Cadaverine and aminoguanidine potentiate the uptake of histamine in vitro in perfused intestinal segments of rats

Effects of White Fish Meal Replaced by Low-Quality Brown Fish Meal with Compound Additives on Growth Performance and Intestinal Health of Juvenile American Eel (Anguilla rostrata)

With a reduced supply and increased price of white fish meal (WFM), the exploration of a practical strategy to replace WFM is urgent for sustainable eel culture. A 70-day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of replacing WFM with low-quality brown fish meal (LQBFM) with compound additives (CAs) on the growth performance and intestinal health of juvenile American eels (Anguilla rostrata). The 300 fish (11.02 ± 0.02 g/fish) were randomly distributed in triplicate to four groups (control group, LQBFM20+CAs group, LQBFM30+CAs group and LQBFM40+CAs group). They were fed the diets with LQBFM replacing WFM at 0, 20%, 30% and 40%, respectively. The CAs were a mixture of Macleaya cordata extract, grape seed proanthocyanidins and compound acidifiers; its level in the diets of the trial groups was 0.50%. No significant differences were found in the growth performance between the control and LQBFM20+CAs groups (p > 0.05), whereas those values were significantly decreased in LQBFM30+CAs and LQBFM40+CAs groups (p < 0.05). Compared to the control group, the activity of glutamic-pyruvic transaminase was significantly increased in LQBFM30+CAs and LQBFM40+CAs groups, while lysozyme activity and complement 3 level were significantly decreased in those two groups (p < 0.05). There were decreased antioxidant potential and intestinal morphological indexes in the LQBFM30+CAs and LQBFM40+CAs groups, and no significant differences in those parameters were observed between the control group and LQBFM20+CAs group (p > 0.05). The intestinal microbiota at the phylum level or genus level was beneficially regulated in the LQBFM20+CAs group; similar results were not shown in the LQBFM40+CAs group. In conclusion, with 0.50% CA supplementation in the diet, LQBFM could replace 20% of WFM without detrimental effects on the growth and intestinal health of juvenile American eels and replacing 30% and 40%WFM with LQBFM might exert negative effects on this fish species.

A Review on Bio- and Chemosensors for the Detection of Biogenic Amines in Food Safety Applications: The Status in 2022

This article provides an overview on the broad topic of biogenic amines (BAs) that are a persistent concern in the context of food quality and safety. They emerge mainly from the decomposition of amino acids in protein-rich food due to enzymes excreted by pathogenic bacteria that infect food under inappropriate storage conditions. While there are food authority regulations on the maximum allowed amounts of, e.g., histamine in fish, sensitive individuals can still suffer from medical conditions triggered by biogenic amines, and mass outbreaks of scombroid poisoning are reported regularly. We review first the classical techniques used for selective BA detection and quantification in analytical laboratories and focus then on sensor-based solutions aiming at on-site BA detection throughout the food chain. There are receptor-free chemosensors for BA detection and a vastly growing range of bio- and biomimetic sensors that employ receptors to enable selective molecular recognition. Regarding the receptors, we address enzymes, antibodies, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), and aptamers as the most recent class of BA receptors. Furthermore, we address the underlying transducer technologies, including optical, electrochemical, mass-sensitive, and thermal-based sensing principles. The review concludes with an assessment on the persistent limitations of BA sensors, a technological forecast, and thoughts on short-term solutions.

