than the general population, with women particularly having higher SMR than men. Older age at diagnosis and higher doses of glucocorticoid replacement therapy are the only known predictors for increased mortality.

ASSESSMENT AND COMPARISON OF HORMONAL IMMUNOEXPRESSION AND THE CLINICAL PICTURE IN PATIENTS WITH PITUITARY ADENOMAS

Introduction

Symptoms related to hypersecretion of hormones in patients with pituitary adenomas do not always correlate with immunohistochemical staining results.

Objective

To evaluate the relationship between the pituitary adenomas hormone immunoexpressions and endocrine presentations.

Patients and methods

The clinical status and immunoexpression of 72 patients who underwent transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenomas were analyzed.

Results

Macroadenomas were diagnosed in 51 cases (70.84%), while microadenomas were found in 21 cases (29.16%). The 72 adenoma specimens were divided into 22 monohormonal, 21 plurihormonal, 21 immunonegative and 8 unreliable specimens. The positive immunohistochemical staining results occurred as follows: prolactin and growth hormone 25% each, adrenocorticotropic hormone 13.89%, thyroid-stimulating hormone 5.56%, leuteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone 12.5%, glycoprotein hormone alpha-subunit 22.22%. Statistically significant relationships between the immunohistochemical presentation and the preoperative diagnosis were found for prolactin and hyperprolactinemia, growth hormone and acromegaly and adrenocorticotropic hormone and Cushing's syndrome.

Conclusions

The lack of full concordance between the clinical presentations and immunohistochemical staining was mainly a result of the presence of nonfunctioning adenomas, plurihormonal adenomas and unreliable specimens. The morphometric method introduced in this study, utilizing the immunoexpression index, provided a very precise evaluation of pituitary adenomas pathology.

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas: indications for pituitary surgery and post-surgical management

PURPOSE

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) are associated with impaired well-being, increased comorbidities, and reduced long-term survival. Data on optimal management of NFPAs around surgical treatment are scarce, and postoperative treatment and follow-up strategies have not been evaluated in prospective trials. Here, we review the preoperative, perioperative, and early postoperative management of patients with NFPAs.

METHODS

We searched Medline and the Cochrane Library for articles published in English with the following items "Pituitary neoplasms AND Surgery" and "Surgery AND Hypopituitarism". Studies containing detailed analyses of the management of NFPAs in adult patients, including pituitary surgery, endocrine care, imaging, ophthalmologic assessment and long-term outcome were reviewed.

RESULTS

Treatment options for NFPAs include active surveillance, surgical resection, and radiotherapy. Pituitary surgery is currently recommended as first-line treatment in patients with visual impairment due to adenomas compressing the optic nerves or chiasma. Radiotherapy is reserved for large tumor remnants or tumor recurrence following one or more surgical attempts. There is no consensus of optimal pre-, peri-, and postoperative management such as timing, frequency, and duration of endocrine, radiologic, and ophthalmologic assessments as well as management of smaller tumor remnants or tumor recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

In clinical practice, there is a great variation in the treatment and follow-up of patients with NFPAs. We have, based on available data, suggested an optimal management strategy for patients with NFPAs in relation to pituitary surgery. Prospective trials oriented at drawing up strategies for the management of NFPAs are needed.

Mortality in patients with non-functioning pituitary adenoma

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFA) are benign pituitary neoplasms not associated with clinical evidence of hormonal hypersecretion. A substantial number of patients with NFA have morbidities related to the tumor and possible recurrence(s), as well as to the treatments offered. Studies assessing the long-term mortality of patients with NFA are limited. Based on the published literature of the last two decades, overall, the standardized mortality ratios in this group suggest mortality higher than that of the general population with deaths attributed mainly to circulatory, respiratory and infectious causes. Women seem to have higher mortality ratios, and assessment of time trends suggests improvement over the years. There is no consensus on predictive factors of mortality but those most consistently identified are older age at diagnosis and high doses of glucocorticoid substitution therapy. Well designed and of adequate power studies are needed to establish the significance of factors compromising the survival of patients with NFA and to facilitate improvements in long-term prognosis.

How non-functioning pituitary adenomas can affect health-related quality of life: a conceptual model and literature review

After treatment for a non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFA) health-related quality of life (HR-QoL) improves considerably. However, the literature about the normalization of HR-QoL after treatment is inconclusive. Some researchers described a persistently decreased HR-QoL compared to reference data, while others did not. Considering this variety in observed HR-QoL outcomes, the aim of the present review was to provide a literature overview of health outcomes in patients with a NFA, using a conceptual HR-QoL model. A concrete conceptualization of the health outcomes of patients with a NFA can be helpful to understand the observed variety in HR-QoL outcomes and to improve clinical care and guidance of these patients. For this conceptualization, the Wilson and Cleary model was used. This model has a biopsychosocial character and has been validated in several patient populations. In the present review, health outcomes of patients with a NFA were described at each stage of the model e.g. biological and physiological variables, symptom status, functional status, general health perceptions and overall HR-QoL. The Wilson-Cleary model elucidates that elements at each stage of the model can contribute to the impairment in HR-QoL of patients with a NFA, which explains the reported variety in the literature. Furthermore, by applying the model, potential interventions targeting these elements can be identified. While optimal biomedical treatment has always been the focus, it is clearly not sufficient for good HR-QoL in patients with a NFA. Further improvement of HR-QoL should be supported by a pituitary specific care trajectory, including psychosocial care (e.g. self-management training), to beneficially affect characteristics of the patient and the (healthcare) environment, with the utmost goal to optimize HR-QoL in patients after treatment.

