Water, Sanitation, and Child Health: Evidence From Subnational Panel Data in 59 Countries

Poor housing quality and the health of newborns and young children

This study uses linked administrative data on live births, hospital stays, and census records for children born in Hungary between 2006 and 2011 to examine the relationship between poor housing quality and the health of newborns and children aged 1-2 years. We show that poor housing quality, defined as lack of access to basic sanitation and exposure to polluting heating, is not a negligible problem even in a high-income EU country like Hungary. This is particularly the case for disadvantaged children, 20-25% of whom live in extremely poor-quality homes. Next, we provide evidence that poor housing quality is strongly associated with lower health at birth and a higher number of days spent in inpatient care at the age of 1-2 years. These results indicate that lack of access to basic sanitation, hygiene, and non-polluting heating and their health impacts cannot be considered as the exclusive problem for low- and middle-income countries. In high-income countries, there is also a need for public policy programs that identify those affected by poor housing quality and offer them potential solutions to reduce the adverse effects on their health.

Water and Sanitation Access for Children in Alabama

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Safe drinking water and closed sanitation are fundamental to health and are assumed in the United States, however, gaps remain, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities. We sought to describe household sanitation access for children in rural Alabama and local health provider knowledge of sanitation related health concerns.

METHODS

Data were collected from self-administered surveys obtained from children enrolled in a larger cross-sectional study to determine soil transmitted helminthiasis prevalence in Alabama, from a survey of health providers from local federally qualified health centers and from a baseline knowledge check of Alabama health providers enrolled in an online sanitation health course.

RESULTS

Surveys completed on 771 children (approximately 10% of county pediatric population) revealed less than half lived in homes connected to centralized sewers; 12% reported "straight-pipes," a method of discharging untreated sewage to the ground outside the home, and 8% reported sewage contamination of their home property in the past year. Additionally, 15% of respondents were likely to use well water. The local health providers surveyed did not include routine screening for water and sanitation failures or associated infections. Regional healthcare providers have limited knowledge of soil transmitted helminthiasis.

CONCLUSIONS

A significant number of children from rural counties of Alabama with high rates of poverty reside in homes with water and sanitation challenges that predominantly affect African American families. This is an under-recognized health risk by local health providers, and its contribution to well-documented health disparities in this region is poorly understood.

Multi-level factors associated with utilization of water, sanitation and hygiene services by mothers in Nepal

BACKGROUND

Providing improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) at a household level remains one of the major public health challenges in Nepal. Household mothers are likely to have limited access to combined WASH services, this is influenced by individual, and community factors. Individual components of an improved water source, sanitary toilet, fixed place for handwashing, and availability of soap and water were merged into one and called combined WASH. This paper aimed to identify the individual and community factors associated with combined WASH facilities and practices among mothers with children under five years in Nepal.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 2016. The weighted sample size of this study was 4887 mothers with children under five years. The independent variables within the mothers included age, education, occupation, and caste/ethnicity in addition to education of the husband, wealth index, exposure to the newspaper, radio and television, residence, ecological zones, provinces, distance and participation in health mother groups were analyzed with the outcome variable of combined WASH. A multi-level mixed effects logistic regression model was used to assess the relationship of explanatory variables with WASH.

RESULTS

At an individual level, a rich wealth index was positively associated with combined WASH (AOR = 6.29; 95%CI: 4.63-8.54). Higher education levels and exposure to television had higher odds of having combined WASH. At the community level, the hill zone, urban residence, and Sudurpashim Provinces were positively associated with combined WASH while Madesh and Karnali Provinces and distance to water source greater than 31 minutes were associated with lower access to combined WASH.

CONCLUSION

Educated and rich household have positive association with combined WASH. It is recommended that both the health and other sectors may be instrumental in improving the combined WASH service for mothers at households.

A cluster randomized controlled trial of a community-based initiative to reduce stunting in rural Indonesia

We evaluate the impacts of a $120 million project in Indonesia conducted between 2014 and 2018 that sought to reduce stunting through a combination of (1) community-driven development grants targeted at health and education outcomes, (2) training for health providers on infant and young child feeding and growth monitoring and (3) training for sanitarians on a local variation of community-led total sanitation. This cluster randomized controlled trial involved 95 treatment and 95 control subdistricts across South Sumatra, West Kalimantan, and Central Kalimantan provinces. Overall, we find no significant impacts on stunting, the study's primary outcome measure (0.5 pp; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -3.0 to 4.1 percentage points [pp]), or other longer-term undernutrition outcomes about 1 year after the end of the project. The project had a modest impact on some secondary, more proximal outcomes related to maternal and child nutrition, including the percentage of mothers consuming the recommended number of iron-folic acid pills during pregnancy (8.7 pp; 95% CI: 4.1-13.3 pp), 0-5-month-olds being exclusively breastfed (8.7 pp; 95% CI: 1.8-15.6 pp) and 6-23-month-olds receiving the number of recommended meals per day (8.5 pp; 95% CI: 3.8-13.2 pp). However, there were no significant impacts on other proximal outcomes like the number of pre-natal and post-natal checkups, child dietary diversity, child vitamin A receipt or the incidence of child diarrhoea. Our findings highlight that successfully implementing an integrated package of interventions to reduce child stunting may be challenging in practice. Project design needs to consider implementation reality along with best practice-for example, by piloting the synchronous implementation of multifaceted interventions or phasing them in more gradually over a longer timeframe.

Protocol for the PATHOME study: a cohort study on urban societal development and the ecology of enteric disease transmission among infants, domestic animals and the environment

INTRODUCTION

Global morbidity from enteric infections and diarrhoea remains high in children in low-income and middle-income countries, despite significant investment over recent decades in health systems and water and sanitation infrastructure. Other types of societal development may be required to reduce disease burden. Ecological research on the influence of household and neighbourhood societal development on pathogen transmission dynamics between humans, animals and the environment could identify more effective strategies for preventing enteric infections.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The 'enteric pathome'-that is, the communities of viral, bacterial and parasitic pathogens transmitted from human and animal faeces through the environment is taxonomically complex in high burden settings. This integrated cohort-exposure assessment study leverages natural socioeconomic spectrums of development to study how pathome complexity is influenced by household and neighbourhood infrastructure and hygiene conditions. We are enrolling under 12-month-old children in low-income and middle-income neighbourhoods of two Kenyan cities (Nairobi and Kisumu) into a 'short-cohort' study involving repeat testing of child faeces for enteric pathogens. A mid-study exposure assessment documenting infrastructural, behavioural, spatial, climate, environmental and zoonotic factors characterises pathogen exposure pathways in household and neighbourhood settings. These data will be used to inform and validate statistical and agent-based models (ABM) that identify individual or combined intervention strategies for reducing multipathogen transmission between humans, animals and environment in urban Kenya.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The protocols for human subjects' research were approved by Institutional Review Boards at the University of Iowa (ID-202004606) and AMREF Health Africa (ID-ESRC P887/2020), and a national permit was obtained from the Kenya National Commission for Science Technology and Innovation (ID# P/21/8441). The study was registered on Clinicaltrials.gov (Identifier: NCT05322655) and is in pre-results stage. Protocols for research on animals were approved by the University of Iowa Animal Care and Use Committee (ID 0042302).

