Heterogeneity assessment of antibody-derived therapeutics at the intact and middle-up level by low-flow sheathless capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry

Charge variant analysis of monoclonal antibodies by CZE-MS using a successive multiple ionic-polymer layer coating based on diethylaminoethyl-dextran

The characterization of the impurities of pharmaceutical monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is crucial for their function and safety. Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is one of the most efficient tools to separate charge variants of mAbs; however, peak characterization remains difficult, since the hereby used background electrolytes (BGEs) are not compatible with electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Here, a method that allows the separation of intact mAb charge variants is presented using CZE-ESI-MS, combining a cationic capillary coating and an acidic BGE. Therefore, a successive multiple ionic-polymer layer coating was developed based on diethylaminoethyl-dextran-poly(sodium styrene sulfonate). This coating leads to a relatively low reversed electroosmotic flow (EOF) with an absolute mobility slightly higher than that of antibodies, enabling the separation of variants with slightly different mobilities. The potential of the coating is demonstrated using USP mAb003, where it was possible to separate C-terminal lysine variants from the main form, as well as several acidic variants and monoglycosylated mAb forms. The presented CZE-MS method can be applied to separate charge variants of a range of other antibodies such as infliximab, NISTmAB (Reference Material from the National Institute of Standards and Technology), adalimumab, and trastuzumab, demonstrating the general applicability for the separation of proteoforms of mAbs.

CE-MS and CE-MS/MS for the multiattribute analysis of monoclonal antibody variants at the subunit level

The analysis of product-related substances and impurities is a critical step in the biopharmaceutical quality control of multiattribute monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), as posttranslational modifications or other variants can influence the product's biological activity. Many approaches are available for variant analysis; however, they are either variant-specific, mAb-specific, time-consuming, or require expensive equipment. Here, we present a generic capillary electrophoretic method based on a neutral-coated capillary which was coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) via the nanoCEasy interface for mAb variant analysis at the subunit level (enzymatically digested and reduced mAb). The method enabled the separation of several (i) size variants (e.g. glycosylation variants) and (ii) charge variants (e.g. c-terminal lysin clipping) as well as (iii) multiple other proteoforms (e.g. additional glycation) and (iv) incompletely reduced subunits. Separated variants were confirmed by MS/MS fragmentation even for small mass deviations like deamidation or open disulfide bridges. The system, initially developed for one mAb, was tested with nine other IgG1s to show the general applicability of the system. The presented multiattribute method enables fast and detailed characterization of mAb variants with little sample preparation and relatively simple separation equipment enabling the separation of a large set of mAb variants.

Characterization of monoclonal antibody charge variants under near-native separation conditions using nanoflow sheath liquid capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) undergo multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) during production and storage, resulting for instance in charge and oxidized variants. PTMs need to be assessed as critical quality attributes to assure protein quality and safety. Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) enables efficient charge-based separation. The CZE method developed by He et al. (2011) is currently applied routinely in the pharmaceutical industry for profiling charge heterogeneity of mAbs. However, as the method relies on a non-volatile background electrolyte (BGE), it cannot be directly hyphenated with mass spectrometry (MS), hampering the identification of separated charge variants.

RESULTS

This study presents a CZE-UV/MS method using a neutral static capillary coating of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose combined with a volatile BGE at pH 5.0 to allow for MS-compatible mAb charge variant separations. The effect of several parameters, including pH and concentration of the BGE, applied voltage, and injected mAb concentrations on separation performance was investigated using a panel of commercially available mAbs. The optimized method was evaluated with IgG1 and IgG4 mAbs of varying pI (7.4-9.2) and degrees of heterogeneity. Basic and acidic variants were separated from the parent mAb using a BGE of 50 mM acetic acid adjusted to pH 5.0 with ammonium hydroxide. The relative abundances of charge variants determined with the new method showed a good correlation with the corresponding relative levels obtained with the method of He et al. CZE-MS coupling was accomplished using the nanoCEasy, a low-flow sheath liquid interface, which enabled the identification and quantitation of basic, acidic, and incomplete pyroglutamate variants, and glycoforms of the tested mAbs.

SIGNIFICANCE

This manuscript describes a new CZE-MS method that permits heterogeneity assessment of mAbs under MS-compatible conditions, providing charge variant separation.