Excess morbidity and mortality in patients with craniopharyngioma: a hospital-based retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Most studies in patients with craniopharyngioma did not investigate morbidity and mortality relative to the general population nor evaluated risk factors for excess morbidity and mortality. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine excess morbidity and mortality, as well as their determinants in patients with craniopharyngioma.

DESIGN

Hospital-based retrospective cohort study conducted between 1987 and 2014.

METHODS

We included 144 Dutch and 80 Swedish patients with craniopharyngioma identified by a computer-based search in the medical records (105 females (47%), 112 patients with childhood-onset craniopharyngioma (50%), 3153 person-years of follow-up). Excess morbidity and mortality were analysed using standardized incidence and mortality ratios (SIRs and SMRs). Risk factors were evaluated univariably by comparing SIRs and SMRs between non-overlapping subgroups.

RESULTS

Patients with craniopharyngioma experienced excess morbidity due to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (SIR: 4.4, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.8-6.8) and cerebral infarction (SIR: 4.9, 95% CI: 3.1-8.0) compared to the general population. Risks for malignant neoplasms, myocardial infarctions and fractures were not increased. Patients with craniopharyngioma also had excessive total mortality (SMR: 2.7, 95% CI: 2.0-3.8), and mortality due to circulatory (SMR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.1-4.5) and respiratory (SMR: 6.0, 95% CI: 2.5-14.5) diseases. Female sex, childhood-onset craniopharyngioma, hydrocephalus and tumour recurrence were identified as risk factors for excess T2DM, cerebral infarction and total mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with craniopharyngioma are at an increased risk for T2DM, cerebral infarction, total mortality and mortality due to circulatory and respiratory diseases. Female sex, childhood-onset craniopharyngioma, hydrocephalus and tumour recurrence are important risk factors.

Clinically non-functioning pituitary adenomas: Pathogenic, diagnostic and therapeutic aspects

Clinically non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) are among the most common tumors in the sellar region. These lesions do not cause a hormonal hypersecretion syndrome, and are therefore found incidentally (particularly microadenomas) or diagnosed based on compressive symptoms such as headache and visual field defects, as well as clinical signs of pituitary hormone deficiencies. Immunohistochemically, more than 45% of these adenomas stain for gonadotropins or their subunits and are therefore called gonadotropinomas, while 30% of them show no immunostaining for any hormone and are known as null cell adenomas. The diagnostic approach to NFPAs should include visual field examination, an assessment of the integrity of all anterior pituitary hormone systems, and magnetic resonance imaging of the sellar region to define tumor size and extension. The treatment of choice is transsphenoidal resection of the adenoma, which in many instances cannot be completely accomplished. The recurrence rate after surgery may be up to 30%. Persistent or recurrent adenomas are usually treated with radiation therapy. In a small proportion of these cases, drug treatment with dopamine agonists and, to a lesser extent, somatostatin analogs may achieve reduction or at least stabilization of the tumor.

Anatomic Variations in Pituitary Endocrinopathies: Implications for the Surgical Corridor

Objectives/Hypotheses Functioning pituitary adenomas may produce endocrinopathies such as acromegaly and Cushing syndrome. Both conditions lead to characteristic anatomic variations as a result of hormonally induced abnormal soft tissue deposition. We evaluate the anatomic differences between acromegalics and Cushing disease patients and compare these dimensions to controls. Design Radiographic review of preoperative magnetic resonance images (MRI) of the pituitary gland. Setting Tertiary academic medical center. Participants Patients who underwent transnasal, transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenomas found to have acromegaly or pituitary Cushing between January 1, 2007 and September 1, 2015. A total of 15 patients with similar MRIs and no history of pituitary or sinonasal disease were selected as controls. Main Outcome Measures Dimensions assessed were intercarotid distance; carotid canal width; piriform aperture width; distance from the piriform aperture to the anterior face of the sphenoid; sphenoid sinus height, width, and length; angle from anterior nasal spine to anteroinferior face of sphenoid sinus; choanal height; and nasal cavity height at the level of the vertical segment of the middle turbinate. Sphenoid sinus pneumatization patterns were recorded. Results There were 30 acromegalics and 31 Cushing disease patients. When compared with controls, both acromegalics and Cushing disease patients had significantly wider piriform apertures and a longer distance from the piriform aperture to the anterior face of the sphenoid sinus (p < 0.05). Acromegalics had a significantly less acute angle (19 ± 3 degrees) from the anterior nasal spine to the sphenoid (p < 0.05). Cushing disease patients had significantly lower sphenoid sinus length and shorter nasal cavity height (p < 0.05). There were no differences in intercarotid distance or carotid canal width. Conclusions As acromegalics and Cushing disease patients have known anatomic variations, the skull base surgeon should be aware of these differences and adapt their techniques and approaches as needed.