The Rate of Histamine Degradation by Diamine Oxidase Is Compromised by Other Biogenic Amines

Nowadays, certain uncertainties related to the onset of histamine adverse effects remain unsolved and still require further research. Questions still to be resolved include the wide range of doses at which dietary histamine may trigger symptoms of intoxication (100-10,000 mg/kg) or the appearance of symptoms of histamine intolerance after the consumption of foods presumable without histamine. It seems feasible that other amines, by acting as competitive substrates, could interfere with histamine degradation by the intestinal enzyme diamine oxidase (DAO). Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidate the interference of different amines on the rate of histamine degradation by DAO. A series of in vitro enzymatic assays were performed using histamine as the reaction substrate combined with different proportions of putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, spermidine, and spermine (1:0.25, 1:1, 1:4, 1:20). Putrescine and cadaverine significantly delayed histamine degradation at all tested concentrations (p < 0.001). The greatest effect was observed when putrescine or cadaverine concentrations were 20-fold higher than that of histamine, its degradation being reduced by 70 and 80%, respectively, compared to histamine alone (28.16 ± 1.0 mU). In contrast, tyramine, spermidine and spermine significantly inhibited the histamine degradation rate only at the highest concentration (1:20), reducing it by 32-45%. These results demonstrate that other biogenic amines interfere with histamine metabolization by DAO in vitro, the extent depending on the substrate. These findings could explain why susceptibility to dietary histamine is so variable and account for the discrepancies in the scientific databases regarding the amount of histamine that triggers adverse health effects.

Another casualty of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic-the environmental impact

Cemetery leachate generated by the process of cadaveric decomposition is a significant contaminant of several matrices in the cemetery environment (soil, groundwater, and surface water). The biogenic amines cadaverine and putrescine stand out among the cemetery leachate contaminants, since they are potentially carcinogenic compounds. This review article presents a discussion of possible environmental impacts caused by the increase in deaths resulting from COVID-19 as its central theme. The study also aims to demonstrate the importance of considering, in this context, some climatic factors that can alter both the time of bodily decomposition and the longevity of the virus in the environment. Additionally, some evidence for the transmission of the virus to health professionals and family members after the patient's death and environmental contamination after the burial of the bodies will also be presented. Several sources were consulted, such as scientific electronic databases (NCBI), publications by government agencies (e.g., ARPEN, Brazil) and internationally recognized health and environmental agencies (e.g., WHO, OurWorldInData.org), as well as information published on reliable websites available for free (e.g., CNN) and scientific journals related to the topic. The data from this study sounds the alarm on the fact that an increase in the number of deaths from the complications of COVID-19 has generated serious environmental problems, resulting from Cemetery leachate.

The influence of indigestible protein on broiler digestive tract morphology and caecal protein fermentation metabolites

Indigestible dietary protein fermentation products have been suggested to negatively influence broiler performance due to their impact on health and digestive tract morphology. This study evaluated the digestive tract morphology and caecal protein fermentation metabolites of broiler fed 3 dietary protein levels (24%, 26% and 28%) with low or high indigestible protein (LIP, HIP). Two completely randomized 3 × 2 factorial trials were conducted with protein level (PL) and indigestible protein (IDP) as the main factors. In both trials, birds received six diets (24-LIP, 24-HIP, 26-LIP, 26-HIP, 28-LIP and 28 HIP) formulated with no medication. On day 5, trial 1 birds were vaccinated with Coccivac-B52, while trial 2 received no vaccine. Tissue and caecal samples were collected and caecal contents analysed for fermentation metabolites. Differences were considered significant when p ≤ .05. The LIP treatment caecal content in trial 1 at 14 days had greater histamine, agmatine and cadaverine levels, while HIP diets resulted in increased serotonin, tryptamine and spermidine. Histamine, serotonin and tryptamine at day 28 were not affected by IDP, and ammonia was not affected by treatments at day 14 or day 28. At day 14, HIP birds had lower total short-chain fatty acids, higher caecal pH and heavier pancreas, proventriculus, gizzard, jejunum and ileum weights. The same effects of IDP found in trial 1 were observed for histamine, agmatine, cadaverine, serotonin, tryptamine and spermidine at day 21 in trial 2. Trial 2 had a PL-by-IDP interaction influencing tyramine, spermidine (28-LIP > 24-LIP) and spermine with values increasing with PL for LIP diets and remaining constant for HIP diets. An interaction between PL and IDP was found for ammonia level and was similar to interactions for biogenic amines. In conclusion, dietary PL and IDP influence broiler caecal protein fermentation metabolites and those effects varied with coccidiosis vaccination and rearing environment.

