Prevention effects ameliorate the prospective association between nonsupportive parenting and diminished telomere length

Childhood Adversity and Telomere Length

Purpose: Exposure to adversity during childhood and adolescence is associated with numerous health conditions in adulthood; telomere shortening may be a mechanism through which adversity contributes to poor outcomes. We studied three areas of adversity (parent relational instability, child household instability, and financial instability) occurring during three epochs across childhood and adolescence and their associations with telomere length during adolescence. Methods: Data were obtained from the first wave of a longitudinal cohort study of youth aged 11-17 and their primary caregiver. Caregivers completed demographic and adversity questionnaires; youth provided a saliva sample for DNA extraction for telomere analysis. Results: Of 879 youth, over half experienced some adversity. More than one third experienced parent relational instability in each age epoch, with nearly a quarter experiencing parent relational instability in all age epochs. Youth experienced a similar pattern of financial instability but lower rates of child household instability. Youth experiencing parent relational instability at two or three epochs had shorter telomeres compared to those without any parent relational instability (p < .004). Youth who experienced child household instability in two age epochs had shorter telomeres (p = .003) and youth who experienced financial instability across all three epochs had shorter telomeres (p = .013) compared to youth without these adversities. Conclusion: Continuing exposure to adversity in early childhood may be more likely to affect telomere length. Research is needed to further determine adversities exerting the most effect and to understand if early telomere shortening has long term health effects.

Parental Preconception Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Maternal Prenatal Inflammation Prospectively Predict Shorter Telomere Length in Children

OBJECTIVE

Parental trauma exposure and trauma-related distress can increase the risk of adverse health outcomes in offspring, but the pathways implicated in intergenerational transmission are not fully explicated. Accelerated biological aging may be one mechanism underlying less favorable health in trauma-exposed individuals and their offspring. This study examines the associations of preconception maternal and paternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms with child telomere length, and maternal prenatal C-reactive protein (CRP) as a biological mechanism.

METHODS

Mothers ( n = 127) and a subset of the fathers ( n = 84) reported on PTSD symptoms before conception. Mothers provided blood spots in the second and third trimesters that were assayed for CRP. At age 4 years, children provided buccal cells for measurement of telomere length. Models adjusted for parental age, socioeconomic status, maternal prepregnancy body mass index, child biological sex, and child age.

RESULTS

Mothers' PTSD symptoms were significantly associated with shorter child telomere length ( β = -0.22, SE = 0.10, p = .023). Fathers' PTSD symptoms were also inversely associated with child telomere length ( β = -0.21, SE = 0.11), although nonsignificant ( p = .065). There was no significant indirect effect of mothers' PTSD symptoms on child telomere length through CRP in pregnancy, but higher second-trimester CRP was significantly associated with shorter child telomere length ( β = -0.35, SE = 0.18, p = .048).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal symptoms of PTSD before conception and second-trimester inflammation were associated with shorter telomere length in offspring in early childhood, independent of covariates. Findings indicate that intergenerational transmission of parental trauma may occur in part through accelerated biological aging processes and provide further evidence that prenatal proinflammatory processes program child telomere length.Open Science Framework Preregistration:https://osf.io/7c2d5/?view_only=cd0fb81f48db4b8f9c59fc8bb7b0ef97 .

Do dyadic interventions impact biomarkers of child health? A state-of-the-science narrative review

BACKGROUND

Early life adversity is related to numerous poor health outcomes in childhood; however, dyadic interventions that promote sensitive and responsive caregiving may protect children from the negative consequences of such exposures. To date, quasi-experimental and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have examined the impact of dyadic interventions on a range of individual biomarkers in children, which may elucidate the relation between early stress exposure and transdiagnostic risk factors for prospective poor health. However, the content of interventions, analytic strategies, and findings vary widely across studies, obscuring key themes in the science and hindering policy and research efforts.

METHODS

We use a narrative approach to review findings from methodologically rigorous (predominantly RCT) studies of dyadic interventions' impacts on different biomarkers in children, including indicators of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, parasympathetic (PNS) and sympathetic nervous systems (SNS), brain development, inflammation, and intracellular DNA processes. We contribute to this important area of inquiry through integrating findings across biological systems and identifying contextual and mechanistic factors to depict the current state of the field.

RESULTS

Evidence suggests dyadic interventions improved PNS functioning and advanced brain maturation. Some studies indicated interventions reduced hair cortisol concentrations, systemic inflammation, and resulted in differences in DNA methylation patterns. Findings did not support main effect-level change in salivary measures of HPA axis activity, SNS activity, or telomere length. Importantly, reviewed studies indicated significant heterogeneity in effects across biological systems, underscoring the importance of contextual factors (e.g., adversity subtype and severity) as potential moderators of effects. Further, findings suggested enhanced parenting behaviors may be a mechanism through which dyadic interventions operate on biomarkers.

CONCLUSIONS

We close with future policy and research directions, emphasizing the promise of biologically-informed dyadic interventions for understanding and ameliorating the effects of early adversity on transdiagnostic biomarkers of health.

Responsive parental support buffers the link between chronic stress and cardiometabolic risk among adolescents

Youth exposed to chronic stress exhibit increased cardiometabolic risk which parental social support may attenuate. Notably, theories emphasize that support should be delivered responsively for it to exert buffering effects, but this has not been thoroughly tested empirically. This study examined whether timing of support is an important but unrecognized element of responsiveness during adolescence in buffering the link between chronic stress and cardiometabolic risk. Participants were 242 adolescents aged 15 years (63 % female, 38 % Black). Adolescents completed assessments of chronic stress (Life Stress Interview), and trained personnel collected anthropometric measures and blood samples to assess cardiometabolic risk (reflected in low-grade inflammation and metabolic syndrome). Adolescents also completed an eight-day diary assessment to report daily stressor exposure and parental support. Using the diary data, responsiveness of parental support was operationalized as the within-individual difference in parental support received on stressor (vs. non-stressor) days, such that increased parental support on stressor days reflected more timely support. Results suggest that responsive parental support buffered the link between chronic stress and cardiovascular risk. Specifically, chronic stress was associated with greater risk only when parental support was not temporally aligned with stress exposure, but this association was not observed among adolescents who received timely parental support. These findings shed light on why parental support may not always exert buffering effects during adolescence, highlighting the importance of taking a developmental approach to understanding protective effects.

Food Insecurity, telomere length and the potential modifying effects of social support in National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

OBJECTIVE

Telomere length (TL) is a posited pathway through which chronic stress results in biological dysregulation and subsequent adverse health outcomes. Food insecurity is associated with shorter TL. Social support, which is defined by the size and function of an individual's social network, is associated with better health outcomes. The present study assesses whether social support modifies the relationship between food security and TL.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study design. Linear regression was used to assess the association between food insecurity and TL, stratified by social support level. A multiplicative interacted model was used to formally test modification.

