There is more than one interleukin 1

Unveiling cytokine charge disparity as a potential mechanism for immune regulation

Cytokines are small signaling proteins that regulate the immune responses to infection and tissue damage. Surface charges of cytokines determine their in vivo fate in immune regulation, e.g., half-life and distribution. The overall negative charges in the extracellular microenvironment and the acidosis during inflammation and infection may differentially impact cytokines with different surface charges for fine-tuned immune regulation via controlling tissue residential properties. However, the trend and role of cytokine surface charges has yet to be elucidated in the literature. Interestingly, we have observed that most pro-inflammatory cytokines have a negative charge, while most anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines have a positive charge. In this review, we extensively examined the surface charges of all cytokines and chemokines, summarized the pharmacokinetics and tissue adhesion of major cytokines, and analyzed the link of surface charge with cytokine biodistribution, activation, and function in immune regulation. Additionally, we identified that the general trend of charge disparity between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines represents a unique opportunity to develop precise immune modulation approaches, which can be applied to many inflammation-associated diseases including solid tumors, chronic wounds, infection, and sepsis.

Macrophage Activation in Follicular Conjunctivitis during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Among the symptoms of SARS-CoV-2, follicular conjunctivitis has become relevant. The conjunctiva acts as an open lymph node, reacting to the viral antigen that binds the epithelial cells, forming follicles of B cells with activated T cells and NK cells on its surface, which, in turn, talk to monocyte-derived inflammatory infected macrophages. Here, the NLRP3 inflammasome is a major driver in releasing pro-inflammatory factors such as IL-6 and caspase-1, leading to follicular conjunctivitis and bulbar congestion, even as isolated signs in the 'asymptomatic' patient.

IL-1 in osteoarthritis: time for a critical review of the literature

The concept of interleukin-1 (IL-1) as a target in osteoarthritis (OA) has been an attractive one for many years. It is a highly potent inducer of cartilage degradation, causing the induction of mRNA and controlling the bioavailability of disease-relevant proteases such as ADAMTS5 and MMP13. It drives synovitis and can induce other disease-relevant genes such as nerve growth factor, a key pain sensitiser in OA. However, the quality of evidence for its involvement in disease is modest. Descriptive studies have demonstrated expression of IL-1α and β in OA cartilage and elevated levels in the synovial fluid of some patients. Agnostic transcriptomic and genomic analyses do not identify IL-1 as a key pathway. In vivo models show a conflicting role for this molecule; early studies using therapeutic approaches in large animal models show a benefit, but most murine studies fail to demonstrate protection where the ligands (IL-1α/β), the cytokine activator (IL-1–converting enzyme), or the receptor (IL-1R) have been knocked out. Recently, a number of large double-blind randomised controlled clinical studies targeting IL-1 have failed. Enthusiasm for IL-1 as a target in OA is rapidly dwindling.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of the interleukin 1b gene in Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus)

Interleukin 1b (IL-1b) is a member of the cytokine family that serves as major mediators for early pro-inflammatory responses. During artificial breeding of Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), outbreaks of NNV in the early development stages could lead to high mortality. Recent research reported that IL-1b participated in the host-virus interaction against NNV infection, however, no IL-1b gene has been identified from Pacific cod so far. In this study, we described the identification and characterization of a IL-1b from Pacific cod transcriptome at both transcript and protein level. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis were conducted to determine and confirm their evolutionary relationship. Expression analysis revealed that IL-1b was expressed in all tested tissues and the western blot analysis confirmed the same expression profiles using purified recombinant IL-1b protein. In addition, significant up-regulation was detected in IL-1b transcripts during early development stages at 30dph and 50dph. After challenged with poly I:C, IL-1b was significantly induced after 24 h. Taken together, these results strongly suggested that IL-1b might play an essential role in innate defense mechanism of Pacific cod.

Effect of Dietary Acidolysis-Oxidized Konjac Glucomannan Supplementation on Serum Immune Parameters and Intestinal Immune-Related Gene Expression of Schizothorax prenanti

The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary acidolysis-oxidized konjac glucomannan (A-OKGM) (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.6%) supplementation on the immunity and expression of immune-related genes in Schizothorax prenanti. After feeding for eight weeks, the serum and guts were used for measurement of biochemical parameters, and immune-related gene expression in the gut were also analyzed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). C-reactive protein and IgM levels were significantly higher in the A-OKGM fed groups than in the control group, regardless of the dosage. The 0.4% and 1.6% A-OKGM groups showed significant up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) in the anterior gut. The 0.8% and 1.6% A-OKGM groups also showed significantly enhanced TNFα expression in the mid- and distal guts. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) expression in the anterior gut of fish fed with 0.4% and 1.6% A-OKGM diets was significantly enhanced. The 0.8% and 1.6% A-OKGM diets resulted in significantly increased the expression of IL-1β in the distal gut. Similarly, the interleukin-6 (IL-6) messenger RNA (mRNA) levels in the 0.4% and 1.6% diet groups were significantly higher in the anterior gut. The 0.8% and 1.6% A-OKGM diet groups showed significant induction of IL-6 gene expression in the distal gut. A-OKGM modified from KGM can act as an immunostimulant to enhance the immunity of S. prenanti.