Effect of Drinking Water and Sanitation on Child Undernutrition and Diarrhea in Lao PDR

Childhood undernutrition and diarrhea remain a global health burden in the 21st century. We assessed the effect of access to basic drinking water and sanitation at home on reducing children's likelihood of being undernourished and experiencing diarrhea in Laos. We pooled two rounds of nationally representative cross-sectional household surveys: the Lao Social Indicator Surveys 2011/2012 and 2017, encompassing 23 070 children aged <5 years. We employed multivariate multilevel logistic regression for the analysis. The results showed that access to basic drinking water was associated with a reduced likelihood of undernutrition and was effective in improving child undernutrition. Moreover, access to basic sanitation reduced diarrhea in addition to undernutrition. Notably, sanitation facilities only mitigated childhood stunting and diarrhea when basic drinking water facilities were present in the household. We also confirmed that socio-economic disparities existed among children accessing basic drinking water and sanitation. Consequently, further efforts are needed toward equitable access to these facilities in Laos.

S. R, Saraswat A, Kejrewal N, Shrivastava M, Tripathy L, Murira Z, Vir S. Evaluation of impact of engaging federations of women groups to improve women's nutrition interventions- before, during and after pregnancy in social and economically backward geographies: Evidence from three eastern Indian States

BACKGROUND

Undernutrition-before, during and after pregnancy endangers the health and well-being of the mother and contributes to sub-optimal fetal development and growth. A non-randomized controlled evaluation was undertaken to assess the impact of engaging federations of women's group on coverage of nutrition interventions and on nutrition status of women in the designated poverty pockets of three Indian states-Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.

METHOD

The impact evaluation is based on two rounds of cross-sectional data from 5 resource poor blocks across 3 States, assigning 162 villages to the intervention arm and 151 villages to the control arm. The cross-sectional baseline (2016-17) and endline survey (2021-22) covered a total of 10491 adolescent girls (10-19 years), 4271 pregnant women (15-49 years) and 13521 mothers of children under age two years (15-49 years). Exposure was defined based on participation in the participatory learning and action meetings, and fixed monthly health camps (Adolescent Health Days (AHDs) and Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Days (VHSNDs)). Logistic regression models were applied to establish the association between exposure to programme activities and improvement in coverage of nutrition interventions and outcomes.

RESULTS

In the intervention area at endline, 27-38% of women participated in the participatory learning and action meetings organized by women's groups. Pregnant women participating in programme activities were two times more likely to receive an antenatal care visit in the first trimester of pregnancy (Odds ratio: 2.55 95% CI-1.68-3.88), while mothers of children under 2 were 60% more likely to receive 4 ANC visits (Odds ratio: 1.61, 95% CI- 1.30-2.02). Odds of consuming a diversified diet was higher among both pregnant women (Odds ratio: 2.05, 95% CI- 1.41-2.99) and mother of children under 2 years of age (Odds ratio: 1.38, 95% CI- 1.08-1.77) among those participating in programme activities in the intervention arm. Access to commodities for WASH including safe sanitation services (Odds ratio: 1.80, 95% CI- 1.38-2.36) and sanitary pads (Odds ratio: 1.64, 95% CI- 1.20-2.22) was higher among adolescent girls participating in programme activities.

CONCLUSION

Women's groups led participatory learning and action approaches coupled with strengthening of the supply side delivery mechanisms resulted in higher coverage of health and nutrition services. However, we found that frequency of participation was low and there was limited impact on the nutritional outcomes. Therefore, higher frequency of participation in programme activities is recommended to modify behaviour and achieve quick gains in nutritional outcomes.

Growth in milk consumption and reductions in child stunting: Historical evidence from cross-country panel data

Agricultural and food policies are increasingly being tasked with doing more to improve the nutritional status of low-income populations, especially reductions in child stunting. Which specific food sectors warrant additional policy attention is less clear, although a growing body of research argues that increased animal-sourced food consumption in general, and increased dairy consumption specifically, can significantly reduce the risks of stunting, as well as deficiencies in micronutrients and high quality protein. However, experimental research on dairy's impacts on child growth in developing countries is very limited, and non-experimental evidence is confined to cross-sectional surveys. In this study we adopt a more macro lens by using a cross-country panel to show that increases in milk consumption over time are associated with large reductions in child stunting even after controlling for important confounding factors. Countries with high rates of stunting should therefore consider nutrition-sensitive strategies to increase dairy consumption among young children through both supply- and demand-side interventions.

Spatiotemporal analysis of the effect of global development indicators on child mortality

BACKGROUND

Child mortality continue to be a major public health issue in most developing countries; albeit there has been a decline in global under-five deaths. The differences in child mortality can best be explained by socioeconomic and environmental inequalities among countries. In this study, we explore the effect of country-level development indicators on under-five mortality rates. Specifically, we examine potential spatio-temporal heterogeneity in the association between major world development indicators on under-five mortality, as well as, visualize the global differential time trend of under-five mortality rates.

METHODS

The data from 195 countries were curated from the World Bank's World Development Indicators (WDI) spanning from 2000 to 2017 and national estimates for under-five mortality from the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UN IGME).We built parametric and non-parametric Bayesian space-time interaction models to examine the effect of development indicators on under-five mortality rates. We also used employed Bayesian spatio-temporal varying coefficient models to assess the spatial and temporal variations in the effect of development indicators on under-five mortality rates.

