Effects of low to moderate levels of deoxynivalenol on feed and water intake, weight gain, and slaughtering traits of broiler chickens

Growth performance, meat quality, strength of jejunum and leg bones of both sexes Cherry Valley ducks fed with zeolite

Zeolite, as a natural mineral, could be a good additive for ducks, in line with pro-environmental trends. The study aimed to evaluate zeolite additives in feed for broiler ducks of both sexes on production results, meat quality, and the strength of the jejunum, tibia, and femur. The experiment used 200 Cherry Valley ducks, divided into a control group of males (CM) and females (CF) and an experimental group of males (ZM) and females (ZF). In the control groups, a commercial diet was used. In the experimental groups, 1% zeolite was added. The ZM group demonstrated higher body weight and weight gain than the CM group. Zeolite reduced the feed conversion ratio. A higher liver weight was found in the experimental group (ZM). Notably, zeolite influenced the weight of male pectoral muscles. Higher water loss in the pectoral muscles and higher protein content in the leg muscles were found in the same group. Females had a higher weight of neck and wings with skin. Female pectoral muscles had lower protein and water content. Zeolite in feed at a 1% level for broiler ducks could be recommended as a natural additive that positively affects the ducks' production results concerning good quality meat.

Influence of water quality and pollution on broiler's performance, vaccine and antibiotic efficiencies

Good water quality for livestock is critical for preserving animal health, ensuring the quality of animal products, supplying safe food, and increasing food production economics. Higher water levels of toxic compounds than permitted can impair meat, fat, eggs, and milk production, lower fertility, and represent public health hazards. Water picks up pollutants from its surroundings and those caused by animal and human activities. Many physicochemical parameters were used to ensure water quality, including pH, salt, taste, color, alkalinity, odor, and hardness. Water quality, directly and indirectly, impacts livestock performance and, thus, the poultry industry. Employing drinking water as a carrier of drugs still faces substantial barriers. The effectiveness of vaccinations and drugs is affected by inadequate water quality. Furthermore, contaminated water and poor nutrition negatively affect broiler chicken immunity, survival, and production. Antibiotics are widely utilized in poultry production to preserve animal health and growth. They can eliminate harmful bacteria in the gut, reduce the load on the immune system, optimize the digestive system, and boost growth performance. However, the abuse of antibiotics in animal agriculture has resulted in antibiotic-resistant infections threatening people and animals. As a result of its positive impact on the metabolome and gut microbiome, the natural antimicrobial combination could be used as an alternative; improving broiler chicken growth performance without negatively affecting the environment is currently paramount.

Assessment of information as regards the toxicity of deoxynivalenol for horses and poultry

In 2017, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) adopted a Scientific Opinion on the risks for animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. No observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) and lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) were derived for different animal species. For horses, an NOAEL of 36 mg DON/kg feed was established, the highest concentration tested and not showing adverse effects. For poultry, an NOAEL of 5 mg DON/kg feed for broiler chickens and laying hens, and an NOAEL of 7 mg DON/kg feed for ducks and turkeys was derived. The European Commission requested EFSA to review the information regarding the toxicity of DON for horses and poultry and to revise, if necessary, the established reference points (RPs). Adverse effect levels of 1.9 and 1.7 mg DON/kg feed for, respectively, broiler chickens and turkeys were derived from reassessment of existing studies and newly available literature, showing that DON causes effects on the intestines, in particular the jejunum, with a decreased villus height but also histological damage. An RP for adverse animal health effects of 0.6 mg/kg feed for broiler chickens and turkeys, respectively, was established. For horses, an adverse effect level of 5.6 mg DON/kg feed was established from studies showing reduced feed intake, with an RP for adverse animal health effects of 3.5 mg/kg feed. For ducks and laying hens, RPs remain unchanged. Based on mean and P95 (UB) exposure estimates performed in the previous Opinion, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing DON was considered a potential concern for broiler chickens and turkeys. For horses, the risk for adverse health effects from feed containing DON is low.