Histological Architecture Underlying Brain-Immune Cell-Cell Interactions and the Cerebral Response to Systemic Inflammation

Although the brain is now known to actively interact with the immune system under non-inflammatory conditions, the site of cell–cell interactions between brain parenchymal cells and immune cells has been an open question until recently. Studies by our and other groups have indicated that brain structures such as the leptomeninges, choroid plexus stroma and epithelium, attachments of choroid plexus, vascular endothelial cells, cells of the perivascular space, circumventricular organs, and astrocytic endfeet construct the histological architecture that provides a location for intercellular interactions between bone marrow-derived myeloid lineage cells and brain parenchymal cells under non-inflammatory conditions. This architecture also functions as the interface between the brain and the immune system, through which systemic inflammation-induced molecular events can be relayed to the brain parenchyma at early stages of systemic inflammation during which the blood–brain barrier is relatively preserved. Although brain microglia are well known to be activated by systemic inflammation, the mechanism by which systemic inflammatory challenge and microglial activation are connected has not been well documented. Perturbed brain–immune interaction underlies a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders including ischemic brain injury, status epilepticus, repeated social defeat, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Proinflammatory status associated with cytokine imbalance is involved in autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, and depression. In this article, we propose a mechanism connecting systemic inflammation, brain–immune interface cells, and brain parenchymal cells and discuss the relevance of basic studies of the mechanism to neurological disorders with a special emphasis on sepsis-associated encephalopathy and preterm brain injury.

Platelets Mediate Host Defense against Staphylococcus aureus through Direct Bactericidal Activity and by Enhancing Macrophage Activities

Platelets are the chief effector cells in hemostasis. However, recent evidence suggests they have multiple roles in host defense against infection. Reports by us and others showed that platelets functionally contribute to protection against Staphylococcus aureus infection. In the current study, the capacity of mouse platelets to participate in host defense against S. aureus infection was determined by assessing two possibilities. First, we determined the ability of platelets to kill S. aureus directly; and, second, we tested the possibility that platelets enhance macrophage phagocytosis and intracellular killing of S. aureus In this study we report evidence in support of both mechanisms. Platelets effectively killed two different strains of S. aureus. A clinical isolate of methicillin-resistant S. aureus was killed by platelets (>40% killing in 2 h) in a thrombin-dependent manner whereas a methicillin-sensitive strain was killed to equal extent but did not require thrombin. Interestingly, thrombin-stimulated platelets also significantly enhanced peritoneal macrophage phagocytosis of both methicillin-resistant S. aureus and methicillin-sensitive S. aureus by >70%, and restricted intracellular growth by >40%. Enhancement of macrophage anti-S. aureus activities is independent of contact with platelets but is mediated through releasable products, namely IL-1β. These data confirm our hypothesis that platelets participate in host defense against S. aureus both through direct killing of S. aureus and enhancing the antimicrobial function of macrophages in protection against S. aureus infection.

S-form LPS induces leukocyte adhesion to human vascular endothelial cells as potent as IL-1: lipid A precursor Ia antagonizes induction of adhesion by LPS

The expression of adhesion molecules on human vascular endothelial cells (EC) during infection or inflammation is necessary to initiate migration of leukocytes to the disease focus. Various bacteria or endotoxins (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) might exert differential capacity to induce adhesion molecules in endothelial cells. Therefore, we first investigated induction of adhesion by bacteria. Heat-killed Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) induced adhesion, whereas the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis or Mycobacterium tuberculosis did not, indicating the significance of LPS for this activation. Purified S-form LPS stimulated endothelial cells to express adhesion molecules for polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) or lymphocytes in a dose-dependent fashion. S-form LPS, containing an 0-specific chain, induced a maximal level of adhesion, comparable to adhesion induced by interleukin-1 (IL-1). We obtained the same results in cell ELISA with anti-ICAM-1 antibody (84H10). R-form LPS and free lipid A, lacking an O-specific chain also stimulated adhesion, however, to a lower degree (39-60%). Synthetic lipid A precursor Ia (compound 406) or another LPS-antagonist (non-toxic Rhodobacter capsulatus LPS) did not trigger endothelial cells to express adhesion molecules. These antagonists specifically inhibited LPS- or free lipid A-, but not IL-1-induced adhesion. These results suggest that lipid A is the active structure of LPS necessary for induction of adhesion, that the oligosaccharide portion is important for the capacity of LPS to stimulate adhesion, and that activation of adhesion to endothelial cells by LPS requires specific LPS binding sites.

Aged complement factor H knockout mice kept in a clean barriered environment have reduced retinal pathology

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the largest cause of visual loss in those over 60 years in the West and is a condition increasing in prevalence. Many diseases result from genetic/environmental interactions and 50% of AMD cases have an association with polymorphisms of the complement system including complement factor H. Here we explore interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental conditions in triggering retinal pathology in two groups of aged complement factor H knock out (Cfh(-/-)) mice. Mice were maintained over 9 months in either a conventional open environment or a barriered pathogen free environment. Open environment Cfh(-/-) mice had significant increases in subretinal macrophage numbers, inflammatory and stress responses and reduced photoreceptor numbers over mice kept in a pathogen free environment. Hence, environmental factors can drive retinal disease in these mice when linked to complement deficits impairing immune function. Both groups of mice had similar levels of retinal amyloid beta accumulation. Consequently there is no direct link between this and inflammation in Cfh(-/-) mice.

Early tissue reaction in the tension zone of PDL during orthodontic tooth movement

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to examine the early tissue reaction in the tension zone of periodontal ligament (PDL) during orthodontic tooth movement.

DESIGN

Upper first molars of rats were moved buccally with fixed appliances. The PDL in the tension zone was examined histologically, immunohistochemically and at a molecular level after 24h, 3 days and 7 days.

RESULTS

After 24h of orthodontic force loading, the periodontal space appeared considerably expanded. The periodontal fibers were stretched between the bone and the root. Three days after loading, the expanded periodontal space had slightly narrowed, the periodontal fiber arrangement was relaxed, and the blood vessels did not appear elongated. A considerable layer of osteoid was formed on the bone surface. The total cross-sectional areas of the PDL in experimental groups were significantly larger than control group. The total cross-sectional areas of the blood vessels were not significantly different among the groups. Significantly high expressions of IL-1β and PTX3 were characteristically observed not only in the endothelial cells and cells around the blood vessel, but also in fibroblasts throughout the PDL of the tension zone 24h after orthodontic force loading. Three and 7 days after loading, these showed tendencies to return to control levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results suggest that the early reaction in the tension zone of the PDL during tooth movement consists of two phases: first, inflammation and second, rapid recovery and renovation of the PDL with bone formation.

