Dietary intakes and food sources of fatty acids for Belgian women, focused on n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Essential Fatty Acids along the Women’s Life Cycle and Promotion of a Well-balanced Metabolism

Abstract:

Linoleic acid (ω-6 LA) and α-linolenic acid (ω-3 ALA) are essential fatty acids (EFA) for human beings. They must be consumed through diet and then extensively metabolized, a process that plays a fundamental role in health and eventually in disease prevention. Given the numerous changes depending on age and sex, EFA metabolic adaptations require further investigations along the women’s life cycle, from onset to decline of the reproductive age. Thus, this review explains women’s life cycle stages and their involvement in diet intake, digestion and absorption, the role of microbiota, metabolism, bioavailability, and EFA fate and major metabolites. This knowledge is crucial to promoting lipid homeostasis according to female physiology through well-directed health strategies. Concerning this, the promotion of breastfeeding, nutrition, and physical activity is cardinal to counteract ALA deficiency, LA/ALA imbalance, and the release of unhealthy derivatives. These perturbations arise after menopause that compromise both lipogenic and lipolytic pathways. The close interplay of diet, age, female organism, and microbiota also plays a central role in regulating lipid metabolism. Consequently, future studies are encouraged to propose efficient interventions for each stage of women's cycle. In this sense, plant-derived foods and products are promising to be included in women’s nutrition to improve EFA metabolism.

Determination of Fatty Acid Profile in Processed Fish and Shellfish Foods

Seafood products are a crucial dietary source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), which are essential for human health. However, the presence of these n-3 PUFA may be subject to changes related to different processing methods. The aim of this study was to determine the fatty acid composition, focusing on n-3 PUFA, in different processed fish and shellfish products of both EU and non-EU origin. The products were purchased from supermarkets and ethnic food shops in Messina (Italy). Gas chromatography with a flame-ionization detector (GC-FID) was used for analysis. Based on the fatty acid profile, the atherogenicity index (AI), thrombogenicity index (TI), and flesh lipid quality index (FLQ) were determined: 0.13-1.04 (AI), 0.19-0.89 (TI), and 0.41-29.90 (FLQ). The percentages of saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA), and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids fell within the following ranges: 13.55-50.48%, 18.91-65.58%, and 13.84-52.73%, respectively. Considering that all samples showed low AI and TI indices and that all processed fish products proved to be a good source of beneficial PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), their consumption is recommended for humans.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intakes, Determinants and Dietary Sources in the Spanish Population: Findings from the ANIBES Study

The multiple roles of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in growth and general health are well documented. However, available intake data for the Spanish population are limited and lack gender and age considerations. Therefore, our goal was to assess dietary intake adequacy of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA, their determinants and their major food sources among the Spanish population. Due to their influence on various beneficial functions attributed to omega-3 PUFA, combined intake adequacy with folic acid (FA), vitamin B₁₂ and choline was also assessed. Intake data were obtained from the ANIBES cross-sectional study on a representative sample of the Spanish population (9-75 years; n = 2009), where dietary intake was analysed with a three-day dietary record. Median intake of total omega-3 PUFA stood at 0.81 g/day (0.56-1.19 g/day), with α-linolenic acid (ALA) at 0.61 g/day (0.45-0.85 g/day), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) at 0.03 g/day (0.01-0.12 g/day) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) at 0.06 g/day (0.0-0.20 g/day). Accordingly, 65% of the Spanish population showed insufficient intakes for total omega-3 PUFA; 87% for ALA, and 83% for combined EPA and DHA. Inadequate intakes were significantly higher in children, adolescents, and younger women of childbearing age (18-30 years). In contrast, inadequacy due to excessive intakes was almost negligible. Regarding omega-6 PUFA, total intake was 10.1 g/day (7.0-14.0 g/day), 10.0 g/day (6.9-13.9 g/day) for linoleic acid (LA) and 0.08 g/day (0.05-0.13 g/day) for arachidonic acid (AA). Non-compliance due to either insufficient or excessive intakes of LA stood at around 5% of the sample, with the elderly showing significantly higher degrees of inadequacy due to insufficient intakes (10%; p ≤ 0.05). Median omega-6 to omega-3 ratio was 12:1, and significantly higher in men compared to women (p ≤ 0.05); in children, adolescents and adults compared to the elderly (p ≤ 0.05); and in younger women of childbearing age compared to the older group (31-45 years) (p ≤ 0.001). Oils and fats and meat and meat products were the main dietary sources for the essential fatty acids LA and ALA, respectively. Meat and meat products were as well the main providers of AA, while fish and shellfish were almost exclusively the only sources of EPA and DHA. However, main food sources identified showed important differences across age groups. Finally, the total combined degree of inadequacy observed for omega-3 PUFA, FA, vitamin B₁₂ and choline reached 21.3% of the ANIBES population. The observed degree of inadequacy of omega-3 PUFA intakes among the Spanish population makes it urgent to increase its consumption and to consider the need for supplementation. This should also be the main strategy for the optimization of the omega-6/omega-3 ratio, as the adequacy observed for omega-6 intakes is relatively acceptable. Additional improvement of the dietary intake of FA, vitamin B₁₂ and choline could contribute to the beneficial effects of omega-3 PUFA.