Mycotoxins in Poultry Feed and Feed Ingredients from Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Impact on the Production of Broiler and Layer Chickens: A Review

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

Biodegradation of Deoxynivalenol by Nocardioides sp. ZHH-013: 3-keto-Deoxynivalenol and 3-epi-Deoxynivalenol as Intermediate Products

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most devastating and notorious contaminants in food and animal feed worldwide. A novel DON-degrading strain, Nocardioides sp. ZHH-013, which exhibited complete mineralization of DON, was isolated from soil samples. The intermediate products of DON generated by this strain were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography and ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analyses. It was shown that, on an experimental level, 3-keto-DON was a necessary intermediate product during the conversion from DON to 3-epi-DON. Furthermore, the ZHH-013 strain could also utilize 3-epi-DON. This DON degradation pathway is a safety concern for food and feed. The mechanism of DON and 3-epi-DON elimination will be further studied, so that new enzymes for DON degradation can be identified.

Biomarkers of Deoxynivalenol Toxicity in Chickens with Special Emphasis on Metabolic and Welfare Parameters

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species, is the most widespread mycotoxin in poultry feed worldwide. Long term-exposure from low to moderate DON concentrations can produce alteration in growth performance and impairment of the health status of birds. To evaluate the efficacy of mycotoxin-detoxifying agent alleviating the toxic effects of DON, the most relevant biomarkers of toxicity of DON in chickens should be firstly determined. The specific biomarker of exposure of DON in chickens is DON-3 sulphate found in different biological matrices (plasma and excreta). Regarding the nonspecific biomarkers called also biomarkers of effect, the most relevant ones are the impairment of the productive parameters, the intestinal morphology (reduction of villus height) and the enlargement of the gizzard. Moreover, the biomarkers of effect related to physiology (decrease of blood proteins, triglycerides, hemoglobin, erythrocytes, and lymphocytes and the increase of alanine transaminase (ALT)), immunity (response to common vaccines and release of some proinflammatory cytokines) and welfare status of the birds (such as the increase of Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and the stress index), has been reported. This review highlights the available information regarding both types of biomarkers of DON toxicity in chickens.

Impaired Performance of Broiler Chickens Fed Diets Naturally Contaminated with Moderate Levels of Deoxynivalenol

Mycotoxin exposure is common in the poultry industry. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is usually detected at levels below the maximum threshold (5000 ppb), but depending on diet and age, broiler performance can be affected. We evaluated the effects of 900 ppb and 2300 ppb DON on the performance, intestinal morphometry, and lesion scores of broiler chickens. One-day-old male Ross broilers (n = 736) were divided into 4 treatments with 8 replicates each, and a pen containing 23 birds was the experimental unit. The animals were fed diets naturally contaminated with two levels of DON: 900 (Low DON—LD) or 2300 (Moderate DON—MD) ppb, with or without activated charcoal, over 28 days. After this, all birds were fed a marginally DON-contaminated diet without charcoal. During the first 28 days, body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were significantly impaired when broilers were fed a MD diet without activated charcoal. Even after feeding a marginally contaminated diet from D28–35, birds previously fed the MD diet presented a significantly lower performance. The villus height:crypt depth (VH:CD) ratio was significantly higher in the ileum from 14-day-old broilers fed the MD when compared with the LD diet. At D28, the MD diet caused decreased villus height (VH) and increased crypt depth (CD), affecting VH:CD ratio in both intestinal segments, with higher levels in the jejunum from 28-day-old broilers fed a non-supplemented LD diet. Broiler production was negatively affected by DON, even at moderate levels (2300 ppb).