Selective localization of bone marrow-derived ramified cells in the brain adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus

Although the immune system modulates higher functions of the brain under non-inflammatory conditions, how immune cells interact with brain parenchymal cells remains to be determined. Using bone marrow chimeric mice in which the recipients' immune system was reconstituted by marrow cells derived from GFP-transgenic mice by syngeneic intra-bone marrow-bone marrow transplantation (IBM-BMT) and by intravenous (IV)-BMT, we examined the distribution, density and differentiation of donor-derived marrow cells in the brain parenchyma 2 weeks and 1, 4 and 8 months after BMT. Marrow-derived cells started to populate discrete brain regions from 1 to 4 months after BMT, exhibited ramified morphology and expressed Iba-1. The ramified marrow-derived cells were distributed in more brain regions and for a longer time after IBM-BMT than IV-BMT. Most of these discrete regions were adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus that comprised thinned brain parenchyma consisting of astroglial processes in the narrow channel between the ependyma and pia. These specific portions of astroglial processes expressed fractalkine. In the choroid plexus stroma, not only Iba-1+ myeloid cells but also non-myeloid CXCL12-expressing cells were of bone marrow-origin. Transcripts of fractalkine, CXCL12 and their related molecules such as CX3CR1, ADAM10 and CXCR4 were detected in the tissue consisting of the choroid plexus, the attachments and adjacent brain parenchyma. Thus, bone marrow cells selectively enter the discrete brain regions adjacent to the attachments of choroid plexus and differentiate into ramified myeloid cells. Fractalkine in the attachments of choroid plexus and CXCL12 in the choroid plexus stroma may be involved in these brain-immune interactions.

Identification of novel interleukin 1 beta family genes in Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus

Gene in the interleukin 1 family plays a central role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses. Here, we describe two novel IL-1-like gene in Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus (jfIL1-L1 and jfIL1-L2). jfIL1β-L1 was homologous to Nile Tilapia IL-1β-like gene and Arctic char IL-1, and jfIL1β-L2 showed homology to hypothetical protein LOC100699119 of Nile Tilapia and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss IL-1 receptor agonist (RA). The deduced amino acids sequences of these IL-1β-like genes showed very low identities to the Japanese flounder IL-1 (jfIL-1). Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that jfIL1β-L1 and -L2 were distinct from jfIL-1. The gene encoding the predicted ORF of jfIL1β-L1 and -L2 is divided into 6 exons and 7 exons, respectively. Transcripts of jfIL1β-L1 were detected in gills, intestine, kidney and spleen, and those of jfIL1β-L2 were detected in gills, intestine and spleen. The mRNA levels of jfIL1β-L1 and -L2 were not effect or slightly decreased by treatment with LPS and the formalin-killed cells of Edwardsiella tarda whilst mRNA levels of jfIL1β were significantly increased in the kidney and spleen at 6 h by these treatments.

Prime role of bone IL-1 in mice may lie in emergency Ca(2+)-supply to soft tissues, not in bone-remodeling

IL-1 and TNF-α are thought to be important bone-remodeling regulators. However, mice lacking either them or their receptors reportedly grow healthily. Here, we examined the roles of IL-1 and TNF-α in bone. Although a significant IL-1 level was detected in the tibia of non-stimulated wild-type (WT) mice, no significant physicochemical, morphological, or histological defects were detected in the tibias in mice lacking IL-1 (both α and β types) (IL-1KO) or lacking both IL-1 and TNF-α (IL-1/TNF-αKO). Injection of sub-lethal doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into WT mice induced a transient hypocalcemia, increased IL-1 (in the plasma and markedly in the tibia), and increased TNF-α (markedly in the plasma, but only slightly in the tibia). LPS-induced hypocalcemia was modest in IL-1KO mice, and not detected in IL-1/TNFαKO mice. IL-1α (but not TNFα) induced hypocalcemia in both WT and IL-1KO mice. In both WT and IL-1KO mice treated with clodronate (osteoclast inhibitor), the LPS-induced hypocalcemia was markedly augmented. Nifedipine (inhibitor of both voltage-activated and capacitative Ca(2+)-entry) reduced the LPS-induced hypocalcemia. These results suggest that in mice: (i) IL-1 and TNF-α may contribute little to physiological bone-formation, and (ii) a time-lag between IL-1- and TNF-α-stimulated Ca(2+)-entry into cells throughout the body from the circulation and IL-1-stimulated Ca(2+)-release from the bone may cause the observed transient LPS-induced hypocalcemia. Thus, the prime role of bone IL-1 may reside in the supply of Ca(2+) from the bone to cells throughout the body when the need is urgent.

Hematopoietic growth factor receptors

The formation of the cellular constituents of the blood is regulated by a series of endogenous polypeptides with largely paracrine function. A number of these hematopoietic growth factors (HGF's), which include colony stimulating factors, interleukins, and erythropoietin, have been purified to homogeneity and cloned, which in turn has led to extensive investigations of their biochemical properties and biological effects and functions. The HGF's act on target cells by binding to receptors. The kinetics and, to an even larger extent, dynamics of the factor/receptor associations display several intriguing characteristics, most of which are still poorly understood. Herein, the biochemical characteristics of HGF's receptors as well as the binding properties, post-receptor binding events and receptor modulation resulting from the association of HGF's and their target cells are reviewed.