SETTING

Data come from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2000 and 2001-2002 waves.

PARTICIPANTS

Adults aged 60 years and older who have measurements for TL.

RESULTS

Our sample comprised 2674 participants, and 63·5 % of the total sample had low social support, with 13·3 % being food insecure. In fully adjusted models, food insecurity was negatively though modestly associated (P = 0·13) with TL. Associations between food insecurity and TL were significantly modified by social support (interaction P = 0·026), whereby food insecurity had a stronger effect among individuals with high social support (coefficient = -0·099 (95 % CI: -0·161, -0·038)) compared to low social support (coefficient = -0·001, (95 % CI: -0·033, 0·032)).

CONCLUSION

Food insecurity is modestly associated with shorter TL. Contrary to our hypothesis, food insecurity had more deleterious effects on TL among participants with high social support than low social support. Results may indicate that the food insecure population is a higher needs population, and increased social support reflects these needs rather than providing protective effects.

The relation between sensory processing sensitivity and telomere length in adolescents

BACKGROUND

In the present study, we investigated the association between sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) and telomere length (TL), which is considered a biomarker of cellular aging. SPS is an individual characteristic describing increased perception and procession of inner or outer stimuli, and is positively related to self-perceived stress.

METHODS

We recruited 82 healthy adolescents aged 13-16 from secondary schools in Germany. SPS was measured with the Highly Sensitive Person Scale, and TL was determined by a multiplex quantitative PCR method.

RESULTS

Our results show that students with higher values of SPS are likely to have shorter telomeres (β = 0.337, p = .001), when adjusting for sex, socioeconomic status, age, and body mass index. These findings are also independent of the negative impact of stress students might have perceived shortly before data collection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis suggests that students who struggle with low sensory threshold are likely to have shorter telomeres.

Disparities in allostatic load, telomere length and chronic stress burden among African American adults: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The chronic disease burden among African Americans has continued to rise. Although racial disparities in chronic disease risk are well documented, the role of chronic stress in risk disparities among racial and ethnic minorities is not well understood. This systematic review of studies reporting on the relationship between chronic stress, education, and/or income, and biomarkers of chronic stress (allostatic load and telomere length) longitudinally among African Americans, seeks to contribute to this knowledge gap.

OBJECTIVE

To use the existing literature to both examine the strength of two objective biomarkers--telomere length and allostatic load--as measures of the overactivation of physiological stress processes in African American adults; and determine if existing studies used these two biomarkers to assess the relationship between chronic stress, income and level of educational attainment among African Americans longitudinally.

METHODS

In order to identify English-language articles published prior to October 11, 2021, a comprehensive search strategy was developed using five databases: PubMed/Medline, EMBASE, Web of Science Plus, Global Health (Ovid), and PsycINFO. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method was used to record progress on the comprehensive search for studies reporting on allostatic load and/or telomere length biomarkers longitudinally within all bodily fluids and chronic stress among African American adults.

RESULTS

In total, 7 studies met the search criteria; 902 were excluded. Thus, less than 1% of all studies reporting on biomarkers of chronic stress longitudinally included African Americans. Each of the 7 studies described the relationship between telomere length and/or allostatic load among African Americans and chronic stress, education, and/or income. Higher chronic stress levels and experiences of racial discrimination were associated with telomere shortening while lower income and higher chronic stress levels were associated with an increase in allostatic load among African Americans.

DISCUSSION

Given the limited number of studies reporting on the association between allostatic load, telomere length, and/or the relationship between both in assessing chronic stress severity longitudinally among African American populations, it is impossible to determine whether one biomarker has greater predictive value than the other. However, based on the literature included in this review, higher chronic stress levels and experiences of racial discrimination were associated with shorter telomere length, while lower income and higher chronic stress levels are associated with an increase in allostatic load among African Americans.

CONCLUSION

These data illustrate a gap in the literature on the relationship between the biomarkers of telomere length and allostatic load combined as a potential measure for chronic stress among African Americans. To our knowledge, none the current literature describes the relationship between telomere length and allostatic load longitudinally among African American adults. As the field strives to develop a "gold standard" for measuring chronic stress, the combination of these biomarkers needs to be the subject of scientific inquiry and thus, fully examined. Future longitudinal studies among African Americans are needed to better understand which biomarker, or combination of biomarkers will provide the most accurate measure of physiological stress processes.

Intervention effects on self-control decrease speed of biological aging mediated by changes in substance use: A longitudinal study of African American youth

Biological aging is a common root for multiple diseases causing morbidity and mortality, and trajectories of aging may start early in life. This study was designed to examine whether a universal family-based substance use preventive intervention to enhance self-control and reduce substance use would also result in reductions in biological aging among Black youth from the rural South. The Adults in the Making (AIM) program is a randomized controlled trial with six 2-h sessions for Black youth. The 216 youths agreeing to provide blood at age 22 included 114 who had received the AIM intervention and 102 who assigned to the control group. We examined accelerated DNA methylation (DNAm)-based aging using a recently developed measure, "GrimAge," that has been shown to predict the risk of early mortality and that is known to be more strongly affected by substance use than other DNAm-based aging indices. Relative to those randomly assigned to the control group, those receiving the intervention demonstrated significantly enhanced self-control, slower increases in substance use, and reduced Grim aging at age 22. Using a bootstrapping method with 1000 replications, we found a significant indirect effect of AIM on reduced Grim aging through its effect on self-control and substance use. Sensitivity analyses examined effects using other indices of DNAm-based aging. These findings suggest that a family-based program designed to enhance rural Black youth's self-control can have beneficial effects on self-control, enhancing young adult health and health behavior, and ultimately decreased mortality risk.

Examining the influence of adversity, family contexts, and a family-based intervention on parent and child telomere length

Background: Exposure to adversity, trauma, and negative family environments can prematurely shorten telomeres, the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes. Conversely, some evidence indicates that positive environments and psychosocial interventions can buffer the shortening of telomere length (TL). However, most work has examined individual aspects of the family environment as predictive of TL with little work investigating multiple risk and protective factors. Further, most research has not examined parent TL relative to child TL despite its heritability. Objective: In the current study, we examined interparental conflict, positive parenting, alcohol use, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and a family-based intervention as predictive of parent TL. We also examined interparental conflict, positive parenting, ACEs, and a family-based intervention as predictive of child TL. Method: Parents and adolescents from a sample of divorced families participated in either a 10-session family-based intervention, the New Beginnings Programme (NBP), or a 2-week active control condition. Approximately six years after the intervention, a subsample of parents (n = 45) and adolescents (n = 41) were assessed for TL. Parents reported on interparental conflict, ACEs, and alcohol use. Children reported on interparental conflict, positive parenting, and ACEs. In separate models, these constructs and the NBP intervention condition were examined as predictors of parent TL and child TL. Results: Findings indicated that the family-based intervention was associated with longer TL in parents. Also, positive parenting was associated with longer TL in children. Conclusions: These findings have important implications for the role of the family and family-based preventive interventions in buffering parent and child biological stress.