Safety assessment of fish oil green extraction and in vivo acute toxicity evaluation

Sardine co-products can represent an interesting source of bioactive compounds, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids and in particular omega-3. This study aimed to investigate extraction of oil from sardine co-products by enzymatic hydrolysis using two proteases: commercial Alcalase and protease Bb from a local fungal strain (P2) of Beauveria bassiana, which overproduces proteases. Despite a higher degree of hydrolysis (41.34%) than Alcalase (24.28%), protease Bb allowed the extraction of approximately the same oil content. Resulting oil from both processes had the same fatty acid profile. Interestingly, the all-produced oil displayed an attractive w6/w3 ratio, an indicator of nutritional quality, of the order of 0.16. The safety of the generated oils was also assessed by treating two groups of Wistar rats with the fish oil administered by oral gavage at the doses (30 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg body weight) for 14 days using olive oil as a vehicle. Compared to controls used, both treated groups showed no statistically significant differences. Consequently, the acute oral toxicity evaluated by hematological, biochemical, and histological studies showed the safety of the oil generated using B. bassiana protease.

Recent Developments in the Microencapsulation of Fish Oil and Natural Extracts: Procedure, Quality Evaluation and Food Enrichment

Due to the beneficial health effects of omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants and their limited stability in response to environmental and processing factors, there is an increasing interest in microencapsulating them to improve their stability. However, despite recent developments in the field, no specific review focusing on these topics has been published in the last few years. This work aimed to review the most recent developments in the microencapsulation of fish oil and natural antioxidant compounds. The impact of the wall material and the procedures on the quality of the microencapsulates were preferably evaluated, while their addition to foods has only been studied in a few works. The homogenization technique, the wall-material ratio and the microencapsulation technique were also extensively studied. Microcapsules were mainly analyzed for size, microencapsulation efficiency, morphology and moisture, while in vitro digestion, flowing properties, yield percentage and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used more sparingly. Findings highlighted the importance of optimizing the most influential variables of the microencapsulation procedure. Further studies should focus on extending the range of analytical techniques upon which the optimization of microcapsules is based and on addressing the consequences of the addition of microcapsules to food products.

Chemical Composition of the “Galo de Barcelos” (Barcelos Rooster Raw Meat)

Simple Summary

The assessment of traditional products is important for the sustainability of agricultural systems and the preservation of a unique gastronomic heritage. The present study aims to determine the chemical composition of “Galo de “Barcelos”” (“Barcelos” Rooster) raw meat, used in the preparation of the typical Portuguese dish “Roasted Rooster from “Barcelos””, in order to evaluate and protect this gastronomic and cultural tradition. The influence of the genotype on the final product was verified, concerning total protein, and fat contents, and a favorable ratio of n-6/n-3 fatty acids of the Sasso line was compared to the “Amarela” breed, contributing to the promotion of its gastronomic potential.

Abstract

Ten roosters produced according to “Barcelos Confraria” rules and ten roosters of autochthonous “Amarela” breed, reared on a similar traditional production system, were analyzed, and the chemical profile of two of the most significant meat portions, breast and drumstick, was determined. The results demonstrated that the “Barcelos” rooster raw meat is rich in proteins (22.3%) and fat (4.31%), particularly in monounsaturated fatty acids (39.1%). Significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) were observed, with the breast having a higher protein content (25.1 vs. 19.7%) and less fat (1.9% vs. 6.7%), compared to the drumstick. The fatty acid profile revealed (SFA 30.0%, MUFA 39.1%, and PUFA 24.6%) a similar composition to the roosters reared in the traditional or organic production systems, such as the “Amarela” autochthonous rooster. The “Barcelos” rooster can be regarded as a highly nutritional meat, with an interesting chemical profile ensuring a high-quality traditional product to consumers.

Adverse effects of linoleic acid: Influence of lipid oxidation on lymphatic transport of citrus flavonoid and enterocyte morphology

Lipids usually contain a large ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are highly susceptible to oxidation. Presence of oxidized lipids in foods may affect the bioavailability of lipophilic bioactive components after ingestion. In this study, the effect of oxidized and unoxidized linoleic acid (LA) on the transport of a highly lipophilic bioactive citrus flavonoid (5-hydroxy - 6, 7, 8, 4' tetramethoxylflavone or 5-DMT) was determined using a Caco-2 cell model. Results demonstrated that compared to free 5-DMT, unoxidized LA improved the trans-enterocyte absorption of 5-DMT by stimulating the production of lipid droplets and chylomicrons. Although the amount of 5-DMT transported across the enterocyte doubled by oxidized LA compared to free 5-DMT, it significantly induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), affected the function of tight junction and caused damages to the morphology of enterocyte monolayer. This study re-emphasized the importance of preventing lipid oxidation in foods.

Future trends of processed meat products concerning perceived healthiness: A review

The 21st-century consumer is highly demanding when it comes to the health benefits of food and food products. In the pursuit of attracting these consumers and easing the rise in demand for high-quality meat products, the processed meat sector is intensely focused on developing reformulated, low-fat, healthy meat products. Meat and meat products are considered the primary sources of saturated fatty acids in the human diet. Therefore, these reformulation strategies aim to improve the fatty acid profile and reduce total fat and cholesterol, which can be achieved by replacing animal fat with plant-based oils; it could be performed as direct inclusion of these oils or pre-emulsified oils. However, emulsions offer a viable option for incorporating vegetable oils while avoiding the multiple issues of direct inclusion of these oils in meat products. Processed meat products are popular worldwide and showing a gradually increasing trend of consumption. Various types of plant-based oils have been studied as fat replacers in meat products. This review will focus on possible methods to reduce the saturated fatty acid content in meat products.