Use of a serum-free reconstituted epidermis as a skin pharmacological model

This study is aimed at assessing some of the possibilities offered by a new kind of three-dimensional skin culture in the field of toxicity and skin inflammation. The Reconstituted Epidermis used is presently the only skin model on the market in which normal human keratinocytes are allowed to grow and to differentiate in a chemically defined culture medium. The response of this original tissue to chemical (anionic and cationic surfactants) and physical (UVB radiation) insults was compared with human keratinocytes in monolayer culture and assessed through histological analysis, cell viability quantification and interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) release measurement. For the surfactants and the UVB radiation a clear relationship was shown between the amount of IL-1alpha released and both the cell viability and the histological appearance of the skin. Sublethal doses of UV radiation induced exclusively an increase of intracellular amount of IL-1alpha, the magnitude of which seemed to be time dependent. The irritating potential of various kinds of cosmetic creams was then assessed using this skin model and compared with human irritation data. The intensity of erythema and oedema induced by a 48-hr human patch test was consistent with the amount of IL-1alpha secreted in the medium, the histological appearance of the Reconstituted Epidermis and the cell viability.

Cytokine secretion from human monocytes potentiated by P-selectin-mediated cell adhesion

BACKGROUND/AIM

P-selectin is a carbohydrate-recognizing cell adhesion molecule expressed on activated platelets and endothelial cells. It plays a crucial role in the recruitment of leukocytes to inflammatory and hemorrhagic sites. Cell adhesion mediated by P-selectin induces leukocyte activation, such as the generation of reactive oxygen species and the expression of blood coagulation factors. We assessed how P-selectin-mediated cell adhesion affects cytokine secretion from monocytes.

METHODS

Human peripheral blood monocytes were cultured in a plate that had been coated with P-selectin purified from human platelets, and cytokines released in the culture supernatant from monocytes were determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

The secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1β increased 3- to 10-fold in response to P-selectin compared with unstimulated monocytes. We next examined the effects of cytokine treatment of monocytes on their susceptibility to P-selectin. The secretion of TNF-α from monocytes in response to P-selectin was increased when monocytes were preincubated with granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 or interferon-γ (IFN-γ); IFN-γ was the most effective in potentiating TNF-α secretion from monocytes.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the interaction of monocytes with P-selectin plays an important role not only in their trafficking but also in the regulation of cytokine production by these cells.

Changes in acute-phase proteins and cytokines in serum and milk whey from dairy cows with naturally occurring peracute mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae and the relationship to clinical outcome

This study was conducted to evaluate the changes in acute-phase proteins and cytokine concentrations in dairy cows with naturally occurring peracute Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) mastitis and their association with the outcome of the disease. Seventeen Holstein cows with K. pneumoniae mastitis from 8 dairy farms were divided on the basis of outcome after local and systemic therapy into 2 groups comprising 8 euthanized cows and 9 that recovered. Changes in acute-phase proteins and cytokine concentrations in cows with K. pneumoniae mastitis were evaluated at the onset of the disease (day 0) and at days 3, 7 and 14 after therapy and compared with those of 13 healthy dairy cows. The concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and interleukin (IL)-6 in serum and α(1)-acid glycoprotein and IL-1β in serum and whey on day 0 were significantly (P<0.05) higher in the euthanized cows than in those that recovered and the healthy cows. A correlation (r=0.90, P<0.01, n=17) was found between IL-6 and Hp concentrations in sera from recovered and euthanized cows at day 0. This indicated that serum concentrations of Hp and IL-6 at the initial examination were prognostic factors for survival, and the cutoff values were 2,020 µg/ml and 32 ng/ml, respectively. These results suggest that IL-6 and Hp concentrations are involved in the manifestation of K. pneumoniae mastitis and may be possible indicators of the prognosis of peracute K. pneumoniae mastitis.

Role of cytokines in endometrium and at the fetomaternal interface

Cytokines were first recognized as factors involved in the immune responses. However, emerging evidence suggests that cytokines serve as the unanimous language through which cells in organ systems as diverse as hypothalamus to endometrium communicate. Evidence for the participation of these factors in the normal function of the endometrium and uteroplacental unit and development of the embryo is being recognized. This review will highlight the significant insight gained over the past several years for the role of cytokines in the field of reproductive biology. Major emphasis will be placed on interleukins, tumour necrosis factor-α, transforming growth factors, colony stimulating factors and interferon-gamma.

Interferons: cytokines in autoimmunity

The presence of circulating interferons in the blood of patients with autoimmune diseases and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) raises the question of their possible pathogenetic or defence functions. Interferons control levels of HLA class I and II antigens on cells and can activate or inhibit immune killer cell activities. Tumour necrosis factors (TNF) and interleukin 1 induce a new autocrine species of interferon known as IFN-beta-2 whose gene has been cloned, sequenced and expressed. This IFN mediates the increase in HLA expression caused by TNF as well as the antiviral activity of this cytotoxin.

Association between interleukin-1 gene polymorphisms and Helicobacter pylori infection in gastric carcinogenesis in a Chinese population

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Helicobacter pylori is a major cause of chronic gastritis and peptic ulcer disease and a definite carcinogen for gastric adenocarcinoma. However, the underlying pathogenic mechanisms are not fully understood. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a key cytokine involved in H. pylori-induced gastric inflammation. The present study aimed to determine polymorphisms of IL-1B and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RN) genes and their association with H. pylori infection and gastroduodenal diseases in Chinese patients.

METHODS

Three hundred and ninety-nine patients with gastroduodenal diseases (129 chronic gastritis, 127 duodenal ulcer and 143 non-cardiac gastric cancer) and 264 healthy controls were genotyped for IL-1B-511 and IL-1RN gene polymorphisms by the PCR-RFLP method. H. pylori infection status was determined by a validated serological test.