RESULTS

In both parametric and non-parametric models, the results show indicators of good socioeconomic development were associated with a reduction in under-five mortality rates while poor indicators were associated with an increase in under-five mortality rates. For instance, the parametric model shows that gross domestic product (GDP) (β = - 1.26, [CI - 1.51; - 1.01]), current healthcare expenditure (β = - 0.40, [CI - 0.55; - 0.26]) and access to basic sanitation (β = - 0.03, [CI - 0.05; - 0.01]) were associated with a reduction under-five mortality. An increase in the proportion practising open defecation (β = 0.14, [CI 0.08; 0.20]) an increase under-five mortality rate. The result of the spatial components spatial variation in the effect of the development indicators on under-five mortality rates. The spatial patterns of the effect also change over time for some indicators, such as PM2.5.

CONCLUSION

The findings show that the burden of under-five mortality rates was considerably higher among sub-Saharan African countries and some southern Asian countries. The findings also reveal the trend in reduction in the sub-Saharan African region has been slower than the global trend.

The Interaction Effect of Birth Spacing and Maternal Healthcare Services on Child Mortality in Pakistan

There is widespread agreement that improved health should be regarded as a means and an end in the context of the development process. The health of the populace and the equitable provision of healthcare are two indicators of a society's level of development. A variety of factors influences child mortality. This study investigated the causes of child death and the interaction effect of birth spacing (B.S.) and maternal health care services (MHCS) on child mortality. Using SPSS version 20, we used the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) 2017-2018 data set to investigate the associated factors of child mortality and the moderating influence of birth spacing using binary logistic regression. The outcome variable is categorical with two categories. The findings indicated that the risk of infant death decreased with adequate B.S. between two pregnancies and access to maternal health care services. Birth spacing was found to moderate the link between access to maternal health care services (MHCS) and child mortality. Our research leads us to conclude that the amount of time between children's births significantly reduces infant mortality. When the birth spacing is at least 33 months, the relationship between maternal health care services and child mortality becomes more evident and negative.

Growth and growth trajectory among infants in early life: contributions of food insecurity and water insecurity in rural Zimbabwe

Introduction

Stunting or linear growth faltering, measured by length-for-age Z-score (LAZ), remains a significant public health challenge, particularly in rural low-income and middle-income countries. It is a marker of inadequate environments in which infants are born and raised. However, the contributions of household resource insecurities, such as food and water, to growth and growth trajectory are understudied.

Methods

We used the cluster-randomised Sanitation Hygiene and Infant Nutrition Efficacy trial to determine the association of household-level food insecurity (FI) and water insecurity (WI) on LAZ and LAZ trajectory among infants during early life. Dimensions of FI (poor access, household shocks, low availability and quality) and WI (poor access, poor quality, low reliability) were assessed with the multidimensional household food insecurity and the multidimensional household water insecurity measures. Infant length was converted to LAZ based on the 2006 WHO Child Growth Standards. We report the FI and WI fixed effects from multivariable growth curve models with repeated measures of LAZ at 1, 3, 6, 12 and 18 months (M1-M18).

Results

A total of 714 and 710 infants were included in our analyses of LAZ from M1 to M18 and M6 to M18, respectively. Mean LAZ values at each time indicated worsening linear growth. From M1 to M18, low food availability and quality was associated with lower LAZ (β=-0.09; 95% -0.19 to -0.13). From M6 to M18, poor food access was associated with lower LAZ (β=-0.11; 95% -0.20 to -0.03). None of the WI dimensions were associated with LAZ, nor with LAZ trajectory over time.

Conclusion

FI, but not WI, was associated with poor linear growth among rural Zimbabwean infants. Specifically, low food availability and quality and poor food access was associated with lower LAZ. There is no evidence of an effect of FI or WI on LAZ trajectory.

Mothers' Social Status and Children's Health: Evidence From Joint Households in Rural India

The premise that a woman's social status has intergenerational effects on her children's health has featured prominently in population science research and in development policy. This study focuses on an important case in which social hierarchy has such an effect. In joint patrilocal households in rural India, women married to the younger brother are assigned lower social rank than women married to the older brother in the same household. Almost 8% of rural Indian children under 5 years old-more than 6 million children-live in such households. We show that children of lower-ranking mothers are less likely to survive and have worse health outcomes, reflected in higher neonatal mortality and shorter height, compared with children of higher-ranking mothers in the same household. That the variation in mothers' social status that we study is not subject to reporting bias is an advantage relative to studies using self-reported measures. We present evidence that one mechanism for this effect is maternal nutrition: although they are not shorter, lower-ranking mothers weigh less than higher-ranking mothers. These results suggest that programs that merely make transfers to households without attention to intrahousehold distribution may not improve child outcomes.

The impact of environmental cleanliness and cultural factors on child health in Africa

Africa is a region with abundant natural resources, but the child mortality rate is higher. Despite World Health Organization (WHO) support, the region remained the highest with the number of child mortality rate. Given this fact, this study examines the role of environmental degradation, clean water source, and sanitation facilities on child mortality and life expectancy/longevity in Africa. To achieve this objective, we employ pooled regression and system generalized method of moment (S-GMM) on 33 African countries between 2000 and 2014. We found that environmental degradation is positively related to child mortality and life expectancy or longevity. However, clean water sources and sanitation facilities help to reduce the child mortality rate and help to improve life expectancy. Also, we found cultural norms improve child mortality and life expectancy. Our results imply that African countries are benefitting from cultural values, clean water sources, and sanitation facilities.

Household Microenvironment and Under-Fives Health Outcomes in Uganda: Focusing on Multidimensional Energy Poverty and Women Empowerment Indices

Young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are vulnerable to adverse effects of household microenvironments. The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)-specifically SDG 3 through 7-urge for a comprehensive multi-sector approach to achieve the 2030 goals. This study addresses gaps in understanding the health effects of household microenvironments in resource-poor settings. It studies associations of household microenvironment variables with episodes of acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhoea as well as with stunting among under-fives using logistic regression. Comprehensive data from a nationally representative, cross-sectional demographic and health survey (DHS) in Uganda were analysed. We constructed and applied the multidimensional energy poverty index (MEPI) and the three-dimensional women empowerment index in multi-variate regressions. The multidimensional energy poverty was associated with higher risk of ARI (OR = 1.32, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.58). Social independence of women was associated with lower risk of ARI (OR= 0.91, 95% CI 0.84 to 0.98), diarrhoea (OR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.88 to 0.99), and stunting (OR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.75 to 0.92). Women's attitude against domestic violence was also significantly associated with episodes of ARI (OR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.82 to 0.93) and diarrhoea (OR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.84 to 0.93) in children. Access to sanitation facilities was associated with lower risk of ARI (OR = 0.55, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.68), diarrhoea (OR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.71 to 0.96), and stunting (OR = 0.64, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.86). Investments targeting synergies in integrated energy and water, sanitation and hygiene, and women empowerment programmes are likely to contribute to the reduction of the burden from early childhood illnesses. Research and development actions in LMICs should address and include multi-sector synergies.