Painful interactions: Microbial compounds and visceral pain

Visceral pain, characterized by abdominal discomfort, originates from organs in the abdominal cavity and is a characteristic symptom in patients suffering from irritable bowel syndrome, vulvodynia or interstitial cystitis. Most organs in which visceral pain originates are in contact with the external milieu and continuously exposed to microbes. In order to maintain homeostasis and prevent infections, the immune- and nervous system in these organs cooperate to sense and eliminate (harmful) microbes. Recognition of microbial components or products by receptors expressed on cells from the immune and nervous system can activate immune responses but may also cause pain. We review the microbial compounds and their receptors that could be involved in visceral pain development.

Macronutrient metabolism by the human gut microbiome: major fermentation by-products and their impact on host health

The human gut microbiome is a critical component of digestion, breaking down complex carbohydrates, proteins, and to a lesser extent fats that reach the lower gastrointestinal tract. This process results in a multitude of microbial metabolites that can act both locally and systemically (after being absorbed into the bloodstream). The impact of these biochemicals on human health is complex, as both potentially beneficial and potentially toxic metabolites can be yielded from such microbial pathways, and in some cases, these effects are dependent upon the metabolite concentration or organ locality. The aim of this review is to summarize our current knowledge of how macronutrient metabolism by the gut microbiome influences human health. Metabolites to be discussed include short-chain fatty acids and alcohols (mainly yielded from monosaccharides); ammonia, branched-chain fatty acids, amines, sulfur compounds, phenols, and indoles (derived from amino acids); glycerol and choline derivatives (obtained from the breakdown of lipids); and tertiary cycling of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Key microbial taxa and related disease states will be referred to in each case, and knowledge gaps that could contribute to our understanding of overall human wellness will be identified.

The biogenic amines putrescine and cadaverine show in vitro cytotoxicity at concentrations that can be found in foods

Putrescine and cadaverine are among the most common biogenic amines (BA) in foods, but it is advisable that their accumulation be avoided. Present knowledge about their toxicity is, however, limited; further research is needed if qualitative and quantitative risk assessments for foods are to be conducted. The present work describes a real-time analysis of the cytotoxicity of putrescine and cadaverine on intestinal cell cultures. Both BA were cytotoxic at concentrations found in BA-rich foods, although the cytotoxicity threshold for cadaverine was twice that of putrescine. Their mode of cytotoxic action was similar, with both BA causing cell necrosis; they did not induce apoptosis. The present results may help in establishing legal limits for both putrescine and cadaverine in food.

A wide diversity of bacteria from the human gut produces and degrades biogenic amines

Background: Biogenic amines (BAs) are metabolites produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids with significant physiological functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. BAs can be produced by bacteria in fermented foods, but little is known concerning the potential for microbes within the human gut microbiota to produce or degrade BAs. Objective: To isolate and identify BA-producing and BA-degrading microbes from the human gastrointestinal tract. Design: Fecal samples from human volunteers were screened on multiple growth media, under multiple growth conditions. Bacterial species were identified using 16S rRNA sequencing and BA production or degradation was assessed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Results: In total, 74 BA-producing or BA-degrading strains were isolated from the human gut. These isolates belong to the genera Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Morganella and Proteus. While differences in production or degradation of specific BAs were observed at the strain level, our results suggest that these metabolic activities are widely spread across different taxa present within the human gut microbiota. Conclusions: The isolation and identification of microbes from the human gut with BA-producing and BA-degrading metabolic activity is an important first step in developing a better understanding of how these metabolites influence health and disease.