HIGHLIGHTS

Across multiple indices of psychosocial functioning, we found a family-based intervention associated with longer telomere length in parents and positive parenting associated with longer telomere length in children.

Does secure base script knowledge mediate associations between observed parental caregiving during childhood and adult romantic relationship quality and health?

Increasingly, attachment representations are being assessed via secure base script knowledge - the degree to which individuals show awareness of the temporal-causal schema that summarizes the basic features of seeking and receiving effective support from caregivers during times of need. Limited research has assessed the links between secure base script knowledge and aspects of adult functioning and the role that secure base script knowledge may play in accounting for associations between early caregiving quality and adulthood functioning. We used follow-up assessments of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development cohort (N = 585) to examine whether secure base script knowledge at age 18 years: (a) is associated with later romantic relationship quality, depressive symptoms, and body mass index (BMI) at age 26 years, and (b) mediates expected associations between the quality of maternal and paternal sensitivity across the first 15 years of life and age-26 outcomes. More access to, and elaborated knowledge of the secure base script predicted less extreme hostility with romantic partners, and better emotional and physical health. Moreover, secure base script knowledge mediated the links between early maternal and paternal sensitivity and both later romantic partner hostility and depressive symptoms, but not BMI.

Early Childhood Adversity, Toxic Stress, and the Impacts of Racism on the Foundations of Health

Inequalities in health outcomes impose substantial human and economic costs on all societies-and the relation between early adversity and lifelong well-being presents a rich scientific framework for fresh thinking about health promotion and disease prevention broadly, augmented by a deeper focus on how racism influences disparities more specifically. This review begins with an overview of advances in the biology of adversity and resilience through an early childhood lens, followed by an overview of the unique effects of racism on health and a selective review of findings from related intervention research. This article presents a framework for addressing multiple dimensions of the public health challenge-including institutional/structural racism, cultural racism, and interpersonal discrimination-and concludes with the compelling need to protect the developing brain and other biological systems from the physiological disruptions of toxic stress that can undermine the building blocks of optimal health and development in the early childhood period.

Improving Toddlers' Healthy Eating Habits and Self-regulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we tested whether Recipe 4 Success, a preventive intervention featuring structured food preparation lessons, was successful in improving the following 4 protective factors related to overweight and obesity among families living in poverty: toddlers' healthy eating habits, toddlers' self-regulation, parents' responsive feeding practices, and parents' sensitive scaffolding.

METHODS

This randomized controlled trial was open to families enrolled in Early Head Start home visits and included 73 parents and their toddlers aged 18 to 36 months. Multimethod assessments were conducted at baseline and posttreatment.

RESULTS

Compared with toddlers in usual practice Early Head Start, toddlers in Recipe 4 Success consumed healthier meals and snacks (d = 0.57; P < .03; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.08-1.06) and displayed better self-regulation (d = 0.95; P < .001; 95% CI: 0.43-1.45). Compared with parents in usual practice Early Head Start, parents in Recipe 4 Success engaged in more responsive feeding practices (d = 0.87; P < .002; 95% CI: 0.34-1.40) and were better able to sensitively scaffold their toddlers' learning and development (d = 0.58; P < .04; 95% CI: 0.07-1.09).

CONCLUSIONS

This randomized controlled trial revealed medium to large intervention effects on 4 important protective factors that are related to overweight and obesity but are often compromised by living in poverty.

Early parental death and psychosocial risk factors for dementia: A case-control study in Europe

OBJECTIVES

To assess the association between early parental death and the risk of dementia in adult life and to examine the risk factors associated with early parental death in people with and without dementia.

METHODS/DESIGN

A population-based case-control study of a sample of 65 997 participants from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe study. Early parental death was operationalized as parental death at the age of ≤16 years. Main analyses were conducted using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

The odds ratio (OR) for dementia in individuals who experienced early parental death (father or mother) at the age of ≤16 years was 1.83 (95%CI 1.61-2.09) and 1.54 (95%CI 1.35-1.76) adjusted for age, gender and education. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis carried out with the whole sample, early parental death increased the risk of dementia (OR = 1.50, 95%CI 1.31-1.72), along with older age (OR = 5.92, 95%CI 4.86-7.17), neuroticism (OR = 2.94, 95%CI 2.61-3.31), low education level (OR = 1.84, 95%CI 1.64-2.05) and low income (OR = 1.49, 95%CI 1.34-1.67).

DISCUSSION

Early parental death (≤16 years) was associated with an increased risk of dementia. We discuss the neurobiological markers associated with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and dementia as well as interventions to counteract the negative health effects on adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 68:-, 2020.

Psychosocial Stressors and Telomere Length: A Current Review of the Science

A growing literature suggests that exposure to adverse social conditions may accelerate biological aging, offering one mechanism through which adversity may increase risk for age-related disease. As one of the most extensively studied biological markers of aging, telomere length (TL) provides a valuable tool to understand potential influences of social adversity on the aging process. Indeed, a sizeable literature now links a wide range of stressors to TL across the life span. The aim of this article is to review and evaluate this extant literature with a focus on studies that investigate psychosocial stress exposures and experiences in early life and adulthood. We conclude by outlining potential biological and behavioral mechanisms through which psychosocial stress may influence TL, and we discuss directions for future research in this area.

The Impact of Health Promotion Interventions on Telomere Length: A Systematic Review

Objectives:

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of health promotion interventions in delaying telomere shortening (a biomarker for aging).

Data Source:

PubMed, PsychINFO, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library databases.

Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:

Inclusion criteria: (1) empirical studies involving human subjects; (2) health promotion intervention studies including both randomized control trials (RCTs) and non-RCTs.; (3) measured telomere length as an intervention outcome; and (4) were written in English. Exclusion criteria: (1) observational studies without any health promotion intervention practices and (2) did not report intervention effects.

Data Extraction:

Data extraction was performed by two reviewers following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis guidelines.

Data Synthesis:

Substantial heterogeneity in intervention type and study design in the included studies precluded a meta-analysis. We conducted a narrative synthesis instead.

Results:

Thirty studies were included in the review, of which 16 were RCTs. One-third of the included studies reported significant intervention impacts in delaying telomere shortening, with relatively consistent significant results emerged from weight-loss interventions and interventions involving multiple lifestyle modification components (eg, diet and exercise). Most of supplement intervention studies observed null effects in telomere length.

Conclusions:

Weight-loss and comprehensive lifestyle intervention strategies show encouraging impacts in delaying telomere shortening. More rigorous studies targeting populations at different age stages through life span are needed.