RESULTS

The frequency of IL-1B-511 T allele was significantly higher in H. pylori positive patients with non-cardiac gastric cancer than in both H. pylori negative patients with non-cardiac gastric cancer (60%vs 46%, P = 0.0342, OR = 1.666, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.045-2.656) and in healthy controls (60%vs 48%, P = 0.0071, OR = 1.665, 95%CI: 1.149-2.412). However, the polymorphism was not associated with chronic gastritis and duodenal ulcer. Multivariate logistic regression analyses identified that IL-1B-511 T/T carrier status was an independent risk factor for non-cardiac gastric cancer in the presence of H. pylori infection (adjusted OR = 3.01, 95%CI: 1.27-7.11, P = 0.01), and the frequency of IL-1B-511 T allele was an increased risk factor for developing gastric cancer (P = 0.03, adjusted OR = 2.29, 95%CI: 1.08-4.86). There was no association between IL-1RN gene polymorphisms and H. pylori infection and other gastroduodenal diseases.

CONCLUSION

IL-1B-511 T allele is associated with H. pylori infection in non-cardiac gastric cancer in a Chinese population. The IL-1B-511 gene polymorphism appears to play an important role in gastric carcinogenesis in Chinese patients with H. pylori infection.

Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) affects 8% to 22% of the general population. Although patients describe an insidious onset of symptoms, including abdominal pain relieved with bowel movements, excessive intestinal gas, variable bowel habits, and abdominal bloating, a subgroup of individuals describe the onset of IBS symptoms following an episode of acute gastroenteritis, known as post-infectious IBS (PI-IBS). Several studies have demonstrated the development of IBS following infection. Risk factors for the development of PI-IBS are female sex and longer duration of initial illness. Although the underlying mechanism of PI-IBS is unclear, ongoing inflammation is clearly a factor in the pathogenesis. The underlying inflammatory process results in increased enterochromaffin cells, T-lymphocytes, intestinal permeability, colonic transit time, and a variety of immunologic abnormalities. PI-IBS patients tend to have a better prognosis than do those with idiopathic IBS, with resolution of symptoms within 5 to 6 years. Treatment is similar to that of idiopathic IBS.

Presence of a cytoplasmic retention sequence within the human interleukin-1alpha precursor

Interleukin (IL)-1alpha is primarily translated as a 33 kDa molecule (IL-1alpha1-271), and then processed into a 17 kDa molecule (IL-1alpha119-271) by calpain. The precursor region of IL-1alpha (IL-1 alpha1-118) contains a nuclear localization signal (KVLKKRRL, residues 79-86). We investigated the intracellular localization of IL-1alpha fused with green fluorescent protein or beta-galactosidase. IL-1alpha1-118 was localized exclusively in the nucleus, but IL-1 alpha1-271 in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm, suggesting the presence of a cytoplasmic retention signal within the mature region of IL-1alpha. Furthermore, the intracellular localization of IL-1alpha with deletions from the C terminus, internal deletions and point mutations suggested that the cytoplasmic retention signal is located within residues 168-201.

Tissue kallikrein mK13 is a candidate processing enzyme for the precursor of interleukin-1beta in the submandibular gland of mice

By using Western blot analysis, high levels of 17.5- and 20-kDa interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) proteins were detected in the submandibular gland (SMG) of mice. Despite this fact, the amount of pro-IL-1beta protein, a precursor of IL-1beta, with a molecular size of 35 kDa in this tissue was below the detectable level, although strong expression of pro-IL-1beta mRNA was observed. A large amount of 17.5-kDa IL-1beta also appeared in the saliva of mice injected with lipopolysaccharide, suggesting that this IL-1beta is a secretory form produced by the SMG. The protein for IL-1beta-converting enzyme, a processing enzyme for pro-IL-1beta, was expressed only at a low level in the SMG as compared with its level in various epithelial tissues or lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. On the other hand, mK1, mK9, mK13, and mK22, members of the kallikrein family, were detected strongly in the SMG but not in other tissues. By incubation with mK13, but not with mK1, mK9, or mK22, the 35-kDa pro-IL-1beta was cleaved into two major products with molecular masses of 17.5 and 22 kDa, and production was inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, a serine protease inhibitor, but not by IL-1beta-converting enzyme inhibitors. A peptide segment corresponding to amino acid residues 107-121 of mouse pro-IL-1beta (107WDDDDNLLVCDVPIR) was cleaved by incubation with mK13, generating two peptides, 107WDDDDNL and 114LVCDVPIR. Therefore, kallikrein mK13 would appear to hydrolyze pro-IL-1beta between its Leu113 and Leu114 residues. The results of immunohistochemistry and an autonomic therapy experiment showed that IL-1beta and kallikrein mK13 were co-localized in the secretory granules of granular convoluted tubular cells. Our present results thus suggest kallikrein mK13 is a plausible candidate for the processing enzyme for pro-IL-1beta in the SMG of mice.

Effects of oral bacterial immunotherapy in children with atopic eczema/dermatitis syndrome : a pilot study

BACKGROUND

Atopic eczema/dermatitis syndrome (AEDS) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease, affecting 10-20% of children and 1-3% of adults. The purpose of this pilot study was to assess the clinical and anti-inflammatory effect of bacterial and ribosomal immunotherapy with Immucytal (Pierre Fabre Médicament, France) in children with AEDS.