Polyamines as Snake Toxins and Their Probable Pharmacological Functions in Envenomation

While decades of research have focused on snake venom proteins, far less attention has been paid to small organic venom constituents. Using mostly pooled samples, we surveyed 31 venoms (six elapid, six viperid, and 19 crotalid) for spermine, spermidine, putrescine, and cadaverine. Most venoms contained all four polyamines, although some in essentially trace quantities. Spermine is a potentially significant component of many viperid and crotalid venoms (≤0.16% by mass, or 7.9 µmol/g); however, it is almost completely absent from elapid venoms assayed. All elapid venoms contained larger molar quantities of putrescine and cadaverine than spermine, but still at levels that are likely to be biologically insignificant. As with venom purines, polyamines impact numerous physiological targets in ways that are consistent with the objectives of prey envenomation, prey immobilization via hypotension and paralysis. Most venoms probably do not contain sufficient quantities of polyamines to induce systemic effects in prey; however, local effects seem probable. A review of the pharmacological literature suggests that spermine could contribute to prey hypotension and paralysis by interacting with N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, blood platelets, ryanodine receptors, and Ca²⁺-ATPase. It also blocks many types of cation-permeable channels by interacting with negatively charged amino acid residues in the channel mouths. The site of envenomation probably determines which physiological targets assume the greatest importance; however, venom-induced liberation of endogenous, intracellular stores of polyamines could potentially have systemic implications and may contribute significantly to envenomation sequelae.

Pharmacological potential of biogenic amine-polyamine interactions beyond neurotransmission

Histamine, serotonin and dopamine are biogenic amines involved in intercellular communication with multiple effects on human pathophysiology. They are products of two highly homologous enzymes, histidine decarboxylase and l-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase, and transmit their signals through different receptors and signal transduction mechanisms. Polyamines derived from ornithine (putrescine, spermidine and spermine) are mainly involved in intracellular effects related to cell proliferation and death mechanisms. This review summarizes structural and functional evidence for interactions between components of all these amine metabolic and signalling networks (decarboxylases, transporters, oxidases, receptors etc.) at cellular and tissue levels, distinct from nervous and neuroendocrine systems, where the crosstalk among these amine-related components can also have important pathophysiological consequences. The discussion highlights aspects that could help to predict and discuss the effects of intervention strategies.

Scombroid poisoning: a review

Scombroid poisoning, also called histamine fish poisoning, is an allergy-like form of food poisoning that continues to be a major problem in seafood safety. The exact role of histamine in scombroid poisoning is not straightforward. Deviations from the expected dose-response have led to the advancement of various possible mechanisms of toxicity, none of them proven. Histamine action levels are used in regulation until more is known about the mechanism of scombroid poisoning. Scombroid poisoning and histamine are correlated but complicated. Victims of scombroid poisoning respond well to antihistamines, and chemical analyses of fish implicated in scombroid poisoning generally reveal elevated levels of histamine. Scombroid poisoning is unique among the seafood toxins since it results from product mishandling rather than contamination from other trophic levels. Inadequate cooling following harvest promotes bacterial histamine production, and can result in outbreaks of scombroid poisoning. Fish with high levels of free histidine, the enzyme substrate converted to histamine by bacterial histidine decarboxylase, are those most often implicated in scombroid poisoning. Laboratory methods and screening methods for detecting histamine are available in abundance, but need to be compared and validated to harmonize testing. Successful field testing, including dockside or on-board testing needed to augment HACCP efforts will have to integrate rapid and simplified detection methods with simplified and rapid sampling and extraction. Otherwise, time-consuming sample preparation reduces the impact of gains in detection speed on the overall analysis time.

Gas chromatographic analysis of histamine in mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus)

Several authors have studied histamine using gas chromatography (GC) as a tool for quantitation, but the methods used were not always suitable depending on the kind of food. Problems frequently cited include incomplete histamine elution from the columns and peak tailing. Histamine is of interest because it is the factor common to all cases of scombroid poisoning, it has physiological and biological activity, and it is a chemical indicator of fish quality. In this study a modified GC method was used to quantify histamine in mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus). Mean recovery was 67% for the GC method, compared with 90% for the AOAC fluorometric method. There was a 0.96 correlation of the GC histamine values with those of the AOAC fluorometric method. A temperature program, splitless/split injection, and analyte cleanup were essential for GC properties. Histamine retention time was 8.2 min. The method allowed peak height to be used for quantitation and simultaneous analysis of cadaverine and putrescine.