Effect of a probiotic (Lactobacillus sp.), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mycotoxin detoxifier alone or in combination on performance, immune response and serum biochemical parameters in broilers fed deoxynivalenol-contaminated diets

Context Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of feedstuffs causes detrimental effects on animals and poultry. Dietary inclusion of microbial feed additives, such as probiotics and/or yeast, seems to be a useful approach for DON detoxification and reducing the toxin absorption from the gut. Aims This study was conducted to evaluate the synergetic effects of a probiotic (Lactobacillus spp.), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mycotoxin detoxifier on performance, serum chemical parameters and immune status of broiler chickens fed a DON-contaminated diet. Methods A total of 200 1-day-old female broilers (Hubbard®) were allocated to five dietary treatments with four replicates each in a completely randomised design. Experimental diets consisted of: (1) control diet (basal diet), (2) DON diet (basal diet contaminated with 10 mg/kg DON), (3) DON diet supplemented with 0.25% mycotoxin detoxifier (Mycofix® Plus), (4) DON diet supplemented with a combination of 0.4 g/kg probiotic and 1.5 g/kg yeast, and (5) DON diet supplemented with a combination of a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier. Key results The results showed that the DON diet significantly increased the feed conversion ratio compared with mycotoxin detoxifier and control diets. Administration of 0.4 g/kg probiotic along with 1.5 g/kg yeast to a DON-contaminated diet caused a significant enhancement of dressing percentage, leg relative weight and aspartate aminotransferase enzyme activity. The DON-contaminated diet reduced total protein, albumin, triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations, but consumption of a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier improved the levels of these parameters. The DON-treated birds showed a reduction in haematocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cells and blood lymphocyte percentage in comparison with control levels. The inclusion of a combination of a probiotic and yeast along with mycotoxin detoxifier diminished the increased heterophil: lymphocyte ratio by DON administration. The antibody titre against Newcastle disease virus vaccine increased by inclusion of a probiotic, yeast and Mycofix. Conclusions In summary, a combination of a probiotic and yeast along with mycotoxin detoxifier can improve the enzyme activity, immunity and haematological attributes, which are useful for DON-contaminated diet detoxification. Implications Dietary supplementation with a probiotic, yeast and mycotoxin detoxifier could be used as an alternative to detoxification DON in broiler chickens.

Potential contaminants and hazards in alternative chicken bedding materials and proposed guidance levels: a review

Bedding material or litter is an important requirement of meat chicken production which can influence bird welfare, health, and food safety. A substantial increase in demand and cost of chicken bedding has stimulated interest in alternative bedding sources worldwide. However, risks arising from the use of alternative bedding materials for raising meat chickens are currently unknown. Organic chemicals, elemental, and biological contaminants, as well as physical and management hazards need to be managed in litter to protect the health of chickens and consequently that of human consumers. This requires access to information on the transfer of contaminants from litter to food to inform risk profiles and assessments to guide litter risk management. In this review, contaminants and hazards of known and potential concern in alternative bedding are described and compared with existing standards for feed. The contaminants considered in this review include organic chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides), elemental contaminants (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, and lead), biological contaminants (phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and microorganisms), physical hazards, and management hazards. Reference is made to scientific literature for acceptable levels of the above contaminants in chicken feed that can be used for guidance by those involved in selecting and using bedding materials.

Effect of different dietary levels of corn naturally contaminated with DON and its derivates 3+15 Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside on the performance of broilers