Regional Water Availability and WASH Indicators as Predictors of Malnutrition in Under-5 Children: Analysis of the National Family Health Survey, India (2015-16)

BACKGROUND

Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices determine child nutrition in resource-constrained countries and are influenced by regional water availability. We assessed any relationship between malnutrition and WASH practices among under-5 children in India's areas as per water availability.

METHODS

We did a secondary data analysis of the National Family Health Survey-IV. Stunting, wasting and being underweight were the significant outcomes. Regional water availability, households' source of water, sanitation and disposal of the child stool were the major independent variables. We report the prevalence estimates, bivariate associations and adjusted odds ratio to predict the child's malnutrition per regional water availability after using appropriate sampling weight.

RESULTS

Of the 186 875 children, 41%, 20% and 36% were stunted, wasted and underweight. Only 26% of children had access to improved drinking water sources, whereas 50.0% were defecating in open. Around 65% of children's stools were disposed of in unhygienic ways. Undernutrition depicted a significant association with independent variables. There were higher chances of stunting with a decrease in regional water availability, unimproved sanitation and unhygienic ways of stool disposal. Wasting was intensified by all these factors, except the safe disposal of stools.

CONCLUSIONS

WASH indicators exert a protective effect on undernutrition.

Stunting, double orphanhood and unequal access to public services in democratic South Africa

Orphans who lack household or community support face significant socio-economic disadvantages. In particular, they are at greater risk of malnutrition and stunting in developing countries. Children who have no living parents, also called double orphans, are most likely to require support from extended families or public institutions. This paper explores how WASH infrastructure, and public health and social services relate to stunting. It is one of the first studies to analyse these factors with a specific focus on double orphans, who tend to live in under-serviced areas with high stunting rates and poor access to public resources. We collate a cross sectional spatial dataset with local child stunting rates from 2013, rates of double orphanhood, private household resources, and public services from 2011 for South Africa, a country where the HIV/AIDS pandemic has led to high rates of double orphanhood. We estimate spatial econometric models that account for unobserved regional shocks and measurement bias, but which do not address other biases. Our results show that high stunting rates, particularly in areas with high proportions of double orphans, overlap strongly with poor provision of WASH and the availability of household resources. By contrast, other softer services accessed outside the home, such as access to health, social welfare and early childhood development facilities are not correlated with stunting in the same way. WASH is more strongly related to reduced stunting when infrastructure covers larger geographic areas and with the combined use of services from adjacent areas. This occurs because of economies of scale in provision and preventing transmission of disease across regions. Policy makers can explore the option to reduce stunting by expanding geographic networks of WASH service delivery into under-serviced areas where double orphans tend to locate.

Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions and the prevention and treatment of childhood acute malnutrition: A systematic review

Undernutrition is more prevalent among children living in unsanitary environments with inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). Despite good evidence for the effect of WASH on multiple infectious diseases, evidence for the effect of WASH interventions on childhood undernutrition is less well established, particularly for acute malnutrition. To assess the effectiveness of WASH interventions in preventing and treating acute childhood malnutrition, we performed electronic searches to identify relevant studies published between 1 January 2000 and 13 May 2019. We included studies assessing the effect of WASH on prevention and treatment of acute malnutrition in children under 5 years of age. Data were extracted by two independent reviewers. We included 26 articles of 599 identified references with a total of 43,083 participants. Twenty-five studies reported on the effect of WASH on prevention, and two studies reported its effect on treatment of acute malnutrition. Current evidence does not show consistent associations of WASH conditions and interventions with prevention of acute malnutrition or with the improvement of its treatment outcomes. Only two high-quality randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrated that improved water quality during severe acute malnutrition treatment improved recovery outcomes but did not prevent relapse. Many of the interventions consisted of a package of WASH services, making impossible to attribute the effect to one specific component. This highlights the need for high-quality, rigorous intervention studies assessing the effects of WASH interventions specifically designed to prevent acute malnutrition or improve its treatment.

Socio-demographic and environmental risk factors associated with multiple under-five child loss among mothers in Bangladesh

Background

Despite the substantial decline in child mortality globally over the last decade, reducing neonatal and under-five mortality in Bangladesh remains a challenge. Mothers who experienced multiple child losses could have substantial adverse personal and public health consequences. Hence, prevention of child loss would be extremely desirable during women’s reproductive years. The main objective of this study was to determine the risk factors associated with multiple under-five child loss from the same mother in Bangladesh.

Methods

In this study, a total of 15,877 eligible women who had given birth at least once were identified from the 2014 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey. A variety of count regression models were considered for identifying socio-demographic and environmental factors associated with multiple child loss measured as the number of lifetime under-five child mortality (U5M) experienced per woman.

Results

Of the total sample, approximately one-fifth (18.9%, n = 3003) of mothers experienced at least one child’s death during their reproductive period. The regression analysis results revealed that women in non-Muslim families, with smaller household sizes, with lower education, who were more advanced in their childbearing years, and from an unhygienic environment were at significantly higher risk of experiencing offspring mortality. This study also identified the J-shaped effect of age at first birth on the risk of U5M.

Conclusions

This study documented that low education, poor socio-economic status, extremely young or old age at first birth, and an unhygienic environment significantly contributed to U5M per mother. Therefore, improving women’s educational attainment and socio-economic status, prompting appropriate timing of pregnancy during reproductive life span, and increasing access to healthy sanitation are recommended as possible interventions for reducing under-five child mortality from a mother. Our findings point to the need for health policy decision-makers to target interventions for socio-economically vulnerable women in Bangladesh.

Sustainable water and sanitation for all: Are we there yet?