Childhood maltreatment, behavioral adjustment, and molecular markers of cellular aging in preschool-aged children: A cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Childhood maltreatment is a major risk factor for the development of behavioral problems and poor physical and mental health. Accelerated cellular aging, through reduced telomere length and mitochondrial dysfunction, may be a mechanism underlying these associations.

METHODS

Families with (n = 133) and without (n = 123) child welfare documentation of moderate-severe maltreatment in the past six months participated in this study. Children ranged in age from 3 to 5 years, were racially and ethnically diverse, and 91% qualified for public assistance. Structured record review and interviews were used to assess a history of maltreatment and other adversities. Telomere length and mitochondrial DNA copy number (mtDNAcn) were measured from saliva DNA using real-time PCR. Measures were repeated at a six-month follow-up assessment. Repeated measures general linear models were used to examine the effects of maltreatment and other adversities on telomere length and mtDNAcn over time.

RESULTS

Maltreatment and other adverse experiences were significant positive predictors of both telomere length and mtDNAcn over time. Internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were also both significantly associated with telomere length, but only internalizing symptoms were associated with mtDNAcn.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to show that mtDNAcn is altered in children with stress and trauma, and the findings are consistent with recent studies of adults. Surprisingly, children who experienced moderate-severe levels of maltreatment in the prior six months had longer telomeres, possibly reflecting compensatory changes in response to recent trauma. Telomere length and mtDNAcn were also associated with behavioral problems, suggesting that these measures of cellular aging may be causally implicated in the pathophysiology of stress-related conditions.

The Role of Compassion and Mindfulness in Building Parental Resilience When Caring for Children With Chronic Conditions: A Conceptual Model

Compassion- and mindfulness-based interventions (CMBIs) and therapies hold promise to support parent resilience by enabling adaptive stress appraisal and coping, mindful parenting, and perhaps crucially, self-compassion. These contemplative modalities have recently been expanded to parents of children with chronic illness, building on successful applications for adults facing stress, chronic pain, or mental illness, and for healthcare professionals in response to caregiver burnout resulting from their work. The design and adaptation of interventions and therapies require a conceptual model of parent resilience in the context of childhood chronic illness that integrates mindfulness and compassion. The objective of this paper is to propose and describe such a model. First, we review the need for parent support interventions for this population. Second, we introduce a Model of Compassion, Mindfulness, and Resilience in Parental Caregiving. We highlight the mindful parenting approaches, guiding theories for adaptive coping, and family resilience frameworks that informed our model. Third, we describe a case of a parent to illustrate a practical application model. Finally, we outline future directions for intervention development and research to examine the impact of CMBIs on parent resilience.

Neighborhood Social Conditions, Family Relationships, and Childhood Asthma

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Poor neighborhood conditions have established associations with poorer child health, but little is known about protective factors that mitigate the effects of difficult neighborhood conditions. In this study, we tested if positive family relationships can buffer youth who live in dangerous and/or disorderly neighborhoods from poor asthma outcomes.

METHODS

A total of 308 youths (aged 9-17) who were physician-diagnosed with asthma and referred from community pediatricians and/or family practitioners participated in this cross-sectional study. Neighborhood conditions around families' home addresses were coded by using Google Street View images. Family relationship quality was determined via youth interviews. Clinical asthma outcomes (asthma symptoms, activity limitations, and forced expiratory volume in 1 second percentile), asthma management behaviors (family response to asthma symptoms and integration of asthma into daily life), and asthma-relevant immunologic processes (lymphocyte T helper 1 and T helper 2 cytokine production and sensitivity to glucocorticoid inhibition) were assessed via questionnaires, interviews, spirometry, and blood draws.

RESULTS

Significant interactions were found between neighborhood conditions and family relationship quality (β = |.11-.15|; P < .05). When neighborhood danger and/or disorder was low, family relationships were not associated with asthma. When neighborhood danger and/or disorder was high, better family relationship quality was associated with fewer asthma symptoms, fewer activity limitations, and higher forced expiratory volume in 1 second percentile. Similar patterns emerged for asthma management behaviors. With immunologic measures, greater neighborhood danger and/or disorder was associated with greater T helper 1 and T helper 2 cytokine production and reduced glucocorticoid sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

When youth live in dangerous and/or disorderly neighborhoods, high family relationship quality can buffer youth from poor asthma outcomes. Although families may not be able to change their neighborhoods, they may nonetheless be able to facilitate better asthma outcomes in their children through strong family relationships.

Cold parenting is associated with cellular aging in offspring: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Early life stress is a known risk factor for diseases and premature death. We tested whether parenting style impacts telomere length (TL), a cellular aging biomarker.

METHODS

Information on parents' style of parenting was obtained from 199 participants in the Adventist Health Study-1 (AHS-1) who 27+ years later also enrolled in the AHS-2 where blood was collected for relative TL (rTL) assessment.

RESULTS

Subjects describing their mothers' parenting style as cold had on average 25% smaller rTL compared to subjects not reporting a cold mother (1.89 vs 2.53). This association was greatest among those with less education, and those who stayed overweight/obese or put on weight during follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support previous findings that early life stress may have health implications by promoting cellular aging, and expands these stressors to include cold parenting during an individuals' formative years. Higher education and normal weight seem to provide some resilience.

Familial support following childhood sexual abuse is associated with longer telomere length in adult females

Robust associations between adverse childhood experiences and shortened telomere length exist, but few studies have examined factors that may moderate this association, particularly with a resilience framework. The present study examined the association between exposure to childhood sexual abuse (and abuse severity) and mean telomere length, and whether social support and optimism moderated this association. The sample included 99 White monozygotic female twins, ranging in age from 35 to 70 (M_age = 52.74, SD = 8.55 years), who provided a blood sample for telomere assay, and data on their childhood sexual abuse history, trait optimism, and current social support. Linear mixed effects models were employed to test study hypotheses. There were no effects of exposure to abuse or abuse severity on mean telomere length, nor were there main or moderating effects of optimism, in analyses of the full sample. However, in analyses that only included women exposed to abuse, there was an abuse type × support interaction: among women who experienced abuse in forms other than intercourse, higher levels of social support were associated with longer mean telomere length. Findings from the current study clarify the role of childhood sexual abuse in telomere attrition, and identify one factor that may protect against the negative biological effects of childhood sexual abuse.