Nanobodies: From High-Throughput Identification to Therapeutic Development

The camelid single-domain antibody fragment, commonly referred to as a nanobody, achieves the targeting power of conventional monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) at only a fraction of their size. Isolated from camelid species (including llamas, alpacas, and camels), their small size at ∼15 kDa, low structural complexity, and high stability compared with conventional antibodies have propelled nanobody technology into the limelight of biologic development. Nanobodies are proving themselves to be a potent complement to traditional mAb therapies, showing success in the treatment of, for example, autoimmune diseases and cancer, and more recently as therapeutic options to treat infectious diseases caused by rapidly evolving biological targets such as the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This review highlights the benefits of applying a proteomic approach to identify diverse nanobody sequences against a single antigen. This proteomic approach coupled with conventional yeast/phage display methods enables the production of highly diverse repertoires of nanobodies able to bind the vast epitope landscape of an antigen, with epitope sampling surpassing that of mAbs. Additionally, we aim to highlight recent findings illuminating the structural attributes of nanobodies that make them particularly amenable to comprehensive antigen sampling and to synergistic activity-underscoring the powerful advantage of acquiring a large, diverse nanobody repertoire against a single antigen. Lastly, we highlight the efforts being made in the clinical development of nanobodies, which have great potential as powerful diagnostic reagents and treatment options, especially when targeting infectious disease agents.

Protein analysis using capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry through vibrating sharp-edge spray ionization

Capillary electrophoresis (CE) interfaced to mass spectrometry (MS) with electrospray ionization typically incorporates acidic additives or organic solvents to assist in ionization. Vibrating sharp-edge spray ionization (VSSI) is a voltage-free method to interface CE and MS that does not require these additives, making it appealing for protein analyses. CE-VSSI nanoflow sheath separations are performed with low ionic strength aqueous solutions in the sheath to reduce suppression. Serine is also included in the sheath to reduce analyte adduction. Proteins are detected in the 2.5-10 µM range, corresponding to an injected mass range of 0.1-1.2 ng. The anionic proteins β-lactoglobulin and transferrin are resolved using an unmodified fused silica capillary because they do not exhibit nonspecific surface adsorption. Conversely, separations of cationic proteins cytochrome c, ribonuclease A, and α-chymotrypsinogen A in an unmodified capillary require acidic background electrolytes to overcome adsorption. Alternatively, a semipermanent coating comprised self-assembled lipids overcomes surface adsorption at a neutral pH. Separations with zwitterionic and hybrid cationic coatings are complete within 15 or 6 min, respectively. The dimeric form of triosephosphate isomerase was observed at a 60 µM, corresponding to a mass of 19 ng, by dropping the temperature of the MS inlet.

Size-based characterization of dendrigraft poly(L-lysine) by free solution capillary electrophoresis using polyelectrolyte multilayer coatings

Dendrigraft poly(L-lysine) (DGL) constitutes a promising dendritic-like drug vehicle with high biocompatibility and straightforward access via ring-opening polymerization of N-carboxyanhydride in water. The characterization of the different generations of DGL is however challenging due to their heterogeneity in molar mass and branching ratio. In this work, free solution capillary electrophoresis was used to perform selective separation of the three first generations of DGL, and optimized conditions were developed to maximize inter-generation resolution. To reduce solute adsorption on the capillary wall, successive multiple ionic polymer layer coatings terminated with a polycation were deposited onto the inner wall surface. PEGylated polycation was also used as the last layer for the control of the electroosmotic flow (EOF), depending on the PEGylation degree and the methyl-polyethylene glycol (mPEG) chain length. 1 kDa mPEG chains and low grafting densities were found to be the best experimental conditions for a fine tuning of the EOF leading to high peak resolution. Molar mass polydispersity and polydispersity in effective electrophoretic mobility were successfully determined for the three first generations of DGL.