In the field of mycotoxin research, there is an increasing requirement to understand the effect of these toxins at realistic contamination levels, and as mixtures, on animal health and performance. Although there are recommendations of maximum levels of some mycotoxins in feed, it is known from practice that concentrations below the maximum recommended levels already negatively affect livestock production. In the present study, we exposed broilers to three different levels of naturally contaminated diets containing deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivates 3 + 15 Acetyl-DON (3 + 15 Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside (DON-3-G) to evaluate their effect on birds performance. 630 day-old Ross 308 broilers were housed in 30 pens (21 birds per pen) and fed diets containing increasing levels of DON (Low: 1,650–1,890 μg/kg; Moderate: 2,500–2,880 μg/kg DON; and High: 3,220–3,900 μg/kg), 3 + 15 Acetyl-DON (Low: 25.6–39.4 μg/kg; Moderate: 42.3–49.1 μg/kg; and High: 58.4–71.1 μg/kg), and DON-3-G (Low: 356–362 μg/kg; Moderate: 405–637 μg/kg; and High: 625–787 μg/kg). Each diet had 10 replicate pens. During the grower period (D13-28) broilers fed diets containing moderate and high contamination levels presented a significantly increased feed intake but accompanied by significant impairment in FCR when the broilers were fed the highest contamination level. Based on this, it can be concluded that broiler production is affected when feed is contaminated with a mixture of DON and its derivates, even at levels below the EU maximum recommendation of 5,000 μg/kg. Furthermore, extra attention should be given to multi-mycotoxins contamination in diets for broilers up to 28 days old.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Diets on Productive, Morphological, and Physiological Indicators in Broiler Chickens

Simple Summary

The presence of mycotoxins in feed is a really significant problem worldwide; it leads to adverse effects on animals and great economic losses, especially in the monogastric industry. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of these mycotoxins that contaminates poultry feed and consequently has negative effects on this specie. Different concentrations of DON (5 and 15 mg/kg feed) were tested in broiler chickens. Results showed that high levels could adversely affect productive and welfare parameters; however, organ weights, morphological intestine indicators, and biochemical parameters were affected at low and high level of dietary DON. In general, even the low level of DON (5 mg/kg), which is the guidance level in complete poultry feed could affect the physiological status of birds.

Abstract

The present study with 1-day-old male broilers (Ross 308) was conducted to evaluate the effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) at different levels (5 and 15 mg/kg feed) on growth performance, relative weight of organs, morphology of the small intestine, serum biochemistry, and welfare parameters of broiler chickens. Forty-five broiler chicks were randomly divided into three different experimental groups with five replicates each: (1) control group received a non-contaminated diet, (2) contaminated diet with 5 mg DON/kg of feed, and (3) contaminated diet with 15 mg DON/kg of feed for 42 days. Results showed that feed artificially contaminated with DON at guidance level (5 mg/kg diet) did not affect growth performance parameters. However, 15 mg/kg reduced body weight gain and altered feed efficiency. DON at two assayed levels significantly increased the absolute and relative weight of thymus and the relative weight of gizzard and decreased the absolute and the relative weight of the colon. Compared to controls, both doses affected small intestine morphometry parameters. In terms of biochemical indicators, DON at 5 mg/kg reduced the creatine kinase level and at 15 mg/kg DON reduced the cholesterol level. Furthermore, DON at 15 mg/kg induced more fear in broilers compared to broilers fed the guidance level. It was concluded that even the guidance level of DON did not affect the chickens’ performance. However, its toxic effect occurred in some organs and biochemical parameters.

Low Doses of Mycotoxin Mixtures below EU Regulatory Limits Can Negatively Affect the Performance of Broiler Chickens: A Longitudinal Study

Several studies have reported a wide range of severe health effects as well as clinical signs, when livestock animals are exposed to high concentration of mycotoxins. However, little is known regarding health effects of mycotoxins at low levels. Thus, a long-term feeding trial (between May 2017 and December 2019) was used to evaluate the effect of low doses of mycotoxin mixtures on performance of broiler chickens fed a naturally contaminated diet. In total, 18 successive broiler performance trials were carried out during the study period, with approximately 2200 one-day-old Ross-308 chicks used for each trial. Feed samples given to birds were collected at the beginning of each trial and analysed for multi-mycotoxins using a validated LC-MS/MS method. Furthermore, parameters including feed intake, body weight and feed efficiency were recorded on a weekly basis. In total, 24 mycotoxins were detected in samples analysed with deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FBs), apicidin, enniatins (ENNs), emodin and beauvericin (BEV), the most prevalent mycotoxins. Furthermore, significantly higher levels (however below EU guidance values) of DON, ZEN, FBs, BEV, ENNs and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) were detected in 6 of the 18 performance trials. A strong positive relationship was observed between broilers feed efficiency and DON (R² = 0.85), FBs (R² = 0.53), DAS (R² = 0.86), ZEN (R² = 0.92), ENNs (R² = 0.60) and BEV (R² = 0.73). Moreover, a three-way interaction regression model revealed that mixtures of ZEN, DON and FBs (p = 0.01, R² = 0.84) and ZEN, DON and DAS (p = 0.001, R² = 0.91) had a statistically significant interaction effect on the birds’ feed efficiency. As farm animals are often exposed to low doses of mycotoxin mixtures (especially fusarium mycotoxins), a cumulative risk assessment in terms of measuring and mitigating against the economic, welfare and health impacts is needed for this group of compounds.