METHODS

Seventeen children with allergic and non-allergic forms of AEDS (AAEDS and NAAEDS, respectively), graded moderate to severe (Severity Scoring of Atopic Dermatitis [SCORAD] index of >25), received ribosomal immunotherapy (Immucytal) once daily according to the standard treatment regimen (4 consecutive days a week for 3 weeks, and then 4 consecutive days a month for 4 months). We assessed the clinical status of AEDS using the SCORAD index at baseline, and after 8 and 20 weeks of treatment. Furthermore, peripheral blood from patients was examined for the frequencies of CD4+ cells expressing interferon (IFN)-gamma and interleukin (IL)-4 using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

There was a progressive and significant clinical improvement of AEDS, confirmed by a reduction of the SCORAD index over time in both AEDS forms (p < 0.01). Pooled data from the two groups showed that the mean baseline index of 43 was reduced to 17 after treatment. Overall, these data indicate a marked improvement in total clinical severity of AEDS (-62%). Flow cytometry analysis showed that frequencies of the two CD4+ T cell subsets did not differ significantly from the beginning to the end of the study in both forms of AEDS. However, the percentage of CD4+ cells expressing IL-4 in children with AAEDS tended to decrease by the end of treatment with ribosomal immunotherapy. Clinical and laboratory data confirmed that immunotherapy was well tolerated.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this pilot investigation suggest that ribosomal immunotherapy may be beneficial in the management of AEDS in children, and that this could be at least partially explained by a role in restoring the type 2 helper-T cell imbalance seen in allergic patients. Placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trials are recommended in order to confirm these findings.

Proinflammatory interleukin-1 cytokines increase mesangial cell hexokinase activity and hexokinase II isoform abundance

Mesangial cell hexokinase (HK) activity is increased by a diverse array of factors that share both an association with pathological conditions and a common requirement for classic MAPK pathway activation. To better understand the relationship between glucose (Glc) metabolism and injury and to indirectly test the hypothesis that these changes constitute a general adaptive response to insult, we have sought to identify and characterize injury-associated factors that couple to mesangial cell HK regulation. Proinflammatory interleukin-1 (IL-1) cytokines activate the MAPK pathway and have known salutary effects in this cell type. We therefore examined their ability to influence mesangial cell HK activity, Glc utilization, MAPK pathway activation, and individual HK isoform abundance. IL-1β increased HK activity in both a time- and concentration-dependent manner: activity increased maximally by ∼50% between 12 and 24 h with an apparent EC50of 3 pM. IL-1α mimicked, but did not augment, the effects of IL-1β. Specific IL-1 receptor antagonism and selective MAPK/ERK kinase or upstream Ras inhibition prevented these increases, whereas PKC inhibition did not. Changes in HK activity were associated with both increased Glc metabolism and selective increases in HKII isoform abundance. We conclude that IL-1 cytokines can regulate cellular Glc phosphorylating capacity via an IL-1 receptor-, Ras-, and classic MAPK pathway-mediated increase in HKII abundance. These findings suggest a novel, previously undescribed mechanism whereby metabolism may be coupled to inflammation and injury.

Synthesis and structure–activity relationships of 5-phenylthiophenecarboxylic acid derivatives as antirheumatic agents

5-(Phenylthiophene)-3-carboxylic acid (2a), a metabolite of esonarimod (1), which was developed as a new antirheumatic drug, was considered as a lead compound for new antirheumatic drugs. A new series of 2a derivatives were synthesized and their characteristic pharmacological effects, that is their antagonistic effect toward interleukin (IL)-1 in mice and the suppressive effect against adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) in rats, were evaluated and compared with those of 1. The structure-activity relationships indicated that [5-(4-bromophenyl)-thiophen-3-yl]acetic acid (5d), methyl [5-(4-chlorophenyl)-thiophen-3-yl]acetate (5h), and methyl [5-(4-bromophenyl)-thiophen-3-yl]acetate (5i) suppressed AIA more potently than 1 and all of the other synthesized compounds.

Peptide-based analysis of the amino acid sequence important to the immunoregulatory function of Trypanosoma cruzi Tc52 virulence factor

The intracellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is the aetiological agent of Chagas' disease. We have previously identified a T. cruzi-released protein called Tc52, which is crucial for parasite survival and virulence. In the present study, we attempted to define the Tc52 epitope(s) responsible for its immunoregulatory function. A naturally occurring major peptide fragment of molecular mass 28 kDa (Tc28k) was identified, which was localized in the C-terminal portion of Tc52 and was inhibitory for T-cell activation. Synthetic peptides corresponding to amino acid sequences in Tc52 were evaluated for their ability to modulate T-cell proliferation and cytokine production. Results obtained using five peptides spanning the N-terminal or C-terminal domain of the Tc52 protein indicated that the activity mapped to Tc52 residues 432-445. Moreover, it was found that the peptide, when coupled to a carrier protein (ovalbumin), exhibited increased inhibitory activity on T-lymphocyte activation. Incubation with 8 nm ovalbumin-coupled peptide 432-445 resulted in approximately the same levels (>75%) of inhibition of T-cell proliferation as 5 micro g/ml Tc28k. Furthermore, we showed that the coupled peptide significantly down-regulated the secretion of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-2 (IL-2). Likewise, in immunized mice, the coupled peptide 432-445 was a very poor B- and T-cell antigen compared with the other Tc52-derived peptides. These results suggest that the immunomodulatory portion of the T. cruzi Tc52 virulent factor may reside, at least in part, in a conserved sequence within its C-terminal domain, which could minimize its antigenicity.

IL-1beta-dependent neurological effects of the whole cell pertussis vaccine: a role for IL-1-associated signalling components in vaccine reactogenicity

Immunization with the whole cell pertussis vaccine (Pw), but not the acellular pertussis vaccine (Pa), is associated with a number of neurological side effects. Previously, we have demonstrated a role for interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) in Pw reactogenicity. Here we report that parenteral Pw administration resulted in a concomitant increase IL-1 type I receptor (IL-1RI) mRNA and a decrease in IL-1 type II receptor (IL-1RII) mRNA expression in the murine hypothalamus. These Pw-induced changes were accompanied by an increase in caspase-1 and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and were associated with increased activity of the stress-activated kinase, p38. In contrast, immunization with Pa failed to activate pro-inflammatory IL-1 responses but resulted in increased IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) production. These results suggest that the neurological effects of Pw are associated with central activation of IL-1beta and IL-1-associated signalling components.