CE-MS/MS and CE-timsTOF to separate and characterize intramolecular disulfide bridges of monoclonal antibody subunits and their application for the assessment of subunit reduction protocols

Characterization at the subunit level enables detailed mass spectrometric characterization of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). The implemented reduction often leaves the intramolecular disulfide bridges intact. Here, we present a capillary electrophoretic (CE) method based on a neutral-coated capillary for the separation of immunoglobulin G-degrading enzyme of Streptococcus pyogenes (IdeS) digested and reduced mAb subunits followed by mass spectrometry (MS), MS/MS identification, and trapped ion mobility mass spectrometry (timsTOF). Our CE approach enables the separation of (i) different subunit moieties, (ii) various reduction states, and (iii) positional isomers of these partly reduced subunit moieties. The location of the remaining disulfide bridges can be determined by middle-down electron transfer higher energy collisional dissociation (EThcD) experiments. All these CE-separated variants show differences in ion mobility in the timsTOF measurements. Applying the presented CE-MS/MS method, reduction parameters such as the use of chaotropic salts were studied. For the investigated antibodies, urea improved the subunit reduction significantly, whereas guanidine hydrochloride (GuHCl) leads to multiple signals of the same subunit in the CE separation. The presented CE-MS method is a powerful tool for the disulfide-variant characterization of mAbs on the subunit level. It enables understanding disulfide bridge reduction processes in antibodies and potentially other proteins.

Modulating antibody effector functions by Fc glycoengineering

Antibody based drugs, including IgG monoclonal antibodies, are an expanding class of therapeutics widely employed to treat cancer, autoimmune and infectious diseases. IgG antibodies have a conserved N-glycosylation site at Asn297 that bears complex type N-glycans which, along with other less conserved N- and O-glycosylation sites, fine-tune effector functions, complement activation, and half-life of antibodies. Fucosylation, galactosylation, sialylation, bisection and mannosylation all generate glycoforms that interact in a specific manner with different cellular antibody receptors and are linked to a distinct functional profile. Antibodies, including those employed in clinical settings, are generated with a mixture of glycoforms attached to them, which has an impact on their efficacy, stability and effector functions. It is therefore of great interest to produce antibodies containing only tailored glycoforms with specific effects associated with them. To this end, several antibody engineering strategies have been developed, including the usage of engineered mammalian cell lines, in vitro and in vivo glycoengineering.

Analytical Techniques for the Characterization and Quantification of Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are a fast-growing class of biopharmaceuticals. They are widely used in the identification and detection of cell makers, serum analytes, and pathogenic agents, and are remarkably used for the cure of autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, or malignancies. The successful application of therapeutic mAbs is based on their ability to precisely interact with their appropriate target sites. The precision of mAbs rely on the isolation techniques delivering pure, consistent, stable, and safe lots that can be used for analytical, diagnostic, or therapeutic applications. During the creation of a biologic, the key quality features of a particular mAb, such as structure, post-translational modifications, and activities at the biomolecular and cellular levels, must be characterized and profiled in great detail. This implies the requirement of powerful state of the art analytical techniques for quality control and characterization of mAbs. Until now, various analytical techniques have been developed to characterize and quantify the mAbs according to the regulatory guidelines. The present review summarizes the major techniques used for the analyses of mAbs which include chromatographic, electrophoretic, spectroscopic, and electrochemical methods in addition to the modifications in these methods for improving the quality of mAbs. This compilation of major analytical techniques will help students and researchers to have an overview of the methodologies employed by the biopharmaceutical industry for structural characterization of mAbs for eventual release of therapeutics in the drug market.

Peptide mapping of proteins by capillary electromigration methods

This review article provides a wide overview of important developments and applications of capillary electromigration methods in the area of peptide mapping of proteins in the period 1997-mid-2022, including review articles on this topic. It deals with all major aspects of peptide mapping by capillary electromigration methods: i) precleavage sample preparation involving purification, preconcentration, denaturation, reduction and alkylation of protein(s) to be analyzed, ii) generation of peptide fragments by off-line or on-line enzymatic and/or chemical cleavage of protein(s), iii) postcleavage preparation of the generated peptide mixture for capillary electromigration separation, iv) separation of the complex peptide mixtures by one-, two- and multidimensional capillary electromigration methods coupled with mass spectrometry detection, and v) a large application of peptide mapping for variable purposes, such as qualitative analysis of monoclonal antibodies and other protein biopharmaceuticals, monitoring of posttranslational modifications, determination of primary structure and investigation of function of proteins in biochemical and clinical research, characterization of proteins of variable origin as well as for protein and peptide identification in proteomic and peptidomic studies.