Effects of mycotoxin-contaminated feed on farm animals

Mycotoxins are secondary products produced by fungi in cereals and are frequently found in the livestock industry as contaminants of farm animal feed. Studies analyzing feed mycotoxins have been conducted worldwide and have confirmed the presence of mycotoxins with biological activity, including aflatoxin, ochratoxin A, fumonisin, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol, in a large proportion of feed samples. Exposure to mycotoxins can cause immunotoxicity and impair reproductive function in farm animals. In addition, exposure of tissues, such as the kidneys, liver, and intestines, to mycotoxins can exert histopathological changes that can interfere with animal growth and survival. This review describes previous studies regarding the presence of major mycotoxins in the feed of farm animals, especially pigs and poultry. Moreover, it describes the adverse effects of mycotoxins in farm animals following exposure, as well as the biological activity of mycotoxins in animal-derived cells. Mycotoxins have been shown to regulate signaling pathways, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and proliferation in porcine and bovine cells. A clear understanding of the effects of mycotoxins on farm animals will help reduce farm household economic loss and address the health concerns of people who consume these meat and dairy products.

A multicomponent mycotoxin deactivator modifies the response of the jejunal mucosal and cecal bacterial community to deoxynivalenol contaminated feed and oral lipopolysaccharide challenge in chickens1

Mycotoxin deactivators are a widely used strategy to abrogate negative effects of mycotoxin-contaminated feed. It has not been adequately evaluated whether these deactivators may detoxify bacterial toxins in the intestinal lumen and subsequently lower the inflammatory response in chickens. The present objective was to study the effect of a multicomponent mycotoxin deactivator (B), containing a bentonite and a bacterial strain capable to enzymatically biotransform trichothecenes especially deoxynivalenol (DON), when supplemented to a DON-contaminated feed in combination with an oral lipopolysaccharide challenge on visceral organ size, expression of innate immune genes and mucosal permeability in the small intestine as well as on the cecal bacterial composition and metabolites in broiler chickens. Eighty 1-d-old male chickens were randomly allotted to four treatment groups in two replicate batches (n = 10/treatment/replicate): 1) basal diet without DON (CON), 2) CON diet supplemented with B (2.5 mg B/kg feed) (CON-B), 3) CON diet contaminated with 10 mg DON/kg feed (DON), and 4) DON diet supplemented with 2.5 mg B/kg feed (DON-B). In half of the chickens per treatment, effects were assessed under nonchallenge conditions, whereas in the other half of birds, to increase their intestinal bacterial toxin load, effects were tested after an oral challenge with 1 mg LPS/kg BW from Escherichia coli O55:B5 on the day before sampling. DON reduced (P < 0.05) the weight of bursa fabricii and thymus. DON increased the expression level of intestinal alkaline phosphatase at the duodenal mucosa (P = 0.027) but did not modify jejunal gene expression and mucosal permeability. The LPS challenge decreased the jejunal MUC2 expression but increased ZO1 and IL6 expression compared to the unchallenged animals (P < 0.05). DON × B interactions indicated lower expression of IL10 in duodenum and NFKB in jejunum with the B diet but higher expression with the DON-B diet (P = 0.050). Furthermore, the B lowered jejunal expression of NFKB and IL6 but only in LPS-challenged chickens (P < 0.05). Alterations in the cecal microbiota composition and VFA profile were likely associated with alterations in host physiology in the small intestine caused by DON, B, and LPS. According to the present data, B appeared to have potential to detoxify antigens other than DON in the intestinal lumen of chickens, whereby the toxin load may limit the efficacy of B to modify the intestinal and systemic response as indicated by interactions of DON, B, and LPS.