A scoping systematic review of social stressors and various measures of telomere length across the life course

Numerous studies examine the relationship between social stressors and telomere length (TL). Beyond considering methods and major findings, this scoping systematic review takes a novel approach as it groups studies according to the types of social stressor considered and by age groups. Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus. We included all English-language human subject research articles that modeled any measure of TL as a dependent variable and exposure to a social stressor as an independent variable. For the sample of 105 articles, we summarized methods and findings by type of social stressor (socioeconomic stressors, stressful life events, work-related stressors, and neighborhood stressors) and by age of the study population (infants/children, middle-aged adults, older adults, and mixed samples of middle-aged and older adults). We found more variation in TL measurement methodology in studies of infants/children and older adults than in studies focusing on middle-aged adults. The most consistent finding was a relationship between early-life stressors and shorter TL. Work and neighborhood stressors, and older populations, are currently understudied. Across all stressors, limited evidence suggests that the stress-TL relationship may be moderated by characteristics such as age, sex, and race/ethnicity. We conclude with specific suggestions for future research.

Ameliorating the biological impacts of childhood adversity: A review of intervention programs

Childhood adversity negatively impacts the biological development of children and has been linked to poor health outcomes across the life course. The purpose of this literature review is to explore and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions that have addressed an array of biological markers and physical health outcomes in children and adolescents affected by adversity. PubMed, CINAHL, PsychInfo, Sociological Abstracts databases and additional sources (Cochrane, WHO, NIH trial registries) were searched for English language studies published between January 2007 and September 2017. Articles with a childhood adversity exposure, biological health outcome, and evaluation of intervention using a randomized controlled trial study design were selected. The resulting 40 intervention studies addressed cortisol outcomes (n = 20) and a range of neurological, epigenetic, immune, and other outcomes (n = 22). Across institutional, foster care, and community settings, intervention programs demonstrated success overall for improving or normalizing morning and diurnal cortisol levels, and ameliorating the impacts of adversity on brain development, epigenetic regulation, and additional outcomes in children. Factors such as earlier timing of intervention, high quality and nurturant parenting traits, and greater intervention engagement played a role in intervention success. This study underlines progress and promise in addressing the health impacts of adversity in children. Ongoing research efforts should collect baseline data, improve retention, replicate studies in additional samples and settings, and evaluate additional variables, resilience factors, mediators, and long-term implications of results. Clinicians should integrate lessons from the intervention sciences for preventing and treating the health effects of adversity in children and adolescents.

Attachment and telomere length: more evidence for psychobiological connections between close relationships, health, and aging

Individuals with a history of poor interpersonal relationships are more likely to demonstrate negative health outcomes than those who have had high quality relationships. We sought to evaluate how attachment orientations, stress-induced respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), and self-reported stress were associated with length of telomeres measured from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Participants (N = 213) completed self-report measures of attachment and stress. Measurement of RSA was conducted before and after a stressful task and a blood draw was completed for analysis of telomere length. Attachment orientations were not directly associated with telomere length; however, we found that high attachment anxiety was associated with shorter length of telomeres via high self-reported stress. Attachment avoidance was also associated with telomere length via self-reported stress, but only among those with high stress-induced RSA. Exploratory analyses of T cell subsets indicated that stress was most strongly associated with telomeres from CD8CD28+ cells in comparison to CD8CD28- and CD4 cells. Study findings indicate that attachment orientations are associated with telomere length via stress, providing novel insights into the mechanisms through which close relationships can impact health and aging.

Childhood close family relationships and health

Emerging data suggest that during childhood, close family relationships can ameliorate the impact that adversity has on life span physical health. To explain this phenomenon, a developmental stress buffering model is proposed in which characteristics of family relationships including support, conflict, obligation, and parenting behaviors evolve and change from childhood to adolescence. Together, these characteristics govern whether childhood family relationships are on balance positive enough to fill a moderating role in which they mitigate the effects that childhood adversities have on physical health. The benefits of some family relationship characteristics are hypothesized to stay the same across childhood and adolescence (e.g., the importance of comfort and warmth from family relationships) whereas the benefits of other characteristics are hypothesized to change from childhood to adolescence (e.g., from a need for physical proximity to parents in early childhood to a need for parental availability in adolescence). In turn, close, positive family relationships in childhood operate via a variety of pathways, such as by reducing the impact that childhood stressors have on biological processes (e.g., inflammation) and on health behaviors that in turn can shape physical health over a lifetime. (PsycINFO Database Record

Early life adversity and telomere length: a meta-analysis

Early adversity, in the form of abuse, neglect, socioeconomic status and other adverse experiences, is associated with poor physical and mental health outcomes. To understand the biologic mechanisms underlying these associations, studies have evaluated the relationship between early adversity and telomere length, a marker of cellular senescence. Such results have varied in regard to the size and significance of this relationship. Using meta-analytic techniques, we aimed to clarify the relationship between early adversity and telomere length while exploring factors affecting the association, including adversity type, timing and study design. A comprehensive search in July 2016 of PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Web of Science identified 2462 studies. Multiple reviewers appraised studies for inclusion or exclusion using a priori criteria; 3.9% met inclusion criteria. Data were extracted into a structured form; the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale assessed study quality, validity and bias. Forty-one studies (N=30 773) met inclusion criteria. Early adversity and telomere length were significantly associated (Cohen's d effect size=-0.35; 95% CI, -0.46 to -0.24; P<0.0001). Sensitivity analyses revealed no outlier effects. Adversity type and timing significantly impacted the association with telomere length (P<0.0001 and P=0.0025, respectively). Subgroup and meta-regression analyses revealed that medication use, medical or psychiatric conditions, case-control vs longitudinal study design, methodological factors, age and smoking significantly affected the relationship. Comprehensive evaluations of adversity demonstrated more extensive telomere length changes. These results suggest that early adversity may have long-lasting physiological consequences contributing to disease risk and biological aging.

Unsupportive parenting moderates the effects of family psychosocial intervention on metabolic syndrome in African American youth

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Family relationships have been linked to obesity and related disorders in youth, but few studies have provided causal evidence of this association. This study tested the impact of a family psychosocial intervention on components of metabolic syndrome-a condition driven largely by abdominal obesity-in African American youth. In particular, the study tested whether effects were strongest among those who started at highest risk, that is, with high levels of unsupportive parenting at baseline.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Randomized clinical trial of a community sample of 391 African American youth (mean age=11.2 years) conducted in 2001-2002, with follow-up metabolic syndrome assessment in 2014-2015. Participants were assigned either to receive a weekly family intervention or to a control group. The primary study outcome was the number of components of metabolic syndrome that were clinically elevated at age 25, including central adiposity, blood pressure, triglycerides, glucose and low high-density lipoproteins. Unsupportive parenting was measured by questionnaires at baseline.

RESULTS

Significant interaction effects were found between group assignment and baseline unsupportive parenting on counts of metabolic syndrome components in youth (beta=-0.17, P=0.03). Among those who started with higher levels of unsupportive parenting at age 11, participation in the family intervention reduced the number of clinically elevated components of the metabolic syndrome at age 25 relative to the control group. No such effect was seen among those who started with good parenting. Mediation analyses suggested that changes in the psychosocial targets of the parenting intervention partially accounted for the effects amongst those high in unsupportive parenting at baseline (effect size=-0.350, s.e.=0.178).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that efforts to improve family relationships may be able to ameliorate the detrimental effects that harsh and unsupportive parenting have on obesity-related outcomes such as metabolic syndrome in youth.