Effects of biogenic amines on growth and the incidence of proventricular lesions in broiler chickens

Biogenic amines have been implicated in a malabsorption syndrome characterized by decreases in feed efficiency and enlargement of the proventriculus. Two studies were conducted to determine the effects of two common biogenic amines, histamine (HIS) and cadaverine (CAD), on broiler growth and the incidence of pathologies associated with proventriculitis. In the first experiment, broiler chicks were fed diets containing 0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2% HIS, and in the second experiment chicks were fed diets containing 0, 0.1, and 0.2% HIS, 0.1% CAD, or a combination of 0.1% HIS and 0.1% CAD. Histamine at 0.1 and 0.2% or the combination of HIS and CAD (0.1% each) reduced body weight and feed conversion at 21 d of age. Histamine (0.2%) or the combination of 0.1% HIS and 0.1% CAD increased the circumference of the gastric isthmus 14 and 16%, respectively, and the relative weight of the proventriculus by 21 and 36%, respectively. Histamine and CAD increased the total number, incidence, and severity of gizzard erosion and proventricular ulcers (plaques), and decreased the prominence of gastric papillae by 9 to 108%, depending on the lesion and level of biogenic amine. Dietary HIS (0.2%) increased putrescine by 91% and spermidine by 41% in proventriculus, and dietary CAD increased tissue CAD to detectable levels. Analysis of 49 commercially available, animal by-product feedstuffs suggests that if biogenic amines were the singular cause of proventriculitis, the current industry levels of dietary animal protein (5 to 10%) would not compromise growth performance.

Update on histamine fish poisoning

Histamine fish poisoning (HFP) is a chemical intoxication that occurs after eating bacterially contaminated fish of particular species. Its incidence has been underestimated because of its frequently mild nature, lack of mandatory reporting, and misdiagnosis (most often as seafood allergy). The fish are non-toxic when caught, but increase in histamine content as bacterial numbers increase. They may look and smell normal, and cooking does not destroy the histamine. Although the condition is caused by histamine intoxication, its pathogenesis is not fully understood, and other toxins or potentiators may be involved.

Histamine fish poisoning revisited

Histamine (or scombroid) fish poisoning (HFP) is reviewed in a risk-assessment framework in an attempt to arrive at an informed characterisation of risk. Histamine is the main toxin involved in HFP, but the disease is not uncomplicated histamine poisoning. Although it is generally associated with high levels of histamine (> or =50 mg/100 g) in bacterially contaminated fish of particular species, the pathogenesis of HFP has not been clearly elucidated. Various hypotheses have been put forward to explain why histamine consumed in spoiled fish is more toxic than pure histamine taken orally, but none has proved totally satisfactory. Urocanic acid, like histamine, an imidazole compound derived from histidine in spoiling fish, may be the "missing factor" in HFP. cis-Urocanic acid has recently been recognised as a mast cell degranulator, and endogenous histamine from mast cell degranulation may augment the exogenous histamine consumed in spoiled fish. HFP is a mild disease, but is important in relation to food safety and international trade. Consumers are becoming more demanding, and litigation following food poisoning incidents is becoming more common. Producers, distributors and restaurants are increasingly held liable for the quality of the products they handle and sell. Many countries have set guidelines for maximum permitted levels of histamine in fish. However, histamine concentrations within a spoiled fish are extremely variable, as is the threshold toxic dose. Until the identity, levels and potency of possible potentiators and/or mast-cell-degranulating factors are elucidated, it is difficult to establish regulatory limits for histamine in foods on the basis of potential health hazard. Histidine decarboxylating bacteria produce histamine from free histidine in spoiling fish. Although some are present in the normal microbial flora of live fish, most seem to be derived from post-catching contamination on board fishing vessels, at the processing plant or in the distribution system, or in restaurants or homes. The key to keeping bacterial numbers and histamine levels low is the rapid cooling of fish after catching and the maintenance of adequate refrigeration during handling and storage. Despite the huge expansion in trade in recent years, great progress has been made in ensuring the quality and safety of fish products. This is largely the result of the introduction of international standards of food hygiene and the application of risk analysis and hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) principles.