Potential role of important nutraceuticals in poultry performance and health - A comprehensive review

Antibiotics use in poultry as a growth promoter leads to the propagation of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms and incorporation of drug residues in foods; therefore, it has been restricted in different countries. There is a global trend to limit the use of antibiotics in the animal products. Prevention of the antibiotics use in the poultry diets led to the reduction in the growth performance. Consequently, there is a high demand for natural substances that lead to the same growth enhancement and beneficially affect poultry health. These constituents play essential roles in regulating the normal physiological functions of animals including the protection from infectious ailments. Nutraceuticals administration resulted beneficial in both infectious and noninfectious diseases. Being the natural components of diet, they are compatible with it and do not pose risks associated with antibiotics or other drugs. Nutraceuticals are categorized as commercial additives obtained from natural products as an alternative feed supplement for the improvement of animal welfare. This group includes enzymes, synbiotics, phytobiotics, organic acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids. In the present review, the summary of various bioactive ingredients that act as nutraceuticals and their mode of action in growth promotion and elevation of the immune system has been presented.

Evaluation of access to different legume pastures on performance and welfare of broiler chickens during dry season under tropical environment

There have been a plethora of studies on the effects of access to runs on chickens’ welfare and behavioural repertoire with a paucity of information on the comparative advantage of various legume pasture and deep litter system. A total of 200‐day‐old unsexed Marshall Broiler chicks were weighed and assigned randomly into five experimental groups, viz. deep litter without access to run (DL), deep litter with access to Stylosanthes hamata (SH), Stylosanthes guanensis (SG), Mucuna pruriens (MP) and free run (FR) during dry season. Each treatment had 4 replicates of 10 birds. Data were collected on growth performance, behaviour, tonic immobility (TI), gait score and blood parameters. The data obtained were subjected to One‐Way Analysis of Variance in a Completely Randomized Design. Results showed that the final body weight of birds in SH was significantly higher (p ˂ .05) than those of SH, MP, FR and DL which were comparable. The feed intake of the birds of DL, SH and FR was higher than those of the other treatment groups. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the birds on legume pastures was lower than those without access to pasture. The birds of SH, SG and MP spent higher (p ˂ .05) time drinking, preening, dust‐bathing, spot pecking and walking standing behaviours while those in DL and FR spent more (p ˂ .05) time feeding. Generally, the gait score of the birds on the different legume pastures was similar but better than those without access to pasture. Tonic immobility of the DL birds was longer than that of FR whose duration was longer than those of the birds on the pastures. The study concluded that access to different legume pastures, particularly Stylosanthes hamata, improved the welfare of broiler chickens without adverse effect on the performance of the birds.

There is a scarcity of information on the comparative advantage of various legume pasture. Stylosanthes hamata improved the welfare of broiler chickens without adverse effect on the performance of the birds.

In Vivo Digestion of Egg Products Enriched with DHA: Effect of the Food Matrix on DHA Bioavailability

The aim of the present study was to determine to what extent the food matrix could affect the release of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) during digestion and its incorporation into systemic circulation. In this aim, three DHA-enriched egg products having the same composition but different structure were developed: omelet, hard-boiled egg, and mousse. Then, nine pigs fitted with T-shape cannulas at duodenal level and a jugular venous catheter were fed with the DHA-enriched egg products, and duodenal effluents and plasma were collected throughout the postprandial period. Results highlighted an undeniable effect of the food matrix on digestion parameters and DHA bioavailability. The transit of DHA and protein through the duodenum was faster after the ingestion of the mousse than after the ingestion of the omelet and hard-boiled egg. While most of the DHA and protein ingested under the form of mousse had already passed through the duodenum 4.5 h after its ingestion, significantly higher quantities were still present in the case of the omelet and hard-boiled egg. In terms of bioavailability, the omelet was the most efficient vector for delivering DHA into systemic circulation. It supplied 56% and 120% more DHA than the hard-boiled egg and the mousse, respectively.

Lipid Assessment, Cholesterol and Fatty Acid Profile of meat from broilers raised in four different rearing systems

Evaluated lipid and cholesterol concentration and fatty acid profile of raw breast, thigh and drumstick meat from broilers raised in different rearing systems. Were used 200 male broiler carcasses from four different rearing systems (n=50 from conventional intensive; n=50 from organic; n=50 from free-range; and n=50 from antibiotic-free) distributed in a completely randomized design with four rearing systems and 50 replications (carcasses). Breast meat from conventional broilers showed higher lipid (1.47) and cholesterol (34.13) concentration. Thigh and drumstick meat from free-range broilers had higher lipid (7.53/4.73) and cholesterol (45.55/53.65) concentration. Fat contained in breast, thigh and drumstick meat from free-range broilers showed higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Fat from breast and thigh meat from free-range broilers showed higher total concentration of ω3 and ω6 fatty acids. Fat from thigh meat from organic broilers showed higher levels of EPA (C20:5n3) and DHA (C22:6n3). Fat from drumstick meat from free-range broilers showed higher total concentration of ω3 and ω6 fatty acids. Meat from chickens raised in alternative rearing systems offers less risk to cardiovascular health because it presents lower concentrations of lipids and cholesterol, greater amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are beneficial for human health.

Fish oil/lycopene microcapsules as a source of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids: a case study on spreads

BACKGROUND

The consumption of omega-3 fatty acids has many beneficial effects for human health, but the intake of foods rich in these fatty acids is not enough to achieve the recommended quantity per person and per day, and their direct addition in foods cause oxidation and unacceptable rancidity and off-flavor. Taking account of all these aspects, this study was aimed to develop stable microcapsules of fish oil (omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) and lycopene (antioxidant) and to investigate their effect on different spreads.

RESULTS

The inclusion of different proportions of lycopene in fish oil did not show great benefits in the quality characteristics of emulsions and microcapsules. After the addition of fish oil and fish oil + lycopene microcapsules to dry-cured ham and cheese spreads, no significant differences were found in the proximal composition and oxidative stability, whereas fatty acids composition and sensory analysis were influenced. The eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids content increased with the fish oil content in both products, but it decreased significantly after storage in the cheese spreads. Addition of microcapsules did not significantly influence on quantitative-descriptive and acceptability sensory analyses in dry-cured spreads, but it negatively affected the flavor of cheese spreading creams.