Stress spillover, African Americans' couple and health outcomes, and the stress-buffering effect of family-centered prevention

This study investigated (a) the stress spillover pathways linking contextual stressors, changes in couple relationship functioning and depressive symptoms, and changes in individuals' physical health, and (b) the stress-buffering effect of participation in an efficacious, family centered prevention program designed to protect couples from the deleterious effects of stressors. The sample consisted of 346 rural African American couples (63% married) who participated in a randomized controlled trial of the Protecting Strong African American Families (ProSAAF) program. Participants were assessed at three time points across 17 months. Results examining stress spillover within the control group indicated that elevated current, but not prior, financial hardship was associated with decreased effective communication, relationship satisfaction, and relationship confidence as well as increased depressive symptoms; current levels of racial discrimination also predicted greater depressive symptoms. Relationship confidence and relationship satisfaction, but not communication or depressive symptoms, in turn predicted declines in self-reported physical health. Results examining stress-buffering effects suggested that participation in ProSAAF protected individuals' relationship confidence from declines associated with elevated financial hardship. In addition, the indirect effect linking financial hardship to declines in physical health through relationship confidence that emerged among participants in the control group was no longer evident for ProSAAF couples. Results highlight the effect of contextual stressors on African Americans' couple and individual well-being and the potential for the ProSAAF program to provide a constructed resilience resource, protecting couple's confidence in their relationship from the negative effects of financial hardship and, consequently, promoting physical health. (PsycINFO Database Record

Attachment security moderates the link between adverse childhood experiences and cellular aging

Exposure to childhood adversity has been linked to accelerated telomere shortening, a marker of cellular aging and an indicator of physical health risk. In the current study, we examined whether adult attachment representation moderated the association between childhood adversity and telomere length. Participants included 78 young adults (M age = 20.46, SD = 1.57), who reported on their exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and were administered the Adult Attachment Interview, which was coded for attachment state of mind. Relative telomere length was assayed from buccal cells. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant interaction between attachment state of mind and ACE in predicting telomere length. Whereas the association between number of ACE and telomere length was nonsignificant for secure–autonomous, r (50) = –.15, p = .31, and insecure–preoccupied young adults, r (9) = –.15, p = .71, there was a strong negative association between number of ACE and telomere length for insecure–dismissing young adults, r (19) = –.59, p = .007. This study is novel in demonstrating that attachment may affect biological resilience following childhood adversity, contributing to the growing literature about the role of the quality of early caregiving experiences and their representations in shaping biological processes and physical health.

Assessing the interplay between multigenic and environmental influences on adolescent to adult pathways of antisocial behaviors

The current investigation utilized a developmental psychopathology approach to test the hypothesis that multigenic (i.e., dopaminergic and serotonergic genes) and multienvironmental factors interactively contribute to developmental pathways of antisocial behavior (ASB). A sample of 8,834 Caucasian individuals from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) were used to (a) examine the developmental pathways of ASB from age 13 to 32 using growth mixture modeling, (b) compute weighted multigenic risk scores (Add Health MRS) for ASB from six well-characterized polymorphisms in dopamine and serotonin genes, and (c) test the interaction between the Add Health MRS and a measures of support (incorporating indicators of both positive and negative support from parents and schools). Four pathways of adolescent to adult ASB emerged from the growth mixture models: low, adolescence-peaked, high decline, and persistent. Add Health MRS predicted the persistent ASB pathway, but not other ASB pathways. Males with high Add Health MRS, but not low MRS, had significantly greater odds of being in the adolescence-peaked pathway relative to the low pathway at low levels of school connectedness. Nonfamilial environmental influences during adolescence may have a cumulative impact on the development of ASB, particularly among males with greater underlying genetic risks.

Childhood/Adolescent stressors and allostatic load in adulthood: Support for a calibration model

RATIONALE

Past research has established an association between childhood and adolescent stressors and elevated inflammatory and metabolic biomarkers in adulthood, but questions remain about the theoretical model most suited to explain this association.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined alternative hypotheses from four theoretical models regarding the link between exposure to stressful early life circumstances and cumulative biological risk, or allostatic load, in adulthood.

METHODS

Multivariate regression models and data from a sample of 327 African American women from the Family and Community Health Study were used to test hypotheses.

RESULTS

Stressors measured during the phases of childhood and adolescence predicted increased allostatic load, irrespective of adult circumstances that might account for this effect. Also, these early stressors conditioned the health effects of adult positive and negative circumstances. Exposure to childhood and adolescent stressors amplified the effect of adult economic hardship on allostatic load and dulled the beneficial effects of positive events and high-quality relationships.

CONCLUSION

These findings support the perspective that childhood and adolescence are phases when exposure to adversities possibly enhances vulnerability to biological risk in adulthood irrespective of later life circumstances. Also, the findings are consistent with the perspective that childhood and adolescent adversities calibrate biological risk resulting from aversive and positive features of the adult social environment.

Evolving a More Nurturing Society to Prevent Adverse Childhood Experiences

This article presents a framework for evolving a society that nurtures the health and well-being of its population. We review evidence that adverse social conditions, including poverty, conflict, discrimination, and other forms of social rejection, contribute immensely to our most ubiquitous psychological, behavioral, and health problems. We then enumerate the ways that effective family and school prevention programs could ameliorate much of the social adversity leading to these problems. The widespread and effective implementation of these programs-in primary care, social services, and education-must be a high priority. Beyond the implementation of specific programs, however, we must also make a more concerted effort to promote prosocial values that support nurturing families and schools. Our society's priorities must be to generate specific policies that reduce poverty and discrimination and, in so doing, reduce the risk for negative health-related outcomes.

Father Loss and Child Telomere Length

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Father loss during childhood has negative health and behavioral consequences, but the biological consequences are unknown. Our goal was to examine how father loss (because of separation and/or divorce, death, or incarceration) is associated with cellular function as estimated by telomere length.

METHODS

Data come from the 9-year follow-up of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study of children in 20 large American cities (N = 2420). Principal measures are as follows: salivary telomere length (sTL), mother reports of father loss, and polymorphisms in genes related to serotonergic and dopaminergic signaling.

RESULTS

At 9 years of age, children with father loss have significantly shorter telomeres (14% reduction). Paternal death has the largest association (16%), followed by incarceration (10%), and separation and/or divorce (6%). Changes in income partially mediate these associations (95% mediation for separation and/or divorce, 30% for incarceration, and 25% for death). Effects are 40% greater for boys and 90% greater for children with the most reactive alleles of the serotonin transporter genes when compared with those with the least reactive alleles. No differences were found by age at father loss or a child's race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Father loss has a significant association with children's sTL, with the death of a father showing the largest effect. Income loss explains most of the association between child sTL and separation and/or divorce but much less of the association with incarceration or death. This underscores the important role of fathers in the care and development of children and supplements evidence of the strong negative effects of parental incarceration.