Biogenic amines: their importance in foods

Biogenic amines are important nitrogen compounds of biological importance in vegetable, microbial and animal cells. They can be detected in both raw and processed foods. In food microbiology they have sometimes been related to spoilage and fermentation processes. Some toxicological characteristics and outbreaks of food poisoning are associated with histamine and tyramine. Secondary amines may undergo nitrosation and form nitrosamines. A better knowledge of the factors controlling their formation is necessary in order to improve the quality and safety of food.

The effects of histamine administered in fish samples to healthy volunteers

The effects of histamine administered in samples of fish to eight healthy volunteers (4 females and 4 males), aged 21-30 years, were studied. The subjects were given 0, 45 and 90 mg of histamine that had been metabolized from histidine by photobacteria in the fish and 90 mg of histamine added to fresh fish, for breakfast. The subjects were observed during 6 h after breakfast. Special attention was paid to clinical symptoms, blood pressure and ECG. The pH of the gastric contents was recorded continuously from 5 min before to 6 h after the meal. Blood samples to measure the histamine concentration were taken at intervals during 24 h after breakfast. Two of the subjects showed effects (facial flushing, headache) that could be attributed to the ingestion of histamine. No significant changes were observed in the blood pressure and ECG. The pH of the gastric fluids did not decrease significantly. The histamine concentration in plasma correlated closely with the histamine dose ingested (p < 0.001, r = 0.996). The Cmax of the dose of 90 mg did not differ statistically significant from the Cmax of the dose of 90 mg histamine added to unspoiled fish.

Is there a role for amines other than histamines in the aetiology of scombrotoxicosis?

Mackerel fillets associated with an outbreak of scombrotoxicosis have been analysed for their contents of cadaverine, histamine, putrescine, spermidine, spermine and tyramine, and fed to informed, healthy volunteers of both sexes under medical supervision. Of the 86 fillets examined, 30 rapidly induced nausea/vomiting and/or diarrhoea when 50 g were consumed. The remaining fillets failed to provoke such symptoms, even though 17 of them were tested by volunteers proven to be susceptible to scombro-intoxication. Statistical analysis failed to detect any differences in amines content between fillets shown to be scombrotoxic and those failing to induce nausea/vomiting and/or diarrhoea, and failed also to establish any significant relationships between the amines doses and volunteer responses, even after manipulations to simulate additive or synergistic interactions. Accordingly it is concluded that the content of such amines in mackerel have little or no role in the aetiology of scombrotoxicosis.

Non-everted oxygenated rat intestinal segments as a measure of neutral detergent fiber effects on iron absorption

Iron absorption in the presence of varying amounts and sizes of dietary fiber was measured. A method using non-everted rat intestinal segments perfused in oxygen was refined. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), a component of dietary fiber, was extracted from cooked pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The NDF did not affect iron absorption in intestinal segments from iron replete rats. However, 4 and 6 mg of NDF/ml significantly decreased iron absorption in the intestinal segments from anemic rats. NDF with a smaller particle size of 0.125 mm increased iron absorption relative to that absorbed with 0.180 mm particles. Histological examination validated using non-everted intestinal segments perfused with oxygen as a method for studying dietary effects on iron absorption. Segments which are not everted are less prone to damage. Perfusion with oxygen maintained metabolic activity in the tissue during the experiment.