The impact of deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and their combination on performance, nutrient, and energy digestibility in broiler chickens

This study evaluated the effects of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), and their combination on growth performance, nutrient, and energy digestibility in broilers. A total of 960 Cobb-Cobb male broilers were obtained on the day of hatch and placed 10 birds per cage with 8 cages per treatment. The experiment consisted of 12 treatments: control; DON 1.5 mg/kg; DON 5.0 mg/kg; FUM 20.0 mg/kg; DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20.0 mg/kg; and DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg. The remaining dietary treatments were the correlative nitrogen-free diets (NFD) for determining the endogenous nutrients loss. All birds were fed with a corn-soybean meal diet from days 1 to 15, until birds from latter 6 treatments were switched to their correlative NFD diet from days 15 to 21. Feed and BW were weighed by cage on days 8, 15, and 21. On day 21, ileal digesta was collected for digestibility determination. Both DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg and DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg treatments showed reduced feed intake (P ≤ 0.05) from days 8 to 15 and days 15 to 21. However, no significant effects were noted for BW gain or mortality-adjusted feed conversion ratio after adding single or combined mycotoxin on days 8 and 15. At day 21, cumulative BW gain was less (P ≤ 0.05) in birds fed with the mycotoxin combination diets than the control. No significant changes were shown for ileal endogenous amino acids losses. Control treatment had significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) apparent ileal energy digestibility than the DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20.0 mg/kg treatment (3,126 vs. 2,895 kcal/kg), representing a 5%-unit loss in apparent DM digestibility. No significant difference was found for standardized crude protein and amino acid digestibility. In conclusion, the combination of DON and FUM (DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg or DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg) reduced DM and ileal energy digestibility, which negatively affected BW gain in broilers.

Physiological impact on layer chickens fed corn distiller's dried grains with solubles naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol

Objective

An experiment was conducted to investigate the response of laying hens fed corn distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) that are naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON).

Methods

One hundred and sixty 52-week-old Lohmann Brown Lite hens were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments with 8 replicates per treatment. The dietary treatments were formulated to provide a range of corn DDGS contaminated with DON from 0% to 20% (i.e., 5% scale of increment). All laying hens were subjected to the same management practices in a controlled environment. Body weight, feed intake and egg production were measured biweekly for the entire 8-week experiment. The egg quality was measured biweekly for 8 weeks. On weeks 4 and 8, visceral organ weights, blood metabolites, intestinal morphology, and blood cytokine concentrations were measured.

Results

The inclusion of corn DDGS contaminated with DON in the diet did not alter (p> 0.05) the body weight, feed intake, hen-day egg production, egg mass and feed efficiency of the laying hens. No difference was found (p>0.05) in the egg quality of hens that were fed the dietary treatments. Furthermore, hens that were fed a diet containing corn DDGS contaminated with DON showed no change (p>0.05) in the visceral organ weights, the blood metabolites, and the cytokine concentrations. The crypt depth increased (p<0.05) as the amount of corn DDGS contaminated with DON increased. Proportionately, the villus height to crypt depth ratio of the laying hens decreased (p<0.05) with the increasing level of corn DDGS contaminated with DON in the diet.

Conclusion

The inclusion of corn DDGS contaminated with DON up to 20% in layer diets did not cause changes in egg production performance and egg quality, which indicates that DON is less toxic at the concentration of 1.00 mg DON/kg.