Mortality in adults with hypopituitarism: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Hypopituitarism is a rare disorder with significant morbidity. To study the evidence on the association of premature mortality and hypopituitarism.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of multiple databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Scopus was conducted through August, 2015. Eligible studies that evaluated patients with hypopituitarism and reported mortality estimates were selected following a predefined protocol. Reviewers, independently and in duplicate, extracted data and assessed the risk of bias.

RESULTS

We included 12 studies (published 1996-2015) that reported on 23,515 patients. Compared to the general population, hypopituitarism was associated with an overall excess mortality (weighted SMR of 1.55; 95 % CI 1.14-2.11), I ²  = 97.8 %, P = 0.000. Risk factors for increased mortality included younger age at diagnosis, female gender, diagnosis of craniopharyngioma, radiation therapy, transcranial surgery, diabetes insipidus and hypogonadism.

CONCLUSION

Hypopituitarism may be associated with premature mortality in adults. Risk is particularly higher in women and those diagnosed at a younger age.

STEREOTACTIC RADIATION THERAPY IN PITUITARY ADENOMAS, IS IT BETTER THAN CONVENTIONAL RADIATION THERAPY?

Pituitary radiotherapy (RT) has undergone important progress in the last decades due to the development of new stereotactic techniques which provide more precise tumour targeting with less overall radiation received by the adjacent brain structures. Pituitary surgery is usually first-line therapy in most patients with nonfunctioning (NFPA) and functioning adenomas (except for prolactinomas and large growth hormone (GH) secreting adenomas), while RT is used as second or third-line therapy. The benefits of RT (tumour volume control and, in functional tumours, decreased hormonal secretion) are hampered by the long latency of the effect and the potential side effects. This review presents the updates in the efficacy and safety of the new stereotactic radiation techniques in patients with NFPA, GH-, ACTH- or PRL-secreting pituitary adenomas.

Methods

A systematic review was performed using PubMed and articles/abstracts and reviews detailing RT in pituitary adenomas from 2000 to 2017 were included.

Results

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and fractionated stereotactic RT (FSRT) provide high rates of tumour control i.e. stable or decrease in tumour size, in all types of pituitary adenomas (median 92 - 98%) at 5 years. Endocrinological remission is however significantly lower: 44-52% in acromegaly, 54-64% in Cushing's disease and around 30% in prolactinomas at 5 years. The rate of new hypopituitarism varies from 10% to 50% at 5 years in all tumour types and as expected increases with the duration of follow-up (FU). The risk for other radiation-induced complications is usually low (0-5% for new visual deficits, cranial nerves damage or brain radionecrosis and extremely low for secondary brain tumours), however longer FU is needed to determine rates of secondary tumours. Notably, in acromegaly, there may be a higher risk for stroke with FSRT.

Conclusion

Stereotactic radiotherapy can be an effective treatment option for patients with persistent or recurrent pituitary adenomas after unsuccessful surgery (especially if residual tumour is enlarging) and/or resistance or unavailability of medical therapy. Comparison with conventional radiation therapy (CRT) is rather difficult, due to the substantial heterogeneity of the studies. In order to evaluate the potential brain-sparing effect of the new stereotactic techniques, suggested by the current data, long-term studies evaluating secondary morbidity and mortality are needed.

Higher incidence of morbidity in women than men with non-functioning pituitary adenoma: a Swedish nationwide study

OBJECTIVE

Increased mortality rates are found in women and young adults with non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs). This nationwide study aimed to investigate the burden of comorbidities in patients with NFPA and to examine whether gender influences the outcome.

DESIGN

NFPA patients were identified and followed-up from National Registries in Sweden. It was a nationwide, population-based study.

METHOD

Standardised incidence ratios (SIRs) for comorbidities with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Comorbidities were analysed in all patients, both patients with and without hypopituitarism.

RESULTS

Included in the analysis were 2795 patients (1502 men, 1293 women), diagnosed with NFPA between 1987 and 2011. Hypopituitarism was reported in 1500 patients (54%). Mean patient-years at risk per patient was 7 (range 0-25). Both men (SIR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.8-2.5; P<0.001) and women (2.9, 2.4-3.6; P<0.001) had a higher incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) than the general population, with women having a higher incidence compared with men (P=0.02). The incidence of myocardial infarction was increased in women (1.7, 1.3-2.1; P<0.001), but not in men. Both men (1.3, 1.1-1.6; P=0.006) and women (2.3; 1.9-2.8; P<0.001) had an increased incidence of cerebral infarction, with women having a higher incidence than men (P<0.001). The incidence of sepsis was increased for both genders. The incidence of fractures was increased in women (1.8, 1.5-1.8; P<0.001), but not for men.

CONCLUSIONS

This nationwide study shows excessive morbidity due to T2DM, cerebral infarction and sepsis in all NFPA patients. Women had higher incidence of T2DM, myocardial infarction, cerebral infarction and fracture in comparison to both the general population and to men.

Health-related quality of life in patients treated for nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas during the years 2000-2010

OBJECTIVE

The published data on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) after treatment of nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) are conflicting. We evaluated HRQoL in a recent series of patients who had surgery for an NFPA.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study including a large control population.

PATIENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

A HRQoL questionnaire (15D) was sent to all patients (n = 161) having undergone transsphenoidal surgery for NFPA in the years 2000-2010 at the Helsinki University Hospital. The 15D score and dimension scores of the study population (n = 137) were compared with those of a large (n = 4967) gender- and age-standardized control population. Possible independent predictors of HRQoL in the patients were estimated with multivariate regression analysis.