Histamine incorporation into murine myeloblasts and promyelocytes. Formation of a histamine transport system

When isolated murine myeloblasts and promyelocytes were treated with 3H-histamine (5 x 10(-7) M) in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 20% horse serum at 37 degrees, the radioactivity of these cells increased gradually, reaching a maximum after 6 hr. However, when these progenitor cells were pretreated with unlabeled histamine (5 x 10(-7) M) for 1 hr, subsequent exposure to 3H-histamine caused prompt incorporation, the extent of which was more than 3.8 times that seen in cells which were not pretreated. This acceleration was prevented by simultaneous addition of cycloheximide (4 x 10(-7) M) or actinomycin D (10(-7) M) in the pre-incubation stage. While the microsomal fraction of progenitor cells pretreated with histamine initially yielded a higher binding capacity, that of the plasma membrane fraction rose significantly after 1 hr. Most of the incorporated 3H-histamine was detected as unmetabolized. Non-histone chromatin protein had a higher affinity to 3H-histamine than did the DNA fraction of progenitor cell nuclei. Histamine inhibited myeloperoxidase activity of myeloid progenitor cells selectively and dose-dependently without affecting eosinophil peroxidase. These findings suggest that histamine incorporated into murine myeloblasts and promyelocytes induces the synthesis of a specific protein(s) through interaction with the nucleus, and that these proteins, in turn, may be combined into the cell membrane, where they act as a transport system for histamine incorporation.

Formation of biogenic amines in herring and mackerel

The formation of biogenic amines (histamine, cadaverine, putrescine and spermidine) was followed during vacuum packed storage at 2 degrees C or 10 degrees C in the scombroid fish mackerel and in the non-scombroid fish herring. Also the changes in the content of free amino acids and in the organoleptic and microbiological qualities were followed. At 10 degrees C the amine contents were 2-20 times higher at the time of rejection as compared with samples stored at 2 degrees C. In herring and mackerel similar amounts of histamine were accumulated, whilst cadaverine was formed at much higher levels in mackerel compared with herring. The high contents of cadaverine in mackerel can possibly explain why mackerel and not herring are often implicated in incidents of scombrotoxic poisoning.

Histamine food poisoning: toxicology and clinical aspects

Histamine poisoning can result from the ingestion of food containing unusually high levels of histamine. Fish are most commonly involved in incidents of histamine poisoning, although cheese has also been implicated on occasion. The historic involvement of tuna and mackerel in histamine poisoning led to the longtime usage of the term, scombroid fish poisoning, to describe this food-borne illness. Histamine poisoning is characterized by a short incubation period, a short duration, and symptoms resembling those associated with allergic reactions. The evidence supporting the role of histamine as the causative agent is compelling. The efficacy of antihistamine therapy, the allergic-like symptomology, and the finding of high levels of histamine in the implicated food suggest strongly that histamine is the causative agent. However, histamine ingested with spoiled fish appears to be much more toxic than histamine ingested in an aqueous solution. The presence of potentiators of histamine toxicity in the spoiled fish may account for this difference in toxicity. Several potentiators including other putrefactive amines such as putrescine and cadaverine have been identified. Pharmacologic potentiators may also exist; aminoguanidine and isoniazid are examples. The mechanism of action of these potentiators appears to be the inhibition of intestinal histamine-metabolizing enzymes. This enzyme inhibition causes a decrease in histamine detoxification in the intestinal mucosa and results in increased intestinal uptake and urinary excretion of unmetabolized histamine.

Reversed-phase ion-pair high-performance liquid chromatographic procedure for determination of histamine and its metabolites in rat urine

A reversed-phase ion-pair high-performance liquid chromatographic procedure for quantitative determination of histamine and its metabolites in rat urine is described. This method allows simultaneous analysis of five major histamine metabolites. Good separations were obtained by using 1-pentanesulfonic acid as the ion-pair reagent. A gradient elution program was used; the total elution time was less than 22 min. Linear standard curves with high correlation coefficients were obtained. This procedure has the advantage of requiring little sample preparation time and handling, and therefore maximizes the recovery of metabolites.