CONCLUSION

There is no need to add antioxidants to improve the stability of the fish oil microcapsules in the present study, which are appropriate as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid vehicles to enrich meat-derived spreading creams. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluating the use of fish oil microcapsules as omega-3 vehicle in cooked and dry-cured sausages as affected by their processing, storage and cooking

This work evaluated the use of monolayered (Mo) and multilayered (Mu) fish oil microcapsules as vehicles of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in cooked and dry-cured meat products as affected by the storage and culinary heating or dry-cured processing. Proximate composition, oxidation, EPA and DHA quantity, acceptability and morphology were evaluated. Mo and Mu microcapsules increased the quantity of EPA and DHA, leading to cooked and dry-cured products susceptible to be labeled as "source of omega-3 fatty acids", without influencing physico-chemical characteristics, oxidative stability, acceptability or usual changes that take place during the culinary heating or dry-cured processing. The storage at refrigeration influenced on usual modifications on lipid oxidation and hedonic scores, but overall quality of the meat products enriched seems not to be impaired after storing. Thus, it could be indicated the viability of Mo and Mu as vehicles to enrich meat products subjected to low and high temperature for manufacturing, storage at refrigeration and culinary heating.

Intake of arachidonic acid-containing lipids in adult humans: dietary surveys and clinical trials

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) have important roles in physiological homeostasis. Numerous studies have provided extensive information about the roles of n-3 LCPUFA, such as docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid. Arachidonic acid (ARA) is one of the major n-6 LCPUFAs and its biological aspects have been well studied. However, nutritional information for ARA is limited, especially in adult humans. This review presents a framework of dietary ARA intake and the effects of ARA supplementation on LCPUFA metabolism in adult humans, and the nutritional significance of ARA and LCPUFA is discussed.

n-3 Docosapentaenoic Acid Intake and Relationship with Plasma Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acid Concentrations in the United States: NHANES 2003-2014

The long-chain n-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), play a crucial role in health, but previous National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) analyses have shown that EPA and DHA intake in the United States is far below recommendations (~250-500 mg/day EPA + DHA). Less is known about docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), the metabolic intermediate of EPA and DHA; however, evidence suggests DPA may be an important contributor to long-chain n-3 fatty acid intake and impart unique benefits. We used NHANES 2003-2014 data (n = 45,347) to assess DPA intake and plasma concentrations, as well as the relationship between intake and plasma concentrations of EPA, DPA, and DHA. Mean DPA intake was 22.3 ± 0.8 mg/day from 2013 to 2014, and increased significantly over time (p < 0.001), with the lowest values from 2003 to 2004 (16.2 ± 1.2 mg/day). DPA intake was higher in adults (20-55 years) and seniors (55+ years) compared to younger individuals. In regression analyses, DPA intake was a significant predictor of plasma EPA (β = 138.5; p < 0.001) and DHA (β = 318.9; p < 0.001). Plasma DPA was predicted by EPA and DHA intake (β = 13.15; p = 0.001 and β = 7.4; p = 0.002), but not dietary DPA (p = 0.3). This indicates that DPA intake is not a good marker of plasma DPA status (or vice versa), and further research is needed to understand the factors that affect the interconversion of EPA and DPA. These findings have implications for future long-chain n-3 fatty acids dietary recommendations.

Effects of heat-treated hempseed supplementation on performance, egg quality, sensory evaluation and antioxidant activity of laying hens

1. This study was conducted to determine the effects of raw and heat-treated hempseed (HHS, Cannabis sativa L.) on performance, egg quality and antioxidant activity in laying hens. 2. A total of 108 laying hens, aged 36 weeks, were divided into three treatment groups with 12 replicates and each replicate contained three laying hens. The treatments were as follows: (1) Control (no hempseed), (2) 15% raw hempseed (RHS) in diet and (3) 15% HHS in the diet. Experiments lasted for 12 weeks. 3. Feed intake of the RHS group was lower than those of the control and HHS groups. Egg weight, egg mass, shell weight, shell surface area and shell thickness of the HHS group were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of the RHS group. Roche (DSM) colour fan values of the RHS group were higher than that of the HHS group (P < 0.01). 4. Palmitic, palmitoleic and oleic acids of egg yolk were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in the RHS and HHS groups; however, linoleic, α-linolenic and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA) of egg yolk increased (P < 0.05) for both treatment diets compared to the control group. 5. Both RHS and HHS supplementation to layer diets did not influence malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and blood lipid profile. 6. It was concluded that HHS was superior in improving the egg quality of laying hens as compared to the RHS.

Improving the lipid profile of ready-to-cook meat products by addition of omega-3 microcapsules: effect on oxidation and sensory analysis

BACKGROUND

The omega-3 enrichment of ready-to-cook meat products by microencapsulated fish oil (MFO) addition was analyzed. Accordingly, three batches of chicken nuggets were prepared: (i) control (C); (ii) enriched in bulk fish oil (BFO); and (iii) with added MFO. Sensory features, acceptability, oxidative stability and volatile compounds were analyzed.

RESULTS

MFO nuggets did not differ from C ones with respect to any sensory trait. BFO showed increased juiciness and saltiness but decreased meat flavor. Acceptability was not affected by enrichment. Consumers were not able to differentiate between C and MFO in a triangle test, although they could clearly identify BFO nuggets. Higher levels of lipid and protein oxidation indicators and of volatile compounds from fatty acid oxidation were found in BFO nuggets compared to C and MFO nuggets.