RESULTS

Postoperatively, 57% of the patients had normal visual function. After a mean follow-up of 7·4 ± 3·2 years (mean ± SD), 62% suffered from hypopituitarism. Overall, HRQoL was near-normal in patients compared to controls (15D scores 0·885 ± 0·114 vs 0·903 ± 0·093, respectively, P = 0·07). On single dimensions, patients had impaired vision and sexual activity (both P < 0·0005), more depression and distress (both P < 0·005) and less discomfort and symptoms (P < 0·05). Age, body mass index, diabetes, depression and reoperation were independent predictors of impaired HRQoL (all P < 0·05). Thyroxine substitution was associated with impaired and hydrocortisone and testosterone substitution (males only) with better HRQoL (all P < 0·05).

CONCLUSIONS

This recent series of NFPA patients demonstrates that overall HRQoL is near-normal after medium term follow-up; the most impaired dimensions were in vision and sexual activity. Comorbidities are strong predictors of impaired HRQoL.

Mortality in patients with non-functioning pituitary adenoma is increased: systematic analysis of 546 cases with long follow-up

OBJECTIVE

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFAs) have a prevalence of 7-22/100,000 people. A significant number of patients suffer from morbidities related to the tumor, possible recurrence(s), and treatments utilized. Our aim was to assess mortality of patients with macroNFA and predictive factors.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study in a tertiary referral center in the UK.

METHODS

A total of 546 patients operated for a macroNFA between 1963 and 2011 were studied. Mortality data were retrieved through the National Health Service Central Register and hospital records and recorded as standardized mortality ratio (SMR). Mortality was estimated for the total and various subgroups with clinical follow-up data.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 8 years (range: 1 month-48.5 years). SMR was 3.6 (95% CI, 2.9-4.5), for those operated before 1990, 4.7 (95% CI, 2.7-7.6) and for those after 1990, 3.5 (95% CI, 2.8-4.4). Main causes of death were cardio/cerebrovascular (33.7%), infections (30.1%), and malignancy (28.9%). Cox regression analysis demonstrated that only age at diagnosis remained an independent predictor of mortality (hazard ratio 1.10; 95% CI, 1.07-1.13, P<0.001), whereas sex, presentation with acute apoplexy, extent of tumor removal, radiotherapy, recurrence, untreated GH deficiency, FSH/LH deficiency, ACTH deficiency, TSH deficiency, and treatment with desmopressin had no impact.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the improvement of treatments over the last three decades, the mortality of patients with NFAs in our series remains high. Apart from age, factors related with the management/outcome of the tumor are not independent predictors, and pituitary hormone deficits managed with the currently-used substitution protocols do not adversely affect mortality.

Long-term outcomes of endoscopic endonasal approach for skull base surgery: a prospective study

Little is known about the long-term effects of either transnasal transsphenoidal endoscopic approach (TTEA) or expanded endonasal approach (EEA). This study assessed the long-term impact of endoscopic skull base surgery on olfaction, sinonasal symptoms, mucociliary clearance time (MCT), and quality of life (QoL). Patients with pituitary adenomas underwent TTEA (n = 38), while patients with other benign parasellar tumours who underwent an EEA with vascularised septal flap reconstruction (n = 17) were enrolled in this prospective study between 2009 and 2012. Sinonasal symptoms (Visual Analogue Scale), subjective olfactometry (Barcelona Smell Test-24, BAST-24), MCT (saccharin test), and QoL (short form SF-36, rhinosinusitis outcome measure/RSOM) were evaluated before, and 12 months after, surgery. At baseline, sinonasal symptoms, MCT, BAST-24, and QoL were similar between groups. Twelve months after surgery, both TTEA and EEA groups experienced smell impairment compared to baseline. Moreover, EEA (but not TTEA) patients reported increased posterior nasal discharge and longer MCTs compared to baseline. No significant changes in olfactometry or QoL were detected in either group 12 months after surgery. Over the long-term, expanded skull base surgery, using EEA, produced more sinonasal symptoms (including loss of smell) and longer MCTs than pituitary surgery (TTEA). EEA showed no long-term impact on smell test or QoL.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IIb.

Quality of life (QoL) impairments in patients with a pituitary adenoma: a systematic review of QoL studies

PURPOSE

Pituitary adenomas give rise to physical and psychological symptoms, which may persist after biochemical cure. Growing attention has been paid to quality of life (QoL) in these patients. We aimed to systematically analyze QoL assessment methods and QoL outcome in these patients.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search up to January 2014 in PubMed, Web of Knowledge, PsycInfo and EMBASE.

RESULTS

102 papers assessing QoL in patients with a pituitary adenoma were included. In clinical (original) studies in which QoL was the primary outcome parameter (n = 54), 19 studies combined a generic questionnaire with a disease-specific questionnaire. QoL was found to be impaired in patients with active disease relative to controls, and generally improved during biochemical cure. However, no normalization occurred, with patients with remitted Cushing's disease demonstrating the smallest improvement. Somatic factors (e.g., hypopituitarism, sleep characteristics), psychological factors (illness perceptions) and health care environment (rural vs. urban) were identified as influencing factors. Intervention studies (predominantly evaluating medical interventions) have been found to improve QoL.