Family-centered prevention ameliorates the association between adverse childhood experiences and prediabetes status in young black adults

Individuals exposed to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are vulnerable to various health problems later in life. This study was designed to determine whether participation in an efficacious program to enhance supportive parenting would ameliorate the association between ACEs and prediabetes status at age 25. Rural African American parents and their 11-year-old children (N=390) participated in the Strong African American Families (SAAF) program or a control condition. Each youth at age 25 provided a total ACEs score and a blood sample from which overnight fasting glucose was assayed. Logistic regression equations were used to test the hypotheses. The logistic regression analyses revealed a significant interaction between total ACEs and random assignment to SAAF or control, OR=0.56, 95% CI [0.36, 0.88]. Follow-up analyses indicated that, for participants in the control condition, a 1-point increase in ACEs was associated with a 37.3% increase in risk of having prediabetes. ACEs were not associated with the likelihood of having prediabetes among participants in the SAAF condition. Control participants with high total ACEs scores were 3.54 times more likely to have prediabetes than were SAAF participants with similar scores. This study indicated that participation at age 11 in a randomized controlled trial designed to enhance supportive parenting ameliorated the association of ACEs with prediabetes at age 25. If substantiated, these findings may provide a strategy for preventing negative health consequences of ACEs.

The Relationship Between Childhood Psychosocial Stressor Level and Telomere Length: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis examined the association between the level of childhood psychosocial stressors and telomere length, an important health biomarker. The meta-analysis, including 27 samples and 16,238 participants, found a significant association of -0.08 between a higher level of childhood stressors and shorter telomere length at a mean age of 42 across studies. Moderator analyses showed a trend in the direction of effect sizes being significantly larger with shorter times between the stressors and telomere measurement. Moderator analyses showed significantly higher effect sizes for studies that used a categorical method for assessing child stressor level and for assays completed with qPCR rather than with the Southern blot method. There was no significant moderation of effect size by whether study assayed leukocytes or buccal cells, whether the study assessed child stressor level by memory-based recall versus archival records, and whether the study controlled for age, sex, or additional variables. The results, focused on childhood events, add to prior findings that perceived stress and negative emotions are associated with telomere length.

Resilience in Adolescence, Health, and Psychosocial Outcomes

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to determine whether black adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds who have an unrelenting determination to succeed would, as adults, show "skin-deep resilience" by faring well in psychosocial domains but also show a heightened chance of having a chronic disease, specifically type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Secondary data analyses were executed with the use of waves 1 and 4 of the US Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). At wave 1, when participants were age 16, data were obtained on a behavioral style termed "striving." Striving includes high aspirations, unwavering persistence, investment in education, and avoidance of activities that sidetrack success. At wave 4, when participants were age 29, college graduation, personal income, symptoms of depression, and type 2 diabetes status were assessed.

RESULTS

Black and non-Hispanic white youth who displayed striving during adolescence evinced, at age 29, a higher likelihood of college graduation, greater personal income, and fewer symptoms of depression than did nonstrivers. Among black participants, the findings were consistent with the "skin-deep resilience" pattern for type 2 diabetes. High-striving black adolescents in the most disadvantaged families had a greater likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes during adulthood than did similar high-striving black adolescents living in more privileged families. The skin-deep resilience pattern did not emerge among non-Hispanic white participants.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to show that an unrelenting determination to succeed among black adolescents from disadvantaged backgrounds forecasts an elevated risk of developing type 2 diabetes during adulthood.

Resilience to adversity and the early origins of disease

For the past quarter century, scientists at the Center for Family Research at the University of Georgia have conducted research designed to promote understanding of normative developmental trajectories among low socioeconomic status African American children, youths, and young adults. In this paper, we describe a recent expansion of this research program using longitudinal, epidemiological studies and randomized prevention trials to test hypotheses about the origins of disease among rural African American youths. The contributions of economic hardship, downward mobility, neighborhood poverty, and racial discrimination to allostatic load and epigenetic aging are illustrated. The health benefits of supportive family relationships in protecting youths from these challenges are also illustrated. A cautionary set of studies is presented showing that some psychosocially resilient youths demonstrate high allostatic loads and accelerated epigenetic aging, suggesting that, for some, "resilience is just skin deep." Finally, we end on an optimistic note by demonstrating that family-centered prevention programs can have health benefits by reducing inflammation, helping to preserve telomere length, and inhibiting epigenetic aging.

Variation in the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the protective effects of a family-based prevention program on telomere length

INTRODUCTION

Parent-child relationships with high conflict and low warmth and support are associated with later adverse behavioral and physiological child outcomes. These outcomes include shorter telomere lengths, the repetitive sequences at the ends of chromosomes that have been utilized as a biomarker for chronic stress. Our research group furthered this by exploring telomere length outcomes following a family-based prevention program and identified reduced telomere shortening 5 years post intervention among those originally exposed to nonsupportive parenting and randomized to the intervention condition. However, not all individuals respond equally, and a growing literature suggests genetic sensitivity to one's environment, with variations in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) potentially influencing this sensitivity.

METHODS

We utilized data from African American youths (mean age 17) randomized to intervention (n = 100) or control condition (n = 91) with baseline assessments of genetic status and nonsupportive parenting, and 5-year follow-up assessments of telomere length.

RESULTS

We found a significant three-way interaction between nonsupportive parenting, intervention condition, and OXTR rs53576 genotype. OXTR GG individuals, who are suggested to be more sensitive to their social environment, exhibited significantly more variability, evidencing the shortest telomeres when exposed to nonsupportive parenting and randomized to the control condition, and similar telomere lengths to non at-risk groups when randomized to the intervention. In contrast, those with the A allele showed no statistical difference in telomere lengths across parental and intervention conditions. Subsequent analyses suggest that these findings may be mediated through chronic anger, whereby GG individuals exposed to nonsupportive parenting and randomized to the control condition had a greater increase in chronic anger by study follow-up, compared to those in the intervention, and this change associated with greater telomere shortening.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the importance of individual differences and potential role of genetic status in moderating the relationship between environmental contexts and biological outcomes.

Early-Life Experiences and Telomere Length in Adult Rhesus Monkeys: An Exploratory Study

OBJECTIVE

Child-rearing environments have been associated with morbidity in adult rhesus monkeys. We examine whether such links are also seen with leukocyte telomere length.