Affinity capillary electrophoresis – mass spectrometry permits direct binding assessment of IgG and FcγRIIa in a glycoform-resolved manner

The impact of antibody glycoforms on FcγRIIa activation and immune responses is poorly understood. Yet, glycoform binding assessment remains one of the major analytical challenges requiring long enrichment or glycoengineering steps. Here, we developed and applied an affinity capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry approach to selectively assess the binding of different antibody glycoforms to the FcγIIa receptor without the need of glycoengineering. The approach required only low microgram amounts of antibody and receptor and enables assessing the binding of high and low-abundance glycoforms. The approach indicated clear differences in binging between doubly-, hemi-glycosylated and non-glycosylated antibodies as well as for mutated (Leu234Ala, Leu235Ala – Pro329-Gly (LALA-PG)) IgG1 antibodies silenced for Fcγ binding. The LALA-PG mutated antibody showed no binding to the FcγIIa receptor (excluding potential non-specific binding effects) while the non-glycosylated IgG1 showed a strongly reduced, but still minor binding. The highest binding affinity was for the antibody carrying two complex-type glycans. Man5 glycans resulted in decreased binding compared to complex-type glycans, with the lowest binding for the IgG containing two Man5. For complex-type glycans, galactosylation showed a subtle increase in binding to the FcγIIa receptor, and sialylation showed an increase in binding for lower sialylated species. Fucosylation did not influence binding to the FcγIIa receptor. Finally, the assay was evaluated for the two variants of the FcγRIIa receptor (allotypes H131 and R131) showing highly comparable glycoform selectivity. Overall, the proposed approach allows the direct comparison of binding affinities of different antibody species in mixtures promising a fast establishment of their structure-function relationships.

Liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis in glycomic and glycoproteomic analysis

Glycosylation is one of the most significant and abundant post-translational modifications in cells. Glycomic and glycoproteomic analyses involve the characterization of oligosaccharides (glycans) conjugated to proteins. Glycomic and glycoproteomic analysis is highly challenging because of the large diversity of structures, low abundance, site-specific heterogeneity, and poor ionization efficiency of glycans and glycopeptides in mass spectrometry (MS). MS is a key tool for characterization of glycans and glycopeptides. However, MS alone does not always provide full structural and quantitative information for many reasons, and thus MS is combined with some separation technique. This review focuses on the role of separation techniques used in glycomic and glycoproteomic analyses, liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. The most important separation conditions and results are presented and discussed.

Graphical abstract

Analytical Similarity Assessment of Biosimilars: Global Regulatory Landscape, Recent Studies and Major Advancements in Orthogonal Platforms

Biopharmaceuticals are one of the fastest-growing sectors in the biotechnology industry. Within the umbrella of biopharmaceuticals, the biosimilar segment is expanding with currently over 200 approved biosimilars, globally. The key step towards achieving a successful biosimilar approval is to establish analytical and clinical biosimilarity with the innovator. The objective of an analytical biosimilarity study is to demonstrate a highly similar profile with respect to variations in critical quality attributes (CQAs) of the biosimilar product, and these variations must lie within the range set by the innovator. This comprises a detailed comparative structural and functional characterization using appropriate, validated analytical methods to fingerprint the molecule and helps reduce the economic burden towards regulatory requirement of extensive preclinical/clinical similarity data, thus making biotechnological drugs more affordable. In the last decade, biosimilar manufacturing and associated regulations have become more established, leading to numerous approvals. Biosimilarity assessment exercises conducted towards approval are also published more frequently in the public domain. Consequently, some technical advancements in analytical sciences have also percolated to applications in analytical biosimilarity assessment. Keeping this in mind, this review aims at providing a holistic view of progresses in biosimilar analysis and approval. In this review, we have summarized the major developments in the global regulatory landscape with respect to biosimilar approvals and also catalogued biosimilarity assessment studies for recombinant DNA products available in the public domain. We have also covered recent advancements in analytical methods, orthogonal techniques, and platforms for biosimilar characterization, since 2015. The review specifically aims to serve as a comprehensive catalog for published biosimilarity assessment studies with details on analytical platform used and critical quality attributes (CQAs) covered for multiple biotherapeutic products. Through this compilation, the emergent evolution of techniques with respect to each CQA has also been charted and discussed. Lastly, the information resource of published biosimilarity assessment studies, created during literature search is anticipated to serve as a helpful reference for biopharmaceutical scientists and biosimilar developers.