CONCLUSION

Enrichment of ready-to-cook meat products in omega-3 fatty acids with MFO provides both lipid and protein oxidative protection without changes in sensory quality. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Framework for life cycle assessment of livestock production systems to account for the nutritional quality of final products

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is widely regarded as a useful tool for comparing the environmental impacts of multiple livestock production systems. While LCA results are typically communicated in the form of environmental burdens per mass unit of the end product, it is increasingly becoming recognized that the product quality also needs to be accounted for to truly understand the value of a farming system to society. To date, a number of studies have examined environmental consequences of different food consumption patterns at the diet level; however, few have addressed nutritional variations of a single commodity attributable to production systems, leaving limited insight into how on-farm practices can be improved to better balance environment and human nutrition. Using data from seven livestock production systems encompassing cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry, this paper proposes a novel framework to incorporate nutritional value of meat products into livestock LCA. The results of quantitative case studies demonstrate that relative emissions intensities associated with different systems can be dramatically altered when the nutrient content of meat replaces the mass of meat as the functional unit, with cattle systems outperforming pig and poultry systems in some cases. This finding suggests that the performance of livestock systems should be evaluated under a whole supply chain approach, whereby end products originating from different farm management strategies are treated as competing but separate commodities.

Paradigm shift - Metabolic transformation of docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids to bioactives exemplify the promise of fatty acid drug discovery

Fatty acid drug discovery (FADD) is defined as the identification of novel, specialized bioactive mediators that are derived from fatty acids and have precise pharmacological/therapeutic potential. A number of reports indicate that dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids and limited intake of omega-6 promotes overall health benefits. In 1929, Burr and Burr indicated the significant role of essential fatty acids for survival and functional health of many organs. In reference to specific dietary benefits of differential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids (DHA and EPA) are transformed to monohydroxy, dihydroxy, trihydroxy, and other complex mediators during infection, injury, and exercise to resolve inflammation. The presented FADD approach describes the metabolic transformation of DHA and EPA in response to injury, infection, and exercise to govern uncontrolled inflammation. Metabolic transformation of DHA and EPA into a number of pro-resolving molecules exemplifies a novel, inexpensive approach compared to traditional, expensive drug discovery. DHA and EPA have been recommended for prevention of cardiovascular disease since 1970. Therefore, the FADD approach is relevant to cardiovascular disease and resolution of inflammation in many injury models. Future research demands identification of novel action targets, receptors for biomolecules, mechanism(s), and drug-interactions with resolvins in order to maintain homeostasis.

Are pupils' 'Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)' scores associated with a nation's fish consumption?

AIMS

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential for neurodevelopment. Fish is a major source of these essential nutrients. We asked whether a nation's fish consumption is associated with its pupils' PISA scores as measures of school achievement, independent of economic status and breastfeeding. Method (Design and Setting): This was a regression analytic study based on published data.

RESULTS

Data on fish consumption and PISA scores were available for 64 countries. A significant regression model explained 72% of the variance in PISA scores. Breastfeeding does not enter the model. After controlling for technical and/or economic development, a nation's fish consumption remains a significant predictor, explaining an additional 4% of the variance.

DISCUSSION

This effect is likely due to the fact that fish, as the major source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for a population, is important for the omega-3 supply to mothers and the early neurodevelopment of their children.

CONCLUSIONS

Fish consumption, as a proxy for a population's omega-3 supply, is an independent predictor of pupils' school achievement, in addition to a nation's economic development.

Controlling of growth performance, lipid deposits and fatty acid composition of chicken meat through a probiotic, Lactobacillus johnsonii during subclinical Clostridium perfringens infection

Background

Meat is considered as a major source of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) which is essential for humans, therefore its lipid level and fatty acid composition have drawn great attention. As no clinical sign can be found in chicks subclinically infected by Clostridium perfringens (CP), the meat may be purchased and eaten. The objective of the present study was to determine whether Lactobacillus johnsonii (LJ) can control the CP-caused impact on growth, lipid levels, fatty acid composition and other flavor or nutritional quality in the meat.

Methods

480 one-day-old chicks were divided into four groups and fed with basal diet (control and CP group). Supplemented with 1 × 10⁵ (L-LJ) and 1 × 10⁶ (H-LJ) colony-forming unit (cfu), CP diet was fed for 42 days. From day 19 to 22, birds of CP and LJ groups were administered with CP twice per day and the control was administered with liver broth.

Results

LJ-treated chickens were free from negative influences on growth performance and significant decrease of abdominal fat deposit., LJ inhibited CP-caused shearing force and drip loss increase and pH 40 min and 24 h decrease after sacrifice. In addition, LJ exhibited a positive effect on muscle lipid peroxidation by significantly increasing SOD, CAT and GSH-Px activity and decreasing MDA level. Besides, LJ attenuated the decrease of intramuscular fat, total cholesterol and triglyceride contents caused by CP infection. However, levels of total protein and most of amino acids were not changed. CP infection decreased C18:3n-3 (α-LA), C20:4n-6, C20:5n-3(EPA), C22:4n-6, C22:5n-3, C22:6n-3(DHA), total PUFA, n-3 PUFA and PUFA:SFA ratio and increased C14:0, total SFA and n-6:n-3 ratio. LJ was found to protect the muscle from these changes. Meanwhile, the 28-day gut permeability level was higher in CP group.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that CP may affect the growth performance of chicks and negatively influence lipid content and fatty acid composition in chicken meat. Meanwhile, LJ treatment may be effective in controlling these changes by reducing the increased gut permeability caused by CP subclinical infection.