METHODS

To determine telomere length in leukocytes, blood was collected from 11 adult female monkeys aged 7 to 10 years who had been exposed to different rearing environments between birth and 7 months. Four had been reared with their mothers in typical social groups composed of other female monkeys, their offspring, and 1 to 2 adult male monkeys. The other 7 had been reared in either small groups of peers or individual cages with extensive peer interaction daily. After 7 months, all shared a common environment.

RESULTS

Telomere lengths were longer for those adults who had been reared with their mothers in social groups (median = 16.0 kb, interquartile range = 16.5-15.4) than for those who were reared without their mothers (median = 14.0 kb, interquartile range = 14.3-12.7; 2.2 kb/telomere difference, p < .027).

CONCLUSIONS

This observation adds to emerging knowledge about early adverse child-rearing conditions and their potential for influencing later morbidity. Because newborns were randomly assigned to the mother or other rearing conditions, the findings are not confounded by other conditions that co-occur with adverse child-rearing environments in humans (e.g., prenatal stress, nutrition and health as well as postnatal nutrition and negative life experiences over and above rearing conditions).

Emotions and family interactions in childhood: Associations with leukocyte telomere length emotions, family interactions, and telomere length

Conceptualizations of links between stress and cellular aging in childhood suggest that accumulating stress predicts shorter leukocyte telomere length (LTL). At the same time, several models suggest that emotional reactivity to stressors may play a key role in predicting cellular aging. Using intensive repeated measures, we tested whether exposure or emotional "reactivity" to conflict and warmth in the family were related to LTL. Children (N=39; 30 target children and 9 siblings) between 8 and 13 years of age completed daily diary questionnaires for 56 consecutive days assessing daily warmth and conflict in the marital and the parent-child dyad, and daily positive and negative mood. To assess exposure to conflict and warmth, diary scale scores were averaged over the 56 days. Mood "reactivity" was operationalized by using multilevel modeling to generate estimates of the slope of warmth or conflict scores (marital and parent-child, separately) predicting same-day mood for each individual child. After diary collection, a blood sample was collected to determine LTL. Among children aged 8-13 years, a stronger association between negative mood and marital conflict, suggesting greater negative mood reactivity to marital conflict, was related to shorter LTL (B=-1.51, p<.01). A stronger association between positive mood and marital affection, suggesting positive mood reactivity, was related to longer LTL (B=1.15, p<.05). These effects were independent of exposure to family and marital conflict and warmth, and positive and negative mood over a two-month period. To our knowledge, these findings, although cross-sectional, represent the first evidence showing that link between children's affective responses and daily family interactions may have implications for telomere length.

Is childhood stress associated with shorter telomeres?

BACKGROUND

It has been shown that severe stress in childhood is harmful to later health. New research aims to ascertain whether – and if so, how – the telomeres, the protective caps at the end of our chromosomes, may be one of the links between this type of experience and later morbidity. Here we present an overview of studies which have examined the association between stress in childhood and length of telomeres.

METHOD

The review encompasses 26 original studies found through a literature search in PubMed. We included studies of the relationship between length of telomeres and various stress-inducing factors from conception throughout childhood and adolescence.

RESULTS

The studies were grouped into four topics. The empirical research base for mother's stress in pregnancy and parents' ability to care for their children is too small to draw any conclusions. Psychosocial stress in childhood was associated with shorter telomere length in 12 of 14 studies. Socioeconomic status in childhood was not unequivocally associated with telomere length.

INTERPRETATION

Shorter telomeres are possibly associated with psychosocial stress in childhood. This field of research is still new, and more longitudinal studies are needed with an emphasis on childhood experiences and coordination of measurement variables and results measurement in order to confirm this association.

Adverse childhood experiences and leukocyte telomere maintenance in depressed and healthy adults

BACKGROUND

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with poor physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Adverse childhood experiences are also associated with shortened leukocyte telomere length (LTL) in adults, suggesting accelerated cell aging. No studies have yet assessed the relationship of ACEs to LTL in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD), despite the high incidence of antecedent ACEs in individuals with MDD. Further, no studies in any population have assessed the relationship of ACEs to the activity of telomerase, the major enzyme responsible for maintaining LTL, or the relationship between telomerase and LTL in individuals with ACEs.

METHODS

Twenty healthy, unmedicated adults with MDD and 20 healthy age-, sex- and ethnicity-matched controls had ACEs assessed and had blood drawn for LTL and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) resting telomerase activity.

RESULTS

In healthy controls, greater ACE exposure was associated with shorter LTL (p<.05) but was unassociated with telomerase activity. In MDD, however, the opposite pattern was seen: greater ACE exposure was unrelated to LTL but was associated with increased telomerase activity (p<.05) and with a higher telomerase:LTL ratio (p=.022).

LIMITATIONS

Study limitations include the small sample size, a single timepoint assessment of telomerase activity, and the use of retrospective self-report to assess ACEs.

CONCLUSIONS

These results replicate prior findings of shortened LTL in healthy adults with histories of multiple ACEs. However, in MDD, this relationship was substantially altered, raising the possibility that activation of telomerase in ACE-exposed individuals with MDD could represent a compensatory response to endangered telomeres.

Nonsupportive parenting affects telomere length in young adulthood among African Americans: mediation through substance use

Telomere length (TL) is an indicator of age-related changes at the cellular level associated with heightened mortality risk. The effect of nonsupportive parenting (NSP) during late adolescence and young adulthood on TL 5 years later was examined in a sample of N = 183 young adult African Americans to determine if effects of NSP on TL were mediated by substance use. Results indicated that the effect of caregiver reported NSP on diminished TL was mediated by escalation of drinking and smoking in young adulthood, even after controlling effects of socioeconomic status risk, gender, BMI, young adult stress, and intervention status. Results suggest that prevention of NSP may influence later physical health consequences by influencing substance use trajectory.

Neighborhood poverty and allostatic load in African American youth

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to determine whether living in a neighborhood in which poverty levels increase across adolescence is associated with heightened levels of allostatic load (AL), a biological composite reflecting cardiometabolic risk. The researchers also sought to determine whether receipt of emotional support could ameliorate the effects of increases in neighborhood poverty on AL.

METHODS

Neighborhood concentrations of poverty were obtained from the Census Bureau for 420 African American youth living in rural Georgia when they were 11 and 19 years of age. AL was measured at age 19 by using established protocols for children and adolescents. When youth were 18, caregivers reported parental emotional support and youth assessed receipt of peer and mentor emotional support. Covariates included family poverty status at ages 11 and 19, family financial stress, parental employment status, youth stress, and youths' unhealthful behaviors.

RESULTS

Youth who lived in neighborhoods in which poverty levels increased from ages 11 to 19 evinced the highest levels of AL even after accounting for the individual-level covariates. The association of increasing neighborhood poverty across adolescence with AL was not significant for youth who received high emotional support.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to show an association between AL and residence in a neighborhood that increases in poverty. It also highlights the benefits of supportive relationships in ameliorating this association.