Assessment of Macro- and Microheterogeneity of Monoclonal Antibodies Using Capillary Zone Electrophoresis Hyphenated with Mass Spectrometry

This chapter focuses on the application of capillary zone electrophoresis hyphenated with mass spectrometry (CZE-MS) for the characterization of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). mAbs are complex molecules comprising different glycoforms and many other posttranslational modifications. In addition to this inherent microheterogeneity, misassembling of antibodies can take place during production contributing to their macroheterogeneity. CZE-MS is a versatile and powerful technique which has demonstrated high potential for the assessment of both micro- and macroheterogeneity of mAbs. In this chapter, technical and practical considerations for the characterization of mAbs by CZE-MS are described. CE-MS interfacing, capillary coatings for the prevention of mAb adsorption, and sample preparation considerations are covered in detail. The assessment of the macro- and microheterogeneity is discussed and exemplified through three different approaches involving analysis of intact, enzymatically digested, and reduced antibodies. The examples also illustrate the use of two commercially available interfacing techniques (i.e., sheath liquid and sheathless) as well as different types of capillary coatings (positively charged and neutral coatings).

Oxidation and Deamidation of Monoclonal Antibody Products: Potential Impact on Stability, Biological Activity, and Efficacy

The role in human health of therapeutic proteins in general, and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in particular, has been significant and is continuously evolving. A considerable amount of time and resources are invested first in mAb product development and then in clinical examination of the product. Physical and chemical degradation can occur during manufacturing, processing, storage, handling, and administration. Therapeutic proteins may undergo various chemical degradation processes, including oxidation, deamidation, isomerization, hydrolysis, deglycosylation, racemization, disulfide bond breakage and formation, Maillard reaction, and β-elimination. Oxidation and deamidation are the most common chemical degradation processes of mAbs, which may result in changes in physical properties, such as hydrophobicity, charge, secondary or/and tertiary structure, and may lower the thermodynamic or kinetic barrier to unfold. This may predispose the product to aggregation and other chemical modifications, which can alter the binding affinity, half-life, and efficacy of the product. This review summarizes major findings from the past decade on the impact of oxidation and deamidation on the stability, biological activity, and efficacy of mAb products. Mechanisms of action, influencing factors, characterization tools, clinical impact, and risk mitigation strategies have been addressed.

CE-MS for Proteomics and Intact Protein Analysis

This chapter aims to explore various parameters involved in achieving high-end capillary electrophoresis hyphenated to mass spectrometry (CE-MS) analysis of proteins, peptides, and their posttranslational modifications. The structure of the topics discussed in this book chapter is conveniently mapped on the scheme of the CE-MS system itself, starting from sample preconcentration and injection techniques and finishing with mass analyzer considerations. After going through the technical considerations, a variety of relevant applications for this analytical approach are presented, including posttranslational modifications analysis, clinical biomarker discovery, and its growing use in the biotechnological industry.

Recent biopharmaceutical applications of capillary electrophoresis methods on recombinant DNA technology-based products

Biopharmaceuticals (recombinant technology-based products, vaccines, whole blood and blood components, gene therapy, cells, tissues, etc.,) are described as biological medical products produced from various living sources such as human, microbial, animal, and so on by manufacturing, extraction, or semi-synthesis. They are complex molecules having high molecular weights. For their safety and efficacy, their structural, clinical, physicochemical, and chemical features must be carefully controlled, and they must be well characterized by analytical techniques before the approval of the final product. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) having versatile modes can provide valuable safety and efficacy information, such as amino acid sequence, size variants (low and high molecular weight variants), charged variants (acidic and basic impurities), aggregates, N-linked glycosylation, and O-linked glycosylation. There are numerous applications of CE in the literature. In this review, the most significant and recent studies on the analysis of recombinant DNA technology-based products using different CE modes in the last ten years have been overviewed. It was seen that the researches mostly focus on the analysis of mAbs and IgG. In addition, in recent years, researchers have started to prefer CE combined mass spectrometry (MS) techniques to provide a more detailed characterization for protein and peptide fragments.

Hitting the sweet spot with capillary electrophoresis: advances in N-glycomics and glycoproteomics

N-glycosylation is of paramount importance for understanding the mechanisms of various human diseases and ensuring the safety and efficacy of biotherapeutics. Traditional glycan analysis techniques include LC-based separations and MALDI-TOF-MS identification. However, the current state-of-the-art methods lack throughput and structural information, include laborious sample preparation procedures and require large sample volumes. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) has long been used for the screening and reliable quantitation of glycans, but its applications have been limited. Because of its speed, sensitivity and complementarity with standard glycan analysis techniques, CE is currently emerging as one of the most versatile and adaptable methods for glycan analysis in both academia and industry. Herein, we review the latest advancements in CE-based applications to glycomics and glycoproteomics within both the biopharmaceutical and clinical sectors.