The lack of access to water and sanitation services (WSS) of a considerable share of the world population has been challenging the international community for decades. The proposal of the Millennium Development Goals and, later on, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the United Nations (UN) intended to act as a blueprint to achieve a more equitable future for all and, in the case of WSS, "Ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" (SDG 6). However, the current global pandemic further emphasised the importance of WSS, given the increasing asymmetries faced by billions worldwide, and the gaps between high-income and low- and middle-income nations. For this reason, understanding whether low- and middle-income countries have been approximating towards or deviating from the SDG 6 is crucial to derive and communicate key information for the sake of improved public governance and political decision-making. In this paper, we extend a state-of-the-art methodology based on data envelopment analysis for assessing the convergence of the low- and middle-income UN Member States regarding the SDG 6 between 2016 and 2017. We find that, on average, not only did the Member States converge by decreasing the performance spread and the gap between the best and worst practice frontiers, but also the Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources was the indicator in which the majority exhibited the worst performances. In the end, we derive possible policy implications, which, as our results show, are aligned with the recent UN reports on the subject.

Progress in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) coverage and potential contribution to the decline in diarrhea and stunting in Ethiopia

Inadequate safe water supply and poor sanitation and hygiene continue to be important risk factors for diarrhoea and stunting globally. We used data from the four rounds of the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey and applied the new World Health Organization (WHO)/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) service standards to assess progress in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) coverage between 2000 and 2016. We also performed an age-disaggregated pooled linear probability regression analysis followed by a decomposition analysis to determine whether changes in WASH practices have contributed to the changing prevalence of diarrhoea and stunting in children under 5 years of age. We observed a significant increase in the coverage of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation facilities over the period. At the national level, the use of a basic water source increased from 18% in 2000 to 50% in 2016. Open defecation declined from 82% to 32% over the same period. However, in 2016, only 6% of households had access to a basic sanitation facility, and 40% of households had no handwashing facilities. The reduction in surface water use between 2000 and 2016 explained 6% of the decline in diarrhoea observed among children aged 0-5 months. In children aged 6-59 months, between 7% and 9% of the reduction in stunting were attributable to the reduction in open defecation over this period. Despite progress, improvements are still needed to increase basic WASH coverage in Ethiopia. Our findings showed that improvements in water and sanitation only modestly explained reductions in diarrhoea and stunting.

One planet one health: What about the kids?

Humans in their increasing numbers and wealth are changing ecosystems through accelerated consumption of food, natural resources and energy which continue to cause significant damage to the planet. Using 'stunting in children' as a case study, we show how the traditional siloed (specialist) approaches have failed to reduce stunting world-wide. Despite significant effort, traditional approaches fail to appreciate the interconnectedness of the multiple factors that underpin stunting. We will not improve the lives of the millions of children living in poverty by doing the same things we have always done, rather we need to adopt approaches that recognise the interconnectedness of all the component parts and apply One Health methods designed to solve these intractable problems.

Clean water, sanitation and under-five children diarrhea incidence: Empirical evidence from the South Africa's General Household Survey

Sufficient supply of potable water, hygiene facilities, and sanitation are major factors enhancing healthy living. Using the dataset from the 2018 South Africa General Household Survey, this study employed the logistic regression model to examine the effects of accessibility to potable water and sanitation on the incidence of diarrhea among under-five children. The findings from the research reveal that the majority of children have access to safe drinking water, although a substantial percentage (32%) of the households had to pay for access. The results of the logistic regression model show that households with access to clean water, to improved toilet facilities, and to water within their residence are less likely to record incidence of diarrhea among under-five children. Moreso, the likelihood of reporting diarrhea among the children decreases with the age of children and the age of household heads. Therefore, to contribute to the designing policies targeted at reducing the incidence of diarrhea among children, this study emphasized that the availability and accessibility of clean water, water-storage facilities, and improved fecal discharge facilities among the South African households are key.

Water intake meets the Water from inside the human body – physiological, cultural, and health perspectives - Synthetic and Systematic literature review

Background. The average adult human body of 70 kilograms consists in about 67.85% water distributed evenly to an average of 70 % in all major organs of the body: skin, muscles, brain, spinal cord, liver, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, pancreas and gastro-intestinal tract. A smaller percentage is found in the bones (30%), teeth (5%) and fat tissue (50%). Objective. This review article attempts to present different perspectives on the physiological properties of water in the human body. We describe from the ancient Chinese medicine theory about water being one of the 5 elements of nature and its harmonious interrelation with the other elements in order to balance the human body, to the successful experiments of researchers which demonstrated waters’ capability to change its molecular structure based on feelings, intentions and energy it was exposed to. We briefly describe the role of water for the human body and what effects can the lack of it have, especially dehydration with all the phases of severity. Also, we present the health benefits of drinking water and which type of water is best to consume. We shorty review the different types of natural mineral waters in Romania and the importance of the Romanian researches for balneology and how the waters cand be administrated in crenotherapy for different types of pathologies. Methods. To elaborate our systematic review, we have searched for relevant open access articles and review articles in ISI Web of Science, published from January 2017 until August 2021. The terms used were water AND health in the title. Articles were excluded in the second phase if they did not reach the relevance citation criterion. The eligible articles were analyzed in detail regarding water importance for human health. Results. Our search identified, first, 548 articles. After applying a PEDro like selection filter and, we selected 93 articles with a minimum of 8 points on our PEDro like filtering scale (good, very good, and excellent articles with a minimum of 5 citations per year). Detailed analysis of the 93 selected articles has conducted us to the elimination of 33 of them as being on a different subject than that of our article. To the 60 full articles retained for this systematic and synthetic article, we have added 10 articles found through a separate Google search, as being considered of high relevance for our subject and necessary to be included. Conclusions. Water is essential for the entire planet and also indispensable for the survival of the human body. Keywords: water intake, water balance, body water, water molecular structure, dehydration, crenotherapy

Child Undernutrition following the Introduction of a Large-Scale Toilet Construction Campaign in India

BACKGROUND

Lack of toilets and the widespread practice of open defecation may contribute to India's large burden of child undernutrition.

OBJECTIVES

We examine whether a large national sanitation campaign launched in 2014, the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), precedes a reduction in stunting and wasting among under 5-y-old (u5) children in India.

METHODS

In this observational study, we used district-level data from before (2013-2014) and after (2015-2016) SBM from 3 national surveys to derive, as our outcomes, the percentage of u5 children per district who are stunted and wasted. We defined our exposures as 1) binary indicator of SBM and 2) percentage of households with toilets per district. Our analytic sample comprised nearly all 640 Indian districts (with ∼1200 rural/urban divisions per district per time point). Linear regression analyses controlled for baseline differences in districts, linear time trends by state, and relevant covariates.