CONCLUSIONS

The growing number of studies assessing QoL generally described the negative impact of pituitary adenomas. QoL research in this patient group could be further elaborated by the development of disease-specific questionnaires for prolactinoma and non-functioning adenoma, consequent use of generic and disease-specific questionnaires and using a long-term (longitudinal) follow-up. Surgical and pharmacological interventions improve but not normalize QoL. We postulate that there might be margin for further improvement of QoL, for instance by using psychosocial interventions, in addition to optimal medical treatment.

Imaging of Resected Nonfunctioning Pituitary Adenomas: The Cost of Surveillance

Objectives To determine the cost of annual magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) surveillance after resection of nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas (NFPAs) and its effectiveness in reducing visual compromise due to tumor recurrence. Design Retrospective case series. Setting Vanderbilt University Medical Center (2003-2011). Participants A total of 120 patients underwent primary transsphenoidal resection and surveillance of NFPAs between 2003 and 2011. Main Outcome Measures Time from initial surgery to most recent imaging or progression. Surveillance MRI costs according to Centers for Medicare and Medicaid database and visual field deficits. Results Patients received 382 surveillance scans at a total cost of $218,477.30. The median follow-up was 47 months (interquartile range [IQR]: 26-76), and the median interval between scans was 357 days (IQR: 225-434). Overall, 50 scans (13%) revealed tumor growth. The cost per scan revealing growth was $4,369.55. The cost to identify 19 patients (16%) with clinically significant growth was $11,498.80 per patient. A total of 5 of 19 patients (26%) experienced new visual deficits prior to intervention. Patients with visual decline tended to have longer scan intervals than those with preserved vision (mean: 239 versus 794 days; p = 0.0584). No patient with annual surveillance imaging experienced visual decline. Conclusions Annual MRI scans are a sensitive and cost-conscious method to identify NFPA recurrence prior to visual decline.

Excess mortality associated with hypopituitarism in adults: a meta-analysis of observational studies

CONTEXT

Several previous observational studies showed an association between hypopituitarism and excess mortality. Reports on reduction of standard mortality ratio (SMR) with GH replacement have been published recently.

OBJECTIVE

This meta-analysis assessed studies reporting SMR to clarify mortality risk in hypopituitary adults and also the potential benefit conferred by GH replacement.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was performed in Medline, Embase, and Cochrane library up to March 31, 2014.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Studies with or without GH replacement reporting SMR with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were included.

DATA EXTRACTION AND ANALYSIS

Patient characteristics, SMR data, and treatment outcomes were independently assessed by two authors, and with consensus from third author, studies were selected for analysis. Meta-analysis was performed in all studies together, and those without and with GH replacement separately, using the statistical package metafor in R.

RESULTS

Six studies reporting a total of 19 153 hypopituiatary adults with a follow-up duration of more than 99,000 person years were analyzed. Hypopituitarism was associated with an overall excess mortality (weighted SMR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.21-2.76) in adults. Female hypopituitary adults showed higher SMR compared with males (2.53 vs 1.71). Onset of hypopituitarism at a younger age was associated with higher SMR. GH replacement improved the mortality risk in hypopituitary adults that is comparable to the background population (SMR with GH replacement, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.05-1.24 vs SMR without GH, 2.40; 95% CI, 1.46-3.34). GH replacement conferred lower mortality benefit in hypopituitary women compared with men (SMR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.38-1.77 vs 0.95; 95% CI, 0.85-1.06).

LIMITATIONS

There was a potential selection bias of benefit of GH replacement from a post-marketing data necessitating further evidence from long-term randomized controlled trials.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypopituitarism may increase premature mortality in adults. Mortality benefit from GH replacement in hypopituitarism is less pronounced in women than men.

Effect of long-term GH replacement therapy on cardiovascular outcomes in GH-deficient patients previously treated for acromegaly: a sub-analysis from the Dutch National Registry of Growth Hormone Treatment in Adults

OBJECTIVE

The effect of GH deficiency (GHD) on the metabolic profile of acromegaly patients is unclear in patients previously treated for acromegaly, as are the efficacy and safety of GH treatment in this particular group. The aim of the study is to describe the characteristics of patients with severe GHD who were previously treated for acromegaly, and to investigate the effects of long-term GH treatment on cardiovascular risk factors and morbidity, compared with patients who were treated for a nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA).

DESIGN

A nationwide surveillance study.

METHODS

Sixty-five patients from the Dutch National Registry of Growth Hormone Treatment in Adults with previous acromegaly were compared with 778 patients with previous NFPA. Cardiovascular indices, including body composition, lipid profile, glucose metabolism, blood pressure, and morbidity were investigated.

RESULTS

GHD patients with previous acromegaly had an unfavorable metabolic profile comparable with or more than GHD patients with previous NFPA. GH treatment led to improvement of the lipid profile in both groups, also after excluding patients using lipid-lowering medication. In patients with previous acromegaly, HbA1c levels increased more than in patients with previous NFPA (estimate 0.03, 95% CI 0.002-0.06, P=0.04). The risk for developing cardiovascular diseases was not different between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The patients with GHD after previous acromegaly have an unfavorable metabolic profile comparable with patients with GHD after previous NFPA. In both groups, the lipid profile improves during GH treatment. Changes in glucose metabolism should be monitored closely. GH treatment in patients with GHD previously treated for acromegaly had no deleterious effect on cardiovascular morbidity.