Deoxynivalenol in the Diet Impairs Bone Mineralization in Broiler Chickens

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most abundant and important trichothecene mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species. In chickens, DON intake causes feed refusal, impairs performance, gut barrier function, and immunity, and raises oxidative stress. To determine the effect of DON on bone mineralization and serum calcium and phosphorus, 80 newly-hatched chickens were fed 4 diets with 0, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg DON/kg feed in this pilot study. In week 5, chickens were euthanized, femur and tibiotarsus bones were separated from the meat, and after incineration ash composition, as well as serum calcium and phosphorus, were determined using clinical biochemistry. Dietary DON reduced chicken dry matter, calcium, and phosphorus intake, and subsequently body and leg weight. DON affected bone density and composition of the tibiotarsus more drastically than of the femur. However, lower mineral intake did not solely explain our observations of the quadratically lower tibiotarsus density and ash content, as well as linearly decreased Ca content in the femur and tibiotarsus with increasing DON levels. Linearly decreasing serum phosphorus concentrations with increasing DON levels further supported impaired mineral homeostasis due to DON. In conclusion, already low dietary DON contamination of 2.5 mg/kg feed can compromise bone mineralization in chickens.

The Effects of Deoxynivalenol (DON) on the Gut Microbiota, Morphology and Immune System of Chicken – A Review

Feed contamination is a major cause of diseases outbreak in the poultry industry. There is a direct relationship between feeding, the intestinal microbiota and how the immune system responds to disease infestation. Cereals which form the bulk of poultry feed are mostly contaminated by mycotoxins of Fusarium origin. Adequate knowledge of mycotoxins and their effects on animals is necessary. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a major contaminant of poultry feed. DON has the ability to bind with a large number of eukaryotic ribosomal subunits because of the presence of an epoxide group and these disrupt the activity of peptidyl transferase and the elongation or shortening of peptide chains. Deoxynivalenol has varying effect ranging from acute, overt diseases with high morbidity and death to chronic disease, decreased resistance to pathogens and reduced animal productivity. Deoxynivalenol also impairs the intestinal morphology, nutrient absorption, barrier function, and the innate immune response in chickens. This review highlights the impacts of deoxynivalenol on the immune system, intestinal microbiota composition and the morphology of chicken.

Dietary deoxynivalenol and oral lipopolysaccharide challenge differently affect intestinal innate immune response and barrier function in broiler chickens

Dietary deoxynivalenol (DON) impairs the intestinal immune system and digestive functions of broiler chickens. However, little is known whether increasing doses of DON similarly affect the intestinal functions in different segments of the small intestine in chickens and whether a second oral challenge may potentiate those effects. The present objective was to investigate the effect of increasing dietary DON concentrations on the relative expression of genes for tight junction proteins, mucins, toll-like receptors (TLR), and cytokines in duodenum and jejunum, jejunal mucosal permeability, as well as on α-1-acid glycoprotein and IgA in serum with or without an additional oral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Eighty 1-d-old chickens were fed diets with increasing DON concentrations (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg DON/kg diet) for 5 wk. One day before sampling, half of the chickens received an oral challenge with 1-mg Escherichia coli O55:B5 LPS/kg BW. Ussing chambers were used to measure the jejunal permeability in birds receiving 10-mg DON/kg feed with or without LPS challenge and 0-mg DON/kg feed without LPS. Increasing DON concentrations of up to 5-mg DON/kg increased (P < 0.05) the duodenal expression of TLR2, IL6, and Claudin 1 (CLDN1) by up to 84%, 88%, and 48%, respectively, compared with the noncontaminated diet. Likewise, jejunal CLDN1 expression increased up to 23% in the chickens fed DON concentrations of up to 5-mg DON/kg diet (P < 0.05). Moreover, increasing DON concentrations linearly and quadratically decreased (P < 0.05) the jejunal expression of TLR2 and transforming growth factor-β 1, respectively. The additional LPS challenge increased (P < 0.040) duodenal occludin expression by 10% as well as the jejunal tissue conductance in chickens of the 10 DON group (P = 0.050). In conclusion, dietary DON differently affected the duodenal and jejunal expression of genes for tight-junction proteins and proinflammatory signaling pathways. The additional LPS challenge did not potentiate the DON effect but it seemed to induce a certain up-regulation of the proinflammatory response in the duodenum and enhanced the mucosal permeability in the jejunum.