RESULTS

Relative to pre-SBM, u5 stunting declines by 0.06% (95% CI: -0.10, -0.01; P = 0.009) with every percentage increase in households with toilets post-SBM. Rural regions and districts with higher pre-SBM toilet availability show greater decline in u5 stunting post-SBM.

CONCLUSIONS

An increase in toilet availability on a national scale, precipitated by the SBM sanitation campaign, is associated with a reduction in undernutrition among u5 children in India over the early phase of the campaign.

Household Water Insecurity Affects Child Nutrition Through Alternative Pathways to WASH: Evidence From India

BACKGROUND

Household water security matters greatly for child nutrition outcomes in the global South. Water's role in sanitation/hygiene, via diarrheal disease, is cited as a primary mechanism here. Yet, the relationship between Water along with Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and child stunting remains inconclusive. Water-related mechanisms outside of the traditional scope of WASH might assist with explaining this.

OBJECTIVE

We aim to test the mediating role of reduced dietary diversity as an additional potential mechanism in linking worse household water access to increased risk of early childhood stunting, separating its effects from sanitation and diarrhea among children (as a proxy for hygiene) and taking into account regional water availability.

METHOD

We use nationally representative India Demographic and Health Survey (2015-16) data for 58 038 children aged 6 to 23 months, applying generalized structural equation modelling to estimate water's direct and indirect effects (as mediated through dietary diversity and access to sanitation) on a child's likelihood of being stunted.

RESULTS

Suboptimal water access is significantly associated with elevated likelihood of child stunting. More than 30% of the effect is indirect. In the context of low water access and availability, children's dietary diversity alone mediates more than 20% of its total effect on child stunting.

CONCLUSION

Beyond the WASH mechanisms, household water access affects child stunting indirectly, mediated through its impacts on children's dietary diversity. These mediating effects are also moderated by regional water availability. Water interventions in low-water regions should help reduce children's risk of nutrition-related stunting in households with lowest water access.

Effect of exposure to PM10 on child health: evidence based on a large-scale survey from 184 cities in India

Introduction

Air pollution is increasingly becoming a serious global public health concern. Prior studies examining the effect of air pollution on health have ignored the role of households’ hygienic practices and socioeconomic condition, which are key determinants of the health status of a country like India. This study examines the effects of air pollution, measured in levels of particulate matters of size below 10 µg/m³ (PM₁₀), on child-health outcomes after adjusting for hygiene practices.

Methods

Health data from the National Family Health Survey-4 (NFHS-4) and PM₁₀ levels provided by the Central Pollution Control Board were matched for 184 Indian towns/cities. Child health outcomes included neonatal mortality, post-neonatal mortality, premature births, children with symptoms of acute respiratory infections (ARI) and low birth weight. Multilevel mixed-effects models were used to estimate the risk associated with exposure to PM₁₀.

Result

Analyses based on 23 954 births found that every 10-unit increase in PM₁₀ level, increased the risk of neonatal mortality by 6% (adjusted RR (95% CI): 1.02 (1.02 to 1.09)), and the odds of symptoms of ARI among children by 7% (adjusted OR (95% CI): 1.07 (1.03 to 1.12)), and premature births by 8% (adjusted OR (95% CI): 1.08 (1.03 to 1.12)). There was no statistically significant difference in the effect of PM₁₀ on child health regardless of household’s hygienic practices. Effects of PM₁₀ on child health outcomes remained similar for cities whether or not they were part of the National Clean Air Program (NCAP).

Conclusion

Exposure to PM₁₀, regardless of hygienic practices, increases the risk of adverse child health outcomes. Study findings suggest that the focus of mitigating the effects of air pollution should be beyond the towns/cities identified under NCAP. Given the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a systemic, coherent approach is required to address the issue of air pollution in India.

The Potential Contribution of the Health System to Reducing Stunting in SUN Countries

BACKGROUND

The global nutrition community has called for a multisectoral approach to improve nutritional outcomes. While most essential nutrition interventions are delivered through the health system, nutrition-sensitive interventions from other sectors are critical.

OBJECTIVE

We modeled the potential impact that Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) interventions delivered by the health system would have on reaching World Health Assembly (WHA) stunting targets. We also included results for targets 2, 3, and 5.

METHODS

Using all available countries enrolled in the SUN movement, we identified nutrition interventions that are delivered by the health system available in the Lives Saved Tool. We then scaled these interventions linearly from 2012 up to nearly universal coverage (90%) in 2025 and estimated the potential impact that this increase would have with regard to the WHA targets.

RESULTS

Our results show that only 16 countries out of 56 would reach the 40% reduction in the number of stunted children by 2025, with a combined total reduction of 32% across all countries. Similarly, only 2 countries would achieve the 50% reduction in anemia for women of reproductive age, 41 countries would reach at least 50% exclusive breastfeeding in children under 6 months of age, and 0 countries would reach the 30% reduction in low birth weight.

CONCLUSIONS

While the health system has an important role to play in the delivery of health interventions, focusing investments and efforts on the health system alone will not allow countries to reach the WHA targets by 2025. Concerted efforts across multiple sectors are necessary.

Recent Patterns of Stunting and Wasting in Venezuelan Children: Programming Implications for a Protracted Crisis

This study aims to assess the patterns of wasting and stunting and their concurrence among vulnerable Venezuelan children. We performed an analysis of 46,462 anthropometric records captured by Caritas Venezuela between 2017 and 2019 and relating to children under 5 years old in the poorest parishes. Based on the WHO 2006 child growth standards, we identify 31.7% and 11.5% of the records from 2019 as stunted and wasted, respectively. Our unconditional analysis shows that stunting was more frequent among boys and shows an inverted U-shape association with age. The prevalence of stunting increases from 0.28 in 2017 to 0.32 in 2019. By contrast, the wasting prevalence decreases from 0.15 in 2017 to 0.11 in 2019. The concurrence of stunting and wasting slightly decreases over the same period from 0.045 to 0.039, all three trends being statistically significant. Using multilevel regression models, our conditional analysis shows that the odds of wasted children being stunted are 1.079 times greater than for non-wasted children. Similarly, the odds of stunted children being wasted are 1.085 times greater than for non-stunted children. While age is not statistically associated with stunting, it reduces the likelihood of being wasted. Furthermore, each additional month of age reduces by 1.16% the odds of facing the simultaneous concurrence of stunting and wasting instead of not facing it. The children's sex is also found to have a significant association with the probability of stunting and wasting. The odds of stunting and wasting amongst boys are found to be 1.19 and 1.084 times greater than for girls, respectively. We also found a significant and sizeable association between food insecurity and both stunting and wasting. Although lack of access to clean water is not associated with stunting, it is associated with higher levels of wasting. Protracted humanitarian crisis in Venezuela has brought considerable damage to child growth. Findings have policy and programming implications: stunting should be targeted as a humanitarian priority in protracted crisis, not only to mitigate the growth failure in children facing multiple nutritional deficiencies, but also as an approach for preventing persistent acute malnutrition.