Investigation of monoclonal antibody dimers in a final formulated drug by separation techniques coupled to native mass spectrometry

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are highly complex proteins that must be exhaustively characterized according to the regulatory authorities' recommendations. MAbs display micro-heterogeneity mainly due to their post-translational modifications, but also to their susceptibility to chemical and physical degradations. Among these degradations, aggregation is quite frequent, initiated by protein denaturation and then dimer formation. Here, we investigated the nature and structure of the high molecular weight species (HMW) present at less than 1% in an unstressed formulated roledumab biopharmaceutical, as a model of high purity mAb. HMW species were first purified through preparative size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and then analyzed by a combination of chromatographic methods (ion-exchange chromatography (IEX), SEC) coupled to native mass spectrometry (MS), as well as sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and capillary gel electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions. Both covalently and non-covalently bound dimers were identified at a proportion of 50/50. In-depth characterization of the HMW fraction by SEC and IEX hyphenated to native MS revealed the presence of three mAb dimer forms having the same mass, but differing by their charge and size. They were attributed to different compact and elongated dimers. Finally, high-resolution middle-up approaches using different enzymes (IdeS and IgdE) were performed to determine the mAb domains implicated in the dimerization. Our results revealed that the roledumab dimers were associated mainly by a single Fab-to-Fab arm-bound association.

In-capillary (electrophoretic) digestion-reduction-separation: A smart tool for middle-up analysis of mAb

Comprehensive characterization of physicochemical properties of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a critical process to ensure their quality, efficacy, and safety. For this purpose, mAb analysis at different levels (bottom-up, middle-up) is a common approach that includes rather complex multistep sample preparation (reduction, digestion). To ensure high analysis performance, the development of fully integrated methodologies is highly valuable. Capillary zone electrophoresis is a particularly well-adapted technique for the multistep implementation of analytical strategies from sample preparation to detection. This feature was employed to develop novel integrated methodologies for the analysis of mAb at the middle-up level. Multiple in-line reactions (simultaneous reduction and digestion) were performed for the first time in the separation capillary. Tris (2-carboxyethyl) phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP) was used as an effective reducing agent under a broad pH range and IdeS (Immunoglobulin degrading enzyme from Streptococcus) as a highly specific enzyme for mAb digestion. Transverse diffusion of laminar flow profile (TDLFP) was applied for reactants mixing. Both in-line sample preparation and separation parameters were optimized under non-denaturing and denaturing conditions. The developed in-line methodologies provided good reproducibility and higher peak efficiencies comparing with off-line assays. They were successfully applied to different mAbs.

Profiling the proteoforms of urinary prostate-specific antigen by capillary electrophoresis - mass spectrometry

Early detection of prostate cancer may lead to the overdiagnosis and overtreatment of patients as well as missing significant cancers. The current diagnostic approach uses elevated serum concentrations of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) as an indicator of risk. However, this test has been widely criticized as it shows poor specificity and sensitivity. In order to improve early detection and diagnosis, several studies have investigated whether different PSA proteoforms are correlated to prostate cancer. Until now, studies and methodologies for the comprehensive characterization of PSA proteoforms from biofluids are scarce. For this purpose, we developed an intact protein assay to analyze PSA by capillary electrophoresis-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry after affinity purification from patients' urine. Here, we determined six proteolytic cleavage variants. In regard to glycosylation, tri-, di-, mono- and non-sialylated complex-type N-glycans were found on non-cleaved PSA, as well as the non-glycosylated variant. The performance of the intact protein assay was assessed using a pooled sample, obtaining an inter-day variability of 15%. Furthermore, urinary patient samples were analyzed by intact protein analysis and a bottom-up approach (glycopeptide analysis). This combined approach revealed complimentary information on both levels, demonstrating the benefit of using two orthogonal techniques to provide a thorough profile of urinary PSA. SIGNIFICANCE: The detection of clinically relevant prostate cancer requires a more specific and sensitive biomarker and, in this case, several PSA proteoforms may be able to aid or improve the current PSA test. However, a comprehensive analysis of the intact PSA proteoform profile is still lacking. This study investigated the PSA proteoforms present in urine and, in particular, determined the relative contribution of cleaved PSA and non-cleaved PSA forms to the total glycosylation profile. Importantly, intact protein analysis did not require further sample treatment before being measured by CE-ESI-MS. Furthermore, its glycosylation was also assessed in a bottom-up approach to provide complementary information. Overall, these results represent an important basis for future characterization and biomarker studies.