Evolution of interleukin-1beta

All jawed vertebrates possess a complex immune system, which is capable of anticipatory and innate immune responses. Jawless vertebrates possess an equally complex immune system but with no evidence of an anticipatory immune response. From these findings it has been speculated that the initiation and regulation of the immune system within vertebrates will be equally complex, although very little has been done to look at the evolution of cytokine genes, despite well-known biological activities within vertebrates. In recent years, cytokines, which have been well characterised within mammals, have begun to be cloned and sequenced within non-mammalian vertebrates, with the number of cytokine sequences available from primitive vertebrates growing rapidly. The identification of cytokines, which are mammalian homologues, will give a better insight into where immune system communicators arose and may also reveal molecules, which are unique to certain organisms. Work has focussed on interleukin-1 (IL-1), a major mediator of inflammation which initiates and/or increases a wide variety of non-structural, function associated genes that are characteristically expressed during inflammation. Other than mammalian IL-1beta sequences there are now full cDNA sequences and genomic organisations available from bird, amphibian, bony fish and cartilaginous fish, with many of these genes having been obtained using an homology cloning approach. This review considers how the IL-1beta gene has changed through vertebrate evolution and whether its role and regulation are conserved within selected non-mammalian vertebrates.

The presence of cytokine (IL-8, IL-1alpha, IL-1beta)-producing cells in inflamed gingival tissue from a patient manifesting Papillon-Lefevre syndrome(PLS)

The point of this study was to examine the presence or absence of cytokine-positive cells by means of immunohistochemical methods in the samples of inflamed gingival tissues obtained from an 11-year-old girl with Papillon-Lefevre syndrome (PLS). Interleukin-8 (IL-8)-positive cells were found to be present. In addition, IL-1alpha-and IL-1beta-positive cells were detected. No dysfunction in the phagocytosis and the bacterial killing of peripheral blood polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) was observed in this patient. Our findings suggest that these cytokines may be members responsible for modulating the process of rapidly progressive periodontitis for patient with PLS.

Evolution of the acute phase response: iron release by echinoderm (Asterias forbesi) coelomocytes, and cloning of an echinoderm ferritin molecule

That the plasma concentration of certain divalent cations change during an inflammatory insult provides a major host defense response in vertebrate animals. This study was designed to investigate the involvement of iron sequestration in invertebrate immune responses. A ferritin molecule was cloned from an echinoderm coelomocyte cDNA library. The amino acid sequence showed sequence homology with vertebrate ferritin. The cDNA contained a conserved iron responsive element sequence. Studies showed that stimulated coelomocytes released iron into in vitro culture supernatants. The amount of iron in the supernatants decreased over time when the amebocytes were stimulated with LPS or PMA. Coelomocytes increased expression of ferritin mRNA after stimulation. In vertebrates, cytokines can cause changes in iron levels in macrophages. Similarly, echinoderm macrokines produced decreases in iron levels in coelomocyte supernatant fluids. These results suggest that echinoderm ferritin is an acute phase protein and suggest that sequestration of iron is an ancient host defense response in animals.

Interleukin-1beta is an autocrine growth factor of rat glomerular epithelial cells in culture

BACKGROUND

The proliferation of glomerular epithelial cells (GEC) is usually observed in crescentic glomerulonephritis. However, the regulation of GEC proliferation is not fully understood. Although it is known that interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) has a mitogenic effect on mesangial cells and is produced by mesangial cells, the effect of this cytokine on GEC proliferation is not known. We investigated whether cultured rat GEC could produce IL-1beta, and the role of IL-1beta on GEC proliferation.

METHODS

Cultured rat GEC from 24th to 36th passage were used. GEC proliferation was evaluated with a colorimetric assay using the tetrazolium salt. GEC were incubated in K1 medium for 72 h and IL-1beta in the culture supernatants was measured by specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). IL-1beta in GEC supernatants was examined by immunoblot analysis. IL-1beta mRNA expression in GEC was examined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).

RESULTS

IL-1beta showed a mitogenic effect on GEC, while interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and heparin inhibited GEC proliferation. Moreover, GEC proliferation cultured with K1 medium was partially inhibited by anti-IL-1beta neutralizing antibody. Amounts of IL-1beta in the culture supernatants increased over time (24-72 h). K1 medium increased IL-1beta production by GEC, while IFN-gamma or heparin did not change IL-1beta production. Immunoblot analysis revealed 17 kD protein of IL-1beta in the concentrated GEC supernatants. RT-PCR also demonstrated mRNA expression of IL-1beta in GEC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that IL-1beta is an autocrine growth factor for GEC and may have an important role in the regulation of GEC proliferation.

Neutrophil-associated activation markers in healthy smokers relates to a fall in DL(CO) and to emphysematous changes on high resolution CT

Smoking is a risk factor for developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but there are no good indicators for early identification of subjects who will develop symptomatic COPD. The aim of this study was to investigate inflammatory mechanisms related to changes in lung function and emphysematous changes on high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) in 'healthy' smokers. Subjects were 60-year-old men from a population study. Bronchoscopy was performed in 30 smokers and 18 who had never smoked. Blood tests, lung function measurements and HRCT were carried out in 58 and 34 subjects, respectively. In comparison with never-smokers, smokers had higher levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO), human neutrophil lipocalin (HNL), eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) and lysozyme in blood, higher levels of MPO, interleukin-8 (IL-8) and HNL in bronchial lavage (BL), and of IL-8, HNL and interleukin-lbeta (IL-1beta) in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Smokers also had lower levels of Clara cell protein 16 (CC-16) in blood. HNL in BL and BAL showed strong correlations to other inflammatory markers (MPO, IL-8, IL-1beta). The variations in MPO in BL were explained by variations in HNL (R2 =0.69), while these variations in BAL were explained by variations in HNL and IL-1beta (R2 = 0.76). DL(CO) was the lung function variable most closely related to MPO and IL-8 in BL and BAL and to IL-1beta in BAL. In a multiple regression analysis, MPO, IL-1beta, IL-8 and CC-16 in BL and MPO in BAL contributed to the explanation of variations in DL(CO) to 41% and 22%. respectively, independent of smoking habits. In smokers with emphysematous lesions on HRCT, HNL in BAL correlated to emphysema score (r(s) = 0.71). We conclude that 'healthy' smoking men with a near normal FEV1 show signs of inflammation in the lower airways that are related to a decrease in DL(CO) and to emphysematous lesions on HRCT. This inflammation seems to be the result of both monocyte/macrophage and neutrophil activation.