The Inclusion of Rights of People with Disabilities and Women and Girls in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Policy Documents and Programs of Bangladesh and Cambodia: Content Analysis Using EquiFrame

People with disabilities and as women and girls face barriers to accessing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services and facilities that fully meet their needs, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Women and girls with disabilities experience double discrimination. WASH policies should support and uphold the concepts of disability and gender inclusion, and they should also act as a guide to inform WASH programs and service delivery. Using a modified version of the EquiFrame content analysis tool, this study investigated the inclusion of 21 core concepts of human rights of people with disabilities and women and girls in 16 WASH policy documents and seven end-line program reports from Bangladesh and Cambodia. Included documents typically focused on issues of accessibility and neglected wider issues, including empowerment and support for caregivers. The rights of children and women with disabilities were scarcely focused on specifically, despite their individual needs, and there was a disconnect in the translation of certain rights from policy to practice. Qualitative research is needed with stakeholders in Bangladesh and Cambodia to investigate the inclusion and omission of core rights of people with disabilities, and women and girls, as well as the factors contributing to the translation of rights from policy to practice.

Association between WASH-Related Behaviors and Knowledge with Childhood Diarrhea in Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Diarrhea remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children in Tanzania. The purpose of this study was to explore associations between diarrheal disease and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) related behaviors and determine care-seeking predictors for diarrheal disease.

METHODS

Data from 9996 female primary caregivers were collected as part of a larger integrated nutrition program. Logistic regression was used to measure associations between predictor and dependent variables and diarrheal and care-seeking outcomes.

RESULTS

Knowledge of the importance of handwashing after assisting a child who has defecated (OR 0.79, CI 0.72-0.87), before preparing food (OR 0.88, CI 0.80-0.97), and before feeding a child (OR 0.89, CI 0.81-0.99) were each associated with not having a child with diarrhea in the past two weeks. Fathers or male caregivers (OR 0.65, CI 0.48-0.89) were less likely to seek medical care for a child with diarrhea. No associations were found between WASH-related knowledge or behavior and seeking medical care for a child with diarrhea.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that knowledge of handwashing importance was significant in washing hands after assisting a child who has defecated, before preparing food, and prior to feeding a child. These findings demonstrate the value of parental involvement to lower morbidity and mortality among children.

A Systematic Review and Appraisal of Epidemiological Studies on Household Fuel Use and Its Health Effects Using Demographic and Health Surveys

The domestic combustion of polluting fuels is associated with an estimated 3 million premature deaths each year and contributes to climate change. In many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), valid and representative estimates of people exposed to household air pollution (HAP) are scarce. The Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) is an important and consistent source of data on household fuel use for cooking and has facilitated studies of health effects. However, the body of research based on DHS data has not been systematically identified, nor its strengths and limitations critically assessed as a whole. We aimed to systematically review epidemiological studies using DHS data that considered cooking fuel type as the main exposure, including the assessment of the extent and key drivers of bias. Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and the DHS publication portal. We assessed the quality and risk of bias (RoB) of studies using a novel tool. Of 2748 records remaining after removing duplicates, 63 were read in full. A total of 45 out of 63 studies were included in our review, spanning 11 different health outcomes and representing 50 unique analyses. In total, 41 of 45 (91%) studies analysed health outcomes in children <5 years of age, including respiratory infections (n = 17), death (all-cause) (n = 14), low birthweight (n = 5), stunting and anaemia (n = 5). Inconsistencies were observed between studies in how cooking fuels were classified into relatively high- and low-polluting. Overall, 36/50 (80%) studies reported statistically significant adverse associations between polluting fuels and health outcomes. In total, 18/50 (36%) of the analyses were scored as having moderate RoB, while 16/50 (32%) analyses were scored as having serious or critical RoB. Although HAP exposure assessment is not the main focus of the DHS, it is the main, often only, source of information in many LMICs. An appreciable proportion of studies using it to analyse the association between cooking fuel use and health have potential for high RoB, mostly related to confounder control, exposure assessment and misclassification, and outcome ascertainment. Based on our findings, we provide some suggestions for ways in which revising the information collected by the DHS could make it even more amenable to studies of household fuel use and health, and reduce the RoB, without being onerous to collect and analyse.

Multi-Sectoral Participatory Design of a BabyWASH Playspace for Rural Ethiopian Households

Growing evidence suggests current water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions do not improve domestic hygiene sufficiently to improve infant health, nor consider the age-specific behaviors which increase infection risk. A household playspace (HPS) is described as one critical intervention to reduce direct fecal-oral transmission within formative growth periods. This article details both the design and development (materials and methods), and testing (results) of a HPS for rural Ethiopian households. Design and testing followed a multi-sectoral, multistep participatory process. This included a focus group discussion (FGD), two user-centered and participatory design workshops in the United Kingdom and Ethiopia, discussions with local manufacturers, and a Trials by Improved Practices (TIPs) leading to a final prototype design. Testing included the FGD and TIPs study and a subsequent randomized controlled feasibility trial in Ethiopian households. This multi-sectoral, multistage development process demonstrated a HPS is an acceptable and feasible intervention in these low-income, rural subsistence Ethiopian households. A HPS may help reduce fecal-oral transmission and infection-particularly in settings where free-range domestic livestock present an increased risk. With the need to better tailor interventions to improve infant health, this article also provides a framework for future groups developing similar material inputs and highlights the value of participatory design in this field.

Proximal and contextual correlates of childhood stunting in India: A geo-spatial analysis

BACKGROUND

Globally, India is home to every third child affected by stunting. While numerous studies have examined the correlates of childhood stunting (CS) in India, most of these studies have focused on examining the role of proximal factors, and the role of contextual factors is much less studied. This study presents a comprehensive picture of both proximal and contextual determinants of CS in India, expanding the current evidence base. The present study is guided by the WHO conceptual framework, which outlines the context, causes, and consequences of CS.