Effect of a dietary probiotic, Lactobacillus johnsonii BS15, on growth performance, quality traits, antioxidant ability, and nutritional and flavour substances of chicken meat

To determine whether Lactobacillus johnsonii BS15 supplementation improves the growth performance and meat quality of broilers, 450 1-day-old male chicks (Cobb 500) were randomly divided into three groups: control group (basal corn-soybean diet), L-BS15 group (basal diet + 1 × 105 colony-forming unit BS15/g as feed), and H-BS15 group (basal diet + 1 × 106 colony-forming unit BS15/g as feed). These diets were fed for 42 days. Abdominal fat decreased (P < 0.05) as the concentration of BS15 increased. BS15 supplementation significantly increased the pH at 24 h after sacrifice and decreased drip loss and shearing force (P < 0.05), although meat colour and pH at 40 min after sacrifice remained unchanged. Antioxidant capacity and total protein and intramuscular fat levels were unchanged by the treatments, but BS15 supplementation significantly increased inosine monophosphate level and decreased total cholesterol and triglyceride levels (P < 0.05). The levels of proline, total amino acids, and flavour-related amino acids were increased (P < 0.05) by BS15 supplementation, but the levels of other amino acids did not change significantly. BS15 supplementation significantly decreased (P < 0.05) C16:0, C22:4n-6, and n-6 :  n-3 ratio and increased (P < 0.05) C18:3n-3, C20:5n-3,C22:6n-3, total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 PUFA and PUFA : saturated fatty acid ratio. These findings suggest that L. johnsonii BS15 supplementation improves the meat quality of broilers by increasing the shelf life and flavour and nutritional substances. In addition, BS15 supplementation can induce changes in fat deposits and fatty acid composition.

Dietary fat intakes in Irish adults in 2011: how much has changed in 10 years?

Imbalances in dietary fat intakes are linked to several chronic diseases. This study describes dietary intakes and food sources of fat and fatty acids in 1051 Irish adults (aged 18-90 years), using data from the 2011 national food consumption survey, the National Adult Nutrition Survey. It also compares current intakes for 18-64-year-olds with those reported in the last such survey in 2001, the North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey. Dietary fat intakes were estimated using data from 4-d semi-weighed (2011) and 7-d estimated (2001) food diaries. In 2011, intakes for 18-64-year-olds were as follows: total fat, 34·1 (sd 6·1) % total energy (%TE); SFA, 13·3 (sd 3·3) %TE; MUFA, 12·5 (sd 2·6) %TE; PUFA, 6·1 (sd 2·2) %TE; and trans-fat, 0·511 (sd 0·282) %TE. Apart from MUFA, intakes decreased (P65 years had the highest intakes of SFA; however, intakes were typically higher than UK-recommended values for all groups. In contrast, intakes of long-chain n-3 fatty acids were lowest in younger age groups. Intakes of trans-fat were well within UK-recommended levels. Although there have been some improvements in the profile of intakes since 2001, imbalances persist in the quantity and quality of dietary fat consumed by Irish adults, most notably for total and SFA and for younger age groups for long-chain n-3 fatty acids.

Validation of fatty acid intakes estimated by a food frequency questionnaire using erythrocyte fatty acid profiling in the Montreal Heart Institute Biobank

BACKGROUND

To improve the prevention, treatment and risk prediction of cardiovascular diseases, genetic markers and gene-diet interactions are currently being investigated. The Montreal Heart Institute (MHI) Biobank is suitable for such studies because of its large sample size (currently, n = 17 000), the availability of biospecimens, and the collection of data on dietary intakes of saturated (SFAs) and n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated (PUFAs) fatty acids estimated from a 14-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). We tested the validity of the FFQ by correlating dietary intakes of these fatty acids with their red blood cell (RBC) content in MHI Biobank participants.

METHODS

Seventy-five men and 75 women were selected from the Biobank. We successfully obtained RBC fatty acids for 142 subjects using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Spearman correlation coefficients were used to test whether SFA scores and daily intakes (g day(-1)) of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs correlate with their RBC content.

RESULTS

Based on covariate-adjusted analyses, intakes of n-3 PUFAs from vegetable sources were significantly correlated with RBC α-linolenic acid levels (ρ = 0.23, P = 0.007), whereas n-3 PUFA intakes from marine sources correlated significantly with RBC eicosapentaenoic acid (ρ = 0.29, P = 0.0008) and docosahexaenoic acid (ρ = 0.41, P = 9.2 × 10(-7)) levels. Intakes of n-6 PUFAs from vegetable sources correlated with RBC linoleic acid (ρ = 0.18, P = 0.04). SFA scores were not correlated with RBC total SFAs.

CONCLUSIONS

The MHI Biobank 14-item FFQ can appropriately estimate daily intakes of n-3 PUFAs from vegetable and marine sources, as well as vegetable n-6 PUFAs, which enables the possibility of using these data in future studies.

Metabolic engineering of microorganisms to produce omega-3 very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) have received growing attention due to their significant roles in human health. Currently the main source of these nutritionally and medically important fatty acids is marine fish, which has not met ever-increasing global demand. Microorganisms are an important alternative source also being explored. Although many microorganisms accumulate omega-3 LC-PUFAs naturally, metabolic engineering might still be necessary for significantly improving their yields. Here, we review recent research involving the engineering of microorganisms for production of omega-3 LC-PUFAs, including eicospentaenoic acid and docosohexaenoic acid. Both reconstitution of omega-3 LC-PUFA biosynthetic pathways and modification of existing pathways in microorganisms have demonstrated the potential to produce high levels of omega-3 LC-PUFAs. However, the yields of omega-3 LC-PUFAs in host systems have been substantially limited by potential metabolic bottlenecks, which might be caused partly by inefficient flux of fatty acid intermediates between the acyl-CoA and different lipid class pools. Although fatty acid flux in both native and heterologous microbial hosts might be controlled by several acyltransferases, evidence has suggested that genetic manipulation of one acyltransferase alone could significantly increase the accumulation of LC-PUFAs. The number of oleaginous microorganisms that can be genetically transformed is increasing, which will advance engineering efforts to maximize LC-PUFA yields in microbial strains.