Silica and its antagonistic effects on transforming growth factor-beta in lung fibroblast extracellular matrix production

BACKGROUND

Silicosis, a pneumoconiosis marked by interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, is caused by inhalation of free crystalline silica particles. When silica particles are injected into the lower lung, they are translocated across the epithelium into the interstitial space, where macrophage-derived growth factors affect lung fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition. We hypothesized that silica may act directly on pulmonary fibroblasts modifying extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis and that the effects of silica may be mediated by transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) overproduction.

METHODS

To test this hypothesis, we studied a human lung fibroblast cell line (WI-1003) exposed to silica in vitro. We investigated cell morphology by electron microscopic procedure, cell growth, collagen production, and glycosaminoglycans (GAG) composition by radiolabeled precursors. Cytokine and growth factor synthesis were evaluated by specific enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay kits and Northern blotting analysis.

RESULTS

Pulmonary fibroblasts internalized silica particles without detectable cell damage. Silica directly stimulated collagen synthesis and decreased the amount of 3H-glucosamine-labeled GAG. Silica-treated fibroblasts secreted less TGFbeta than untreated controls, antagonized the stimulatory effect of TGFbeta on ECM synthesis, and reversed TGFbeta-induced inhibition of cell proliferation. Northern blotting analysis showed increased interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) mRNA after silica treatment. IL-1alpha had no influence on collagen synthesis but increased the number of WI-1003 fibroblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support our hypothesis that lung fibroblasts are direct silica targets. However, contradicting our hypothesis, silica antagonized TGFbeta activities through a TGFbeta downregulation and an IL-1alpha upregulation. The complex pattern of TGFbeta and IL-1alpha regulation in pulmonary fibroblasts is imbalanced by silica exposure and might play a key role in silica-mediated pulmonary fibrosis.

Nitric oxide production by coelomocytes of Asterias forbesi

Vertebrate mononuclear phagocytes produce a plethora of molecules involved in host defense. Among the most potent are the reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates. Coelomocytes from invertebrates subserve many of the same functions. In order to determine whether invertebrate phagocytes employ reactive nitrogen intermediates, we investigated the effect of various nonspecific stimulators and invertebrate interleukin (IL)-1alpha- and beta-like molecules on nitric oxide (NO) production. Elevated NO release by stimulated coelomocytes was seen after 24 h. Incubation of stimulated coelomocytes in the presence of arginine analogs inhibited NO release. When invertebrate IL-1-like molecules were added to the coelomocytes, they stimulated the release of NO. Western blot analysis using a polyclonal rabbit antiserum to murine NO synthase detected a band at approximately 125 kDa. These data indicate that coelomocytes are capable of producing and releasing NO and that NO is a chemical mediator that has been conserved as a host defense weapon of phagocytes through evolutionary time.

Characterization of an IL-1 receptor from Asterias forbesi coelomocytes

The tremendous importance of cytokines to immune defensive systems suggests that they have been conserved through evolution. The existence of interleukin (IL)-1-like molecules in several invertebrate groups substantiates this hypothesis. To characterize further the relationship of invertebrate IL-1-like molecules, we have used competitive binding assays to show that invertebrate coelomocytes of the starfish Asterias forbesi possess an IL-1-specific binding protein. Competitive binding experiments used radiolabeled human IL-1alpha. IL-1 bound specifically to the coelomocytes by a single high-affinity binding site (K(d) = 8.72 x 10(-10)/M). There are approximately 6000 binding sites per cell. The specificity of the receptor was confirmed by demonstrating that, among a group of cytokines and lymphokines tested, only vertebrate IL-1- or echinoderm IL-1-like molecules and the vertebrate IL-1 receptor antagonist inhibit IL-1 binding. Treatment of coelomocytes (labeled with IL-1alpha) with bivalent water-soluble crosslinkers identified a membrane protein of approximately 70 kDa to which IL-1 is specifically crosslinked.

Synthesis and antinociceptive activity of peptides related to interleukin-1 beta 193-195 Lys-Pro-Thr

To obtain information about the structure-activity relationships of analgesic peptides, we modified the previously reported tripeptide, H-Lys-Pro-Thr-OH (C). The proline part in C was replaced with various analogues of unconventional amino acids [(3aS, 7aS)-octahydroindole-2-carboxylic acid (Oic), (S,S,S,)-2-azabiciclo [3.3.0]octane-3-carboxylic acid (Aoc), D-Aoc, and (2S, 4R)-hydroxyproline (Hyp)] with varying lipophilic, steric, and conformational properties, and alternatively with Lys and Orn in the lysine part. Moreover, the threonine part was changed to various natural amino acids (Ser, Thr, Val, Leu). All the compound were screened in vivo for their analgesic effects in mouse writhing test. Compound 24 (H-Orn-Hyp-Val-OH), the most active compound within the series, showed an ED50 value of 10 mg/kg, which is comparable with the ED50 values exhibited by indometacin (4.1 mg/kg) and the dipeptide H-Lys-D-Pro-OH (6.9 mg/kg), both used as reference drugs.