DATA AND METHODS

The study used exploratory spatial data analysis tools to analyse the spatial pattern and correlates of CS, using data from the fourth round (2015-16) of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) and the 2011 Census of India.

RESULTS

The study findings reiterate that CS continues to be high in India, with several hot spot states and districts, and that children from the central and eastern region of the nation, namely, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh are particularly vulnerable. Our analysis has identified six risk factors-maternal short stature, large household size, closely spaced births, prevalence of hypertension among women, household poverty, open defecation, and extreme temperature-and four protective factors-female education, access to improved drinking water, dietary diversity among children, and iron and folic acid (IFA) supplementation during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

The study highlights the need for investing in pre-conception care, addressing both demand- and supply-side barriers to increase the coverage of nutrition-specific interventions, implementing programmes to promote the intake of healthy foods from an early age, providing contraceptive counselling and services to unmarried and married adolescents and young women and men, and universalizing quality primary and secondary education that is inclusive and equitable to avert the burden of childhood stunting in India.

Coping through a drought: the association between child nutritional status and household food insecurity in the district of iLembe, South Africa

OBJECTIVE

To assess and compare the association between household food insecurity and child nutritional status over two time-points taking into consideration the effects of a severe drought.

DESIGN

The study used two cross-sectional household surveys during and after a severe drought, consistent with a natural experiment design.

SETTING

The study took place in the district of iLembe, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

PARTICIPANTS

Households with children aged <5 years were invited to participate in the survey. Anthropometric measures were taken for the respective children in each of the participating households.

RESULTS

The results indicated that all forms of poor nutritional status increased over the two time-points, with the most significant increases being for stunting (P < 0·016) and obesity (P < 0·001). There was evidence of an association between increasing food insecurity and stunting (P < 0·003) at the end of the drought, but not wasting, underweight or overweight. The results indicated a strong link between chronic food insecurity and chronic undernutrition. The results also showed stronger evidence of an association between food insecurity and stunting for urban households (P < 0·001) compared to their rural counterparts (P < 0·019).

CONCLUSIONS

The negative effects of drought appear to contribute to increased rates of child stunting through higher levels of household food insecurity. Future research should assess this relationship through longitudinal studies. Interventions aimed at improving food security may assist in reducing child malnutrition, but policymakers should consider urban-rural differences as well as climatic and environmental events.

Improved yet Unsafe: An Aquatic Perspective of Indian Infant Mortality

Infant mortality rate (IMR) is an important development indicator and a vital component of millennium development goals (MDGs) set by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). According to UNDP, so far India has only fared moderately in reducing IMR (Goal 4 of MDGs). India (32) ranks 144th among 196 countries regarding IMR as per the 2017 data availed from World Development Indicators. Its adjacent countries such as Bhutan (25.6), Bangladesh (26.9) and Nepal (27.8) have fared much better regarding infant survival. Numbers within the parentheses indicate the IMR of the respective country. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has identified that IMR among families with better access to improved drinking water sources and toilet is much lower than those bereft of the same. This inference has been drawn from National Family Health Survey 3 data (NFHS III). The present study investigates into the aforementioned relation analysing NFHS IV data. The result depicts that contrary to UNICEF’s findings, IMR increases with better accessibility to improved water sources. Further to this, the article shows that an additional aqua-related practice together with improved drinking water sources might lead to the betterment of IMR for India.

Water Security in the Galápagos: Socioecological Determinants and Health Implications

Water security is strongly associated with important health outcomes and has many socioecological determinants. Several studies have documented the social determinants of water security and impacts of water security on health, independently. Yet few have examined both components in one setting. Using data from Ecuador's nationally representative health survey (ENSANUT-ECU), we proposed a new methodological framework for assessing water security in the Galápagos and assessed the relationship between socioecological indicators and water security among 2701 individuals in 693 households. We then tested the link between water security and childhood stunting using multilevel mixed effects logistic regressions controlling for household clustering. We found that being higher income in rural settings is significantly protective of water quality (OR 7.35) and increasing household size is associated with reduced water access (OR 0.44). We found no impact of water insecurity on childhood stunting. We observed a marked divergence in water security between islands and discussed potential underlying structural determinants. Understanding the structural predictors of water security and health is a necessary step in improving local health outcomes in the Galápagos. The social and physical factors leading to this water security environment may also be shared by similar locations, broadening the application of these findings.

Global aid for nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions and proportion of stunted children across low- and middle-income countries: does aid matter?

Development assistance for health (DAH) has increased dramatically over the past two decades, and this increase has led to a debate on the benefits and perverse effects of scaling-up vs scaling back DAH, and the type of interventions DAH should support. Nutrition remains a contested category viewed as essential to achieving primary healthcare objectives but as falling outside of the direct ambit of the health system. Thus, despite the increase in DAH, it continues to remain an underfunded area and little is known about the relationship between aid for nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions and the proportion of stunted children across low- and middle-income countries. We hypothesize that as nutrition-specific aid targets local needs of countries and is less fungible than nutrition-sensitive aid, it will contribute more to a reduction in the proportion of stunted children, with the steepest gains among countries that have the highest burden of malnutrition. We use fixed-effects regressions to examine the relationship between the proportion of stunted children and aid for nutrition interventions (specific and sensitive) to 116 low- and middle-income countries (2002–16). We construct our panel using the Creditor Reporting System, Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation, Food and Agriculture Organization, World Health Organization and World Development indicators databases. We find a one-dollar increase in per capita nutrition-specific aid is associated with a reduction in the proportion of stunted children by 0.004 (P < 0.05). When stratified by burden of malnutrition, a one-dollar increase in per capita nutrition-specific aid to countries with the highest burden of malnutrition is associated with sharper reductions in the proportion of stunted children (0.013, P < 0.01). We also find a significant association for per capita nutrition-sensitive aid and proportion of stunted children when per capita aid for nutrition is lagged by 3 and 4 years (0.0002, P < 0.05), suggesting a long-run association between nutrition-sensitive aid and proportion of stunted children. Our findings suggest that in spite of criticisms that development assistance fails to adequately reach its intended beneficiaries, aid for nutrition has been successful at reducing the proportion of stunted children. Our findings imply a need to scale-up nutrition funding and improve targeting of aid.