Arachidonic acid-enriched triacylglycerol improves cognitive function in elderly with low serum levels of arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid (ARA) is an n-6 PUFA and is thought to have an important role in various physiological and psychological functions. Recently, supplementation with ARA-enriched TAG was shown to improve age-related decreases in cognitive function in healthy elderly men. To investigate the influence of baseline serum ARA status on cognitive function and its improvement, we analyzed cognitive function stratified by serum ARA level. The stratified analysis was also conducted for the effects of ARA-enriched TAG supplementation on cognitive improvement. Cognitive function was evaluated by measuring event-related potentials (ERPs), including P300 latency and amplitude. When participants were stratified by baseline serum ARA level, P300 latency was significantly longer and P300 amplitude was generally lower in the low-ARA group than in the high-ARA group. No significant difference in P300 components was observed when participants were stratified by serum levels of any other fatty acid. ARA-enriched TAG supplementation significantly shortened P300 latency and increased P300 amplitude in the low-ARA group, although no significant differences were observed in the high-ARA group. These findings suggest that lower serum ARA levels were associated with cognitive function in elderly men and that ARA-enriched TAG supplementation is more effective in improving cognitive function in healthy elderly men with low serum ARA levels than in those with high serum ARA levels.

The essentials of essential fatty acids

All fats, including saturated fatty acids, have important roles in the body. However, the most important fats are those that the body cannot make and thus must come from the food we eat. These essential fatty acids (EFAs) are based on linoleic acid (omega-6 group) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3 group). We need both groups of essential fatty acids to survive. For various reasons EFA deficiency is common in the general population, as is a disproportionate intake of omega-6 fatty acids over omega-3 fatty acids. As such, it is important to eat the right foods to make sure that you're taking in enough and the right kinds of the essential fatty acids. However, there is much more to the story. Studies have shown that increasing the intake of certain essential fatty acids, either alone or in combination with other fats and compounds, can increase health, help in treating certain diseases, and even improve body composition, mental and physical performance.

Dietary intake and food sources of total and individual polyunsaturated fatty acids in the Belgian population over 15 years old

Advances in our knowledge of the physiological functions of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have led to an increased interest in food sources and the level of dietary intake of these nutrients. Up to now, no representative data was available for the Belgian adult population. This study aimed to describe data on the intake and food sources of total and individual omega-6 and omega-3 PUFA for the Belgian population over 15 years old. PUFA intakes were assessed for 3,043 Belgian adults, based on two non-consecutive 24 h recalls. Usual intakes were calculated using the multiple source method. The results showed that the intake of linoleic acid (LA) is in accordance with the recommendation for almost all Belgian adults. However, the intake of omega-3 PUFA is suboptimal for a large part of the studied population and also the intake of total PUFA should be increased for a part of the population. The main food source of LA and α-linolenic acid (ALA) was the group of fats and oils (60.6 % for LA and 53.1 % for ALA). Fish and fish products were the most important sources of long chain omega-3 PUFA. Age influenced fatty acids intake, with higher intake of omega-3 PUFA in the older age groups. To fill the gap between the intake and recommendation of total PUFA, and in particular omega-3 PUFA, sustainable strategies and efficient consumer communication strategies will be needed.

High concentrations of plasma n3 fatty acids are associated with decreased risk for late age-related macular degeneration

High dietary intakes of n3 (ω3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and fish have been consistently associated with a decreased risk for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We assessed the associations of late AMD with plasma n3 PUFA, a nutritional biomarker of n3 PUFA status. The Antioxydants Lipides Essentiels Nutrition et Maladies Occulaires (Alienor) Study is a prospective, population-based study on nutrition and age-related eye diseases performed in 963 residents of Bordeaux (France) aged ≥73 y. Participants had a first eye examination in 2006-2008 and were followed for 31 mo on average. Plasma fatty acids were measured by GC from fasting blood samples collected in 1999-2001. AMD was graded from non-mydriatic color retinal photographs at all examinations and spectral domain optical coherence tomography at follow-up. After adjustment for age, gender, smoking, education, physical activity, plasma HDL-cholesterol, plasma triglycerides, CFH Y402H, apoE4, and ARMS2 A69S polymorphisms, and follow-up time, high plasma total n3 PUFA was associated with a reduced risk for late AMD [OR = 0.62 for 1-SD increase (95% CI: 0.44-0.88); P = 0.008]. Associations were similar for plasma 18:3n3 [OR = 0.62 (95% CI: 0.43-0.88); P = 0.008] and n3 long-chain PUFA [OR = 0.65 (95% CI: 0.46-0.92); P = 0.01]. This study gives further support to the potential role of n3 PUFAs in the prevention of late AMD and highlights the necessity of randomized clinical trials to determine more accurately the value of n3 PUFAs as a means of reducing AMD incidence.

Supplementation of arachidonic acid-enriched oil increases arachidonic acid contents in plasma phospholipids, but does not increase their metabolites and clinical parameters in Japanese healthy elderly individuals: a randomized controlled study

Background

The importance of arachidonic acid (ARA) among the elderly has recently gained increased attention. The effects of ARA supplementation in the elderly are not fully understood, although ARA is considered to be associated with various diseases. We investigate whether ARA supplementation to Japanese elderly subjects affects clinical parameters involved in cardiovascular, inflammatory, and allergic diseases. We also examine the levels of ARA metabolites such as prostanoids during intervention.