Expanded endonasal approach using vascularized septal flap reconstruction for skull base tumors has a negative impact on sinonasal symptoms and quality of life

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery is currently the optimal treatment for skull base tumors. This study was designed to assess patient's sinonasal symptoms and quality of life (QoL) after resection of pituitary adenoma or skull base tumors using vascularized septal flap (VSF) reconstruction.

METHODS

Patients with pituitary adenoma underwent the transnasal transsphenoidal endoscopic approach (TTEA; n = 38), and patients with other benign parasellar tumors underwent the expanded endonasal approach (EEA; n = 17) with VSF. Assessment of sinonasal symptoms and QoL by the 36-item Short-Form (SF-36) and the 31-item Rhinosinusitis Outcome Measure (RSOM-31) were performed before and 3 months after surgery.

RESULTS

At baseline, the total seven-sinonasal symptom score (T7SSS) was similar between both groups. After surgery, T7SSS significantly increased in EEA but not in TTEA patients. EEA patients reported more smell loss (40.1 ± 26.2; p < 0.05) and posterior nasal discharge (49.3 ± 30.1; p < 0.05) than TTEA patients (21.6 ± 30.9 and 22.5 ± 27.5, respectively). At baseline, both groups had poorer SF-36 compared with the general population. TTEA patients had poorer QoL (on general health, vitality, and mental health) than EEA patients. After surgery, TTEA patients showed impaired physical role and bodily pain compared with baseline, and EEA patients showed impaired physical role and mental health. At baseline, RSOM scores were similar in TTEA and EEA groups. After surgery, EEA but not TTEA patients reported poorer nasal and general symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The EEA with VSF produces more sinonasal symptoms than pituitary surgery, surgery for skull base and pituitary tumors has negative impact on QoL, and functioning tumors have no further negative effect on sinonasal symptoms and QoL.

High prevalence of metabolic syndrome features in patients previously treated for nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenoma

OBJECTIVE

Patients treated for nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenoma (NFMA) with suprasellar extension show disturbed sleep characteristics, possibly related to hypothalamic dysfunction. In addition to hypopituitarism, both structural hypothalamic damage and sleep restriction per se are associated with the metabolic syndrome. However, the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with NFMA is not well established. Our objective was to study the prevalence and risk factors for (components of) the metabolic syndrome in patients treated for NFMA.

DESIGN

The metabolic syndrome (NCEP-ATP III criteria) was studied in an unselected cohort of 145 NFMA patients (aged 26-88yr, 44% female) in long-term remission after treatment, receiving adequate stable hormone replacement for any pituitary deficiencies. The results were compared to population data of 63,995 Dutch inhabitants by standardization (LifeLines cohort study).

RESULTS

NFMA patients showed increased risk for reduced HDL-cholesterol (SMR 1.59, 95% CI 1.13-2.11), increased triglyceride levels (SMR 2.31, 95% CI 1.78-2.90) and the metabolic syndrome (SMR 1.60, 95% CI 1.22-2.02), but not for increased blood pressure, waist circumference or hyperglycemia. Preoperative visual field defects independently affected the risk for increased blood pressure (OR 6.5, 95% CI 1.9-22.2), and hypopituitarism was associated with a body mass index - dependent risk for increased waist circumference (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2-2.2) and the metabolic syndrome (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.0-1.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients treated for NFMA are increased at risk for developing the metabolic syndrome, mainly due to decreased HDL-cholesterol and increased triglycerides. Risk factors included hypopituitarism and preoperative visual field defects. Hypothalamic dysfunction may explain the metabolic abnormalities, in addition to intrinsic imperfections of hormone replacement therapy. Additional research is required to explore the relation between derangements in circadian rhythmicity and metabolic syndrome in these patients.

Updates in growth hormone treatment and mortality

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the literature with regard to mortality in patients with hypopituitarism with a focus on the role of growth hormone (GH) deficiency and therapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Mortality is increased in hypopituitarism, particularly in female patients. In recent years mortality rates appear to be trending downwards towards that of the general population. Recent studies from retrospective or postmarketing surveillance studies have suggested that patients who receive GH therapy may not have increased mortality. Recent studies regarding mortality in paediatric patients treated with GH are conflicting and this area needs further study.

SUMMARY

There are several important limitations of available data regarding mortality in hypopituitarism and even more so in the impact of GH therapy, which need to be taken into account when interpreting the available data. The data regarding mortality in patients treated with GH as children is an area of much debate and will need further studies to clarify, given the conflicting reports in recent studies.