Dietary Deoxynivalenol Contamination and Oral Lipopolysaccharide Challenge Alters the Cecal Microbiota of Broiler Chickens

Dietary deoxynivalenol (DON) impairs the intestinal functions and performance in broiler chickens, whereas little is known about the effect of DON on the gastrointestinal microbiota. This study evaluated the impact of graded levels of dietary DON contamination on the cecal bacterial microbiota, their predicted metabolic abilities and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) profiles in chickens. In using a single oral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge we further assessed whether an additional intestinal stressor would potentiate DON-related effects on the cecal microbiota. Eighty 1-day-old chicks were fed diets with increasing DON concentrations (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg DON per kg diet) for 5 weeks and were sampled after half of the chickens received an oral LPS challenge (1 mg LPS/kg bodyweight) 1 day before sampling. The bacterial composition was investigated by Illumina MiSeq sequencing of the V3–5 region of the 16S rRNA gene. DON-feeding decreased (p < 0.05) the cecal species richness (Chao1) and evenness (Shannon) compared to the non-contaminated diet. The phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria tended to linearly increase and decrease with increasing DON-concentrations, respectively. Within the Firmicutes, DON decreased the relative abundance of Oscillospira, Clostridiaceae genus, Clostridium, and Ruminococcaceae genus 2 (p < 0.05), whereas it increased Clostridiales genus 2 (p < 0.05). Moreover, increasing DON levels linearly decreased a high-abundance Enterobacteriaceae genus and an Escherichia/Shigella-OTU (p < 0.05). Changes in the bacterial composition and their imputed metagenomic capabilities may be explained by DON-related changes in host physiology and cecal nutrient availability. The oral LPS challenge only decreased the abundance of an unassigned Clostridiales genus 2 (p = 0.03). Increasing dietary concentrations of DON quadratically increased the cecal total SCFA and butyrate concentration (p < 0.05), whereas a DON × LPS interaction indicated that LPS mainly increased cecal total SCFA, butyrate, and acetate concentrations in chickens fed the diets that were not contaminated with DON. The present findings showed that even the lowest level of dietary DON contamination had modulatory effects on chicken's cecal bacterial microbiota composition and diversity, whereas the additional oral challenge with LPS did not potentiate DON effects on the cecal bacterial composition.

Dietary deoxynivalenol does not affect mineral element accumulation in breast and thigh muscles of broiler chicken

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a well-known contaminant of feed, can have negative effects on gut permeability and function in poultry, which then could affect major and trace element content of the broilers’ breast and thigh muscles, and ultimately reduce meat quality. To study this hypothesis, DON-contaminated diet was fed to broiler chicks. Two groups of birds were housed in metabolic cages with free access to water and feed, with or without DON (10 mg/kg). After 5 weeks, birds were dissected and samples of the breast and thigh muscles, feed and droppings were analysed for five macro (Ca, K, Mg, Na, and P) and ten micro elements (Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Li, Mo, Ni, Pb, Rb, and Zn) by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) methods. In both groups, increased (p < 0.05) concentrations of Ca Na, Fe, Mn, and Zn were found in thigh muscles compared with the breast, whereas the concentrations of Mg, P, and Rb were higher in the breast muscles. DON had no effect on the elemental contents of the broilers’ breast and thigh muscles. In conclusion, DON at a level of 10 mg/kg feed to broiler chicken over of 5 weeks did not alter the macro or micro element composition in muscle meat.