Methods

We conducted a randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled parallel group intervention trial. ARA-enriched oil (240 or 720 mg ARA per day) or placebo was administered to Japanese healthy men and women aged 55-70 years for 4 weeks followed by a 4-week washout period. The fatty acid contents of plasma phospholipids, clinical parameters, and ARA metabolites were determined at baseline, 2, 4, and 8 weeks.

Results

The ARA content in plasma phospholipids in the ARA-administrated groups increased dose-dependently and was almost the same at 2 weeks and at 4 weeks. The elevated ARA content decreased to nearly baseline during a 4-week washout period. During the supplementation and washout periods, no changes were observed in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid contents. There were no changes in clinical blood parameters related to cardiovascular, inflammatory and allergic diseases. ARA supplementation did not alter the level of ARA metabolites such as urinary 11-dehydro thromboxane B₂, 2,3-dinor-6-keto prostaglandin (PG) F_1α and 9,15-dioxo-11α-hydroxy-13,14-dihydro-2,3,4,5-tetranor-prostan-1,20-dioic acid (tetranor-PGEM), and plasma PGE₂ and lipoxin A₄. ARA in plasma phospholipids was not correlated with ARA metabolite levels in the blood or urine.

Conclusion

These results indicate that ARA supplementation, even at a relatively high dose, does not increase ARA metabolites, and suggest that it does not induce cardiovascular, inflammatory or allergic diseases in Japanese elderly individuals.

A risk–benefit analysis approach to seafood intake to determine optimal consumption

Seafood provides n-3 long-chain PUFA (n-3 LC-PUFA), vitamins and minerals, which are essential to maintain good health. Moreover, seafood is a source of contaminants such as methylmercury, arsenic and persistent organic pollutants that may affect health. The aim of the present study was to determine in what quantities seafood consumption would provide nutritional benefits, while minimising the risks linked to food contaminants. Seafood was grouped into clusters using a hierarchical cluster analysis. Those nutrients and contaminants were selected for which it is known that seafood is a major source. The risk–benefit analysis consisted in using an optimisation model with constraints to calculate optimum seafood cluster consumption levels. The goal was to optimise nutrient intakes as well as to limit contaminant exposure with the condition being to attain recommended nutritional intakes without exceeding tolerable upper intakes for contaminants and nutrients, while taking into account background intakes. An optimum consumption level was calculated for adults that minimises inorganic arsenic exposure and increases vitamin D intake in the general population. This consumption level guarantees that the consumer reaches the recommended intake for n-3 LC-PUFA, Se and I, while remaining below the tolerable upper intakes for methylmercury, Cd, dioxins, polychlorobiphenyls, Zn, Ca and Cu. This consumption level, which is approximately 200 g/week of certain fatty fish species and approximately 50 g/week of lean fish, molluscs and crustaceans, has to be considered in order to determine food consumption recommendations in a public health perspective.

Dietary lipids and their oxidized products in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the commonest form of dementia in the elderly, characterized by memory dysfunction, loss of lexical access, spatial and temporal disorientation, and impaired judgment. A growing body of scientific literature addresses the implication of dietary habits in the pathogenesis of AD. This review reports recent findings concerning the modulation of AD development by dietary lipids, in animals and humans, focusing on the pathogenetic role of lipid oxidation products. Oxidative breakdown products of ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-6 PUFAs), and cholesterol oxidation products (oxysterols), might play a role in favoring β-amyloid deposition, a hallmark of AD's onset and progression. Conversely, ω-3 PUFAs appear to contribute to preventing and treating AD. However, high concentrations of ω-3 PUFAs can also produce oxidized derivatives reacting with important functions of nervous cells. Thus, altered balances between cholesterol and oxysterols, and between ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs must be considered in AD's pathophysiology. The use of a diet with an appropriate ω-3/ω-6 PUFA ratio, rich in healthy oils, fish and antioxidants, such as flavonoids, but low in cholesterol-containing foods, can be a beneficial component in the clinical strategies of prevention of AD.

Prostaglandin E2 produced by Entamoeba histolytica signals via EP4 receptor and alters claudin-4 to increase ion permeability of tight junctions

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amebic dysentery characterized by severe watery diarrhea. Unfortunately, the parasitic factors involved in the pathogenesis of diarrhea are poorly defined. Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) is a host lipid mediator associated with diarrheal diseases. Intriguingly, E. histolytica produces and secretes this inflammatory molecule. We investigated the mechanism whereby ameba-derived PGE(2) induces the onset of diarrhea by altering ion permeability of paracellular tight junctions (TJs) in colonic epithelia. PGE(2) decreased barrier integrity of TJs in a dose- and time-dependent manner, as measured by transepithelial resistance. PGE(2) signals were selectively transduced via the EP4 receptor. Furthermore, PGE(2) signaling decreased TJ integrity, as revealed by EP receptor-specific agonist and antagonist studies. Loss of mucosal barrier integrity corresponded with increased ion permeability across TJs. Subcellular fractionation and confocal microscopy studies highlighted a significant spatial alteration of an important TJ protein, claudin-4, that corresponded with increased sodium ion permeability through TJs toward the lumen. Moreover, PGE(2)-induced luminal chloride secretion was a prerequisite for alterations at TJs. Thus, the gradient of NaCl created across epithelia could serve as a trigger for osmotic water flow that leads to diarrhea. Our results highlight a pathological role for E. histolytica-derived PGE(2) in the onset of diarrhea.