Association Between Fulfilment of Expectations and Health-related Quality of Life after Gastric Bypass

The objective was to examine the relationship between fulfilment of expectations and health-related quality of life 4 and 12 months after gastric bypass. A follow-up study based on patients undergoing gastric bypass at Aalborg Hospital - Aarhus University Hospital during February 2008 to December 2009. Health-related quality of life was assessed by Short Form 36 and summarized into the physical component summary and the mental component summary. Information on expectations was questionnaire based. Associations were analysed by linear regression. Included were 87 gastric bypass patients. Compared with patients with fulfilled expectations having expectations partly fulfilled -7.3 (-11.3; -3.3) or not having expectations fulfilled -11.2 (-18.8 ; -3.5) was associated with low a mental component summary 4 months after surgery. At 12 months follow-up patients who reported not to have expectations fulfilled had a low mental component summary score -16.3 (-26.5; -6.2) when compared to their counterparts with fulfilment of expectations. Not having expectations to changes in general well-being fulfilled is associated with low mental component summary. This is seen at follow-up points 4 and 12 months after gastric bypass.

Improving Quality of Life in Patients with Pituitary Tumours

Evaluation of health-related quality of life (QoL) in people with pituitary tumours has received much attention over the last 10-15 years. Most of them show impaired QoL, but little is known about how to prevent impairment or how to improve QoL. Our aim is to review what is known about QoL in pituitary tumours patients and to highlight the areas worth improving, for the patient's well being. The article has four sections: acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, prolactinomas and non-functioning adenomas. Control of comorbidities is usually an important factor to prevent QoL impairment; however, each disease has specific characteristics that should be properly addressed in order to obtain full patient recovery after successful therapy.

Epidemiology, mortality rate and survival in a homogeneous population of hypopituitary patients

INTRODUCTION

Hypopituitarism is associated with higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and premature death. Furthermore, some clinical and therapeutic features of hypopituitarism have been associated with a worse prognosis.

OBJECTIVE

We reviewed, retrospectively, a large series of adult patients with hypopituitarism using stringent epidemiological criteria. Prevalence, association with cardiovascular risk factors, mortality and survival have been analysed.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Two hundred and nine adult hypopituitary patients (56·9% females) from a population of 405 218 inhabitants, followed for 10 years.

RESULTS

Prevalence of hypopituitarism at the end of the study was 37·5 cases/100 000 inhabitants. Incidence of hypopituitarism was 2·07 cases/100 000 inhabitants and year. Thirty-two patients died during the period of the study. Standardized mortality rate (SMR) was 8·05, higher in males (8·92 vs 7·34) and in younger patients (84·93 vs 5·26). Diagnosis of acromegaly (P = 0·033), previous radiotherapy (P = 0·02), higher BMI (P = 0·04), diabetes mellitus (P = 0·03) and cancer (P < 0·0001) were associated with mortality. A lower survival was associated with older age at diagnosis, nontumoural causes, previous radiotherapy, diabetes mellitus with poor metabolic control and malignant disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of hypopituitarism was 37·5 cases/100 000 inhabitants, and annual incidence was 2·07 cases/100 000 inhabitants. SMR was 8 times higher in hypopituitarism than in general population and was also higher in males and younger patients. Reduced survival was significantly related to cancer, nontumoural causes of hypopituitarism, older age at diagnosis, previous radiotherapy and diabetes mellitus with poor metabolic control.

Current treatment protocols can offer a normal or near-normal quality of life in the majority of patients with non-functioning pituitary adenomas

OBJECTIVE

Non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFA) may be associated with significant morbidity. Published data on the quality of life (QoL) of patients with NFA are scarce and conflicting. In view of the discordant findings and the advances in the management of these subjects, we aimed to evaluate the QoL in patients with NFA followed up in a tertiary endocrine UK referral centre.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

All consecutive patients with NFA attending the outpatient clinic in the Department of Endocrinology in Oxford over a 6-month period (n = 193) were offered 3 health-related QoL questionnaires [Short Form 36 (SF36), Nottingham Health Profile (NHP), European Quality of Life Scale (EuroQoL)] to complete. Patient outcomes (response rate 93.3%) were compared with age-related UK reference values.

RESULTS

None of the QoL scores in the SF-36 or the 5 dimensions of health in the EuroQoL was different from the reference values. The visual analogue scale (VAS) score (EuroQoL) was slightly compromised (P = 0.041). In the NHP questionnaire, males had no parameter significantly affected, whereas females performed worse in 1/6 areas (energy levels). Tumour recurrence was an independent predictor for compromised VAS score and for anxiety/depression (EuroQoL), and visual field defects for more frequent problems with interests/hobbies (NHP).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the health-related QoL and perception of subjective health in patients with NFA was not compromised to any major extent suggesting that we can now offer the prospect of treatment and replacement, which will provide a normal or near-normal QoL. Specific groups are affected in various dimensions, necessitating measures to compensate for predisposing factors.

Long-term health-related quality of life of surgically treated pituitary adenoma patients: a descriptive study

Context. The literature concerning the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of patients with surgically treated PA is controversial. Objective. To describe the long-term HRQoL of surgically treated patients in all PA classes. Design and subjects. The 15D, a generic HRQoL instrument producing a 15-dimensional profile and a single 15D index score (a difference ≥0.03 on a 0-1 scale is considered clinically important), was used to assess the HRQoL of a 13-year surgical cohort of PA patients in Northern Finland. Results and Conclusion. Nighty-eight eligible consecutive patients with surgically treated PA were studied at an average of 6.3 years after their latest pituitary operation. The average postoperative 15D profiles in patients with non-functioning PA and in acromegalics without GH-suppressive medical treatment were similar to those of the age-standardized general population. However, after this rather long followup, the mean 15D score and the number of statistically significant 15D dimension impairments, compared with those of their reference population, were 0.11 and 9/15, 0.10 and 3/15, and 0.08 and 7/15 for Cushing's disease, acromegalics needing somatostatin analog, and prolactinoma patients, respectively. Hypopituitarism with replacement medication was not associated with impaired HRQoL. The somatostatin-analog-associated HRQoL finding warrants further clinical research.

Overall and cause-specific mortality in GH-deficient adults on GH replacement

OBJECTIVE

Hypopituitarism is associated with an increased mortality rate but the reasons underlying this have not been fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate mortality and associated factors within a large GH-replaced population of hypopituitary patients.

DESIGN

In KIMS (Pfizer International Metabolic Database) 13,983 GH-deficient patients with 69,056 patient-years of follow-up were available.

METHODS

This study analysed standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) by Poisson regression. IGF1 SDS was used as an indicator of adequacy of GH replacement. Statistical significance was set to P<0.05.

RESULTS

All-cause mortality was 13% higher compared with normal population rates (SMR, 1.13; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.24). Significant associations were female gender, younger age at follow-up, underlying diagnosis of Cushing's disease, craniopharyngioma and aggressive tumour and presence of diabetes insipidus. After controlling for confounding factors, there were statistically significant negative associations between IGF1 SDS after 1, 2 and 3 years of GH replacement and SMR. For cause-specific mortality there was a negative association between 1-year IGF1 SDS and SMR for deaths from cardiovascular diseases (P=0.017) and malignancies (P=0.044).

CONCLUSIONS

GH-replaced patients with hypopituitarism demonstrated a modest increase in mortality rate; this appears lower than that previously published in GH-deficient patients. Factors associated with increased mortality included female gender, younger attained age, aetiology and lower IGF1 SDS during therapy. These data indicate that GH replacement in hypopituitary adults with GH deficiency may be considered a safe treatment.

Does growth hormone replacement therapy reduce mortality in adults with growth hormone deficiency? Data from the Dutch National Registry of Growth Hormone Treatment in adults

CONTEXT

Adults with GH deficiency (GHD) have a decreased life expectancy. The effect of GH treatment on mortality remains to be established.

OBJECTIVE

This nationwide cohort study investigates the effect of GH treatment on all-cause and cause-specific mortality and analyzes patient characteristics influencing mortality in GHD adults.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS

Patients in the Dutch National Registry of Growth Hormone Treatment in Adults were retrospectively monitored (1985-2009) and subdivided into treatment (n = 2229), primary (untreated, n = 109), and secondary control (partly treated, n = 356) groups.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Standardized mortality ratios (SMR) were calculated for all-cause, malignancy, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. Expected mortality was obtained from cause, sex, calendar year, and age-specific death rates from national death and population counts.

RESULTS

In the treatment group, 95 patients died compared to 74.6 expected [SMR 1.27 (95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.56)]. Mortality was higher in women than in men. After exclusion of high-risk patients, the SMR for CVD mortality remained increased in women. Mortality due to malignancies was not elevated. In the control groups mortality was not different from the background population. Univariate analyses demonstrated sex, GHD onset, age, and underlying diagnosis as influencing factors.

CONCLUSIONS

GHD men receiving GH treatment have a mortality rate not different from the background population. In women, after exclusion of high-risk patients, mortality was not different from the background population except for CVD. Mortality due to malignancies was not elevated in adults receiving GH treatment. Next to gender, the heterogeneous etiology is of influence on mortality in GHD adults with GH treatment.

Optimizing glucocorticoid replacement therapy in severely adrenocorticotropin-deficient hypopituitary male patients

BACKGROUND

The optimal replacement regimen of hydrocortisone in adults with severe ACTH deficiency remains unknown. Management strategies vary from treatment with 15-30 mg or higher in daily divided doses, reflecting the paucity of prospective data on the adequacy of different glucocorticoid regimens.

OBJECTIVE

Primarily to define the hydrocortisone regimen which results in a 24 h cortisol profile that most closely resembles that of healthy controls and secondarily to assess the impact on quality of life (QoL).

DESIGN

Ten male hypopituitary patients with severe ACTH deficiency (basal cortisol <100 nm and peak response to stimulation <400 nm) were enrolled in a prospective, randomized, crossover study of 3 hydrocortisone dose regimens. Following 6 weeks of each regimen patients underwent 24 h serum cortisol sampling and QoL assessment with the Short Form 36 (SF36) and the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP) questionnaires. Free cortisol was calculated using Coolen's equation. All results were compared to those of healthy, matched controls.

RESULTS

Corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) was significantly lower across all dose regimens compared to controls (P < 0·05). The lower dose regimen C (10 mg mane/5 mg tarde) produced a 24 h free cortisol profile (FCP) which most closely resembled that of controls. Both regimen A(20 mg mane/10 mg tarde) and B(10 mg mane/10 mg tarde) produced supraphysiological post-absorption peaks. There was no significant difference in QoL in patients between the three regimens, however energy level was significantly lower across all dose regimens compared to controls (P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

The lower dose of hydrocortisone (10 mg/5 mg) produces a more physiological cortisol profile, without compromising QoL, compared to higher doses still used in clinical practice. This may have important implications in these patients, known to have excess cardiovascular mortality.