Monitoring glycation levels of a bispecific monoclonal antibody at subunit level by ultrahigh-resolution MALDI FT-ICR mass spectrometry

Bispecific monoclonal antibodies (BsAbs) are engineered proteins with multiple functionalities and properties. The "bi-specificity" of these complex biopharmaceuticals is a key characteristic for the development of novel and more effective therapeutic strategies. The high structural complexity of BsAbs poses a challenge to the analytical methods needed for their characterization. Modifications of the BsAb structure, resulting from enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes, further complicate the analysis. An important example of the latter type of modification is glycation, which can occur in the manufacturing process, during storage in the formulation or in vivo after application of the drug. Glycation affects the structure, function, and stability of monoclonal antibodies, and consequently, a detailed analysis of glycation levels is required. Mass spectrometry (MS) plays a key role in the structural characterization of monoclonal antibodies and top-down, middle-up and middle-down MS approaches are increasingly used for the analysis of modifications. Here, we apply a novel middle-up strategy, based on IdeS digestion and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) MS, to analyze all six different BsAb subunits in a single high-resolution mass spectrum, namely two light chains, two half fragment crystallizable regions and two Fd' regions, thus avoiding upfront chromatography. This method was used to monitor glycation changes during a 168 h forced-glycation experiment. In addition, hot spot glycation sites were localized using top-down and middle-down MALDI-in-source decay FT-ICR MS, which provided complementary information compared to standard bottom-up MS.

Analysis of Monoclonal Antibodies by Capillary Electrophoresis: Sample Preparation, Separation, and Detection

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are dominating the biopharmaceutical field due to the fact of their high specificity in the treatment of diverse diseases. Nevertheless, mAbs are very complex glycoproteins exhibiting several macro- and microheterogeneities that may affect their safety, quality, and efficacy. This complexity is very challenging for mAbs development, formulation, and quality control. To tackle the quality issue, a combination of multiple analytical approaches is necessary. In this perspective, capillary electrophoresis has gained considerable interest over the last decade due to the fact of its complementary features to chromatographic approaches. This review provides an overview of the strategies of mAbs and derivatives analysis by capillary electrophoresis hyphenated to ultraviolet, fluorescence, and mass spectrometry detection. The main sample preparation approaches used for mAb analytical characterization (i.e., intact, middle-up/down, and bottom-up) are detailed. The different electrophoretic modes used as well as integrated analysis approaches (sample preparation and separation) are critically discussed.

Multi-dimensional LC-MS: the next generation characterization of antibody-based therapeutics by unified online bottom-up, middle-up and intact approaches

This review presents an overview of current analytical trends in antibody characterization by multidimensional LC-MS approaches.

From cell line development to the formulated drug product: The art of manufacturing therapeutic monoclonal antibodies

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and related products have steadily grown to become the dominant product class within the biopharmaceutical market. Production of antibodies requires special precautions to ensure safety and efficacy of the product. In particular, minimizing antibody product heterogeneity is crucial as drug substance variants may impair the activity, efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties of an antibody, consequently resulting in the failure of a product in pre-clinical and clinical development. This review will cover the manufacturing and formulation challenges and advances of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, focusing on improved processes to minimize variants and ensure batch-to-batch consistency. Processes put in place by regulatory agencies, such as Quality-by-Design (QbD) and current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP), and how their implementation has aided drug development in pharmaceutical companies will be reviewed. Advances in formulation and considerations on the intended use of a therapeutic antibody, including the route of administration and patient compliance, will be discussed.

Monitoring of immunoglobulin N- and O-glycosylation in health and disease

Protein N- and O-glycosylation are well known co- and post-translational modifications of immunoglobulins. Antibody glycosylation on the Fab and Fc portion is known to influence antigen binding and effector functions, respectively. To study associations between antibody glycosylation profiles and (patho) physiological states as well as antibody functionality, advanced technologies and methods are required. In-depth structural characterization of antibody glycosylation usually relies on the separation and tandem mass spectrometric (MS) analysis of released glycans. Protein- and site-specific information, on the other hand, may be obtained by the MS analysis of glycopeptides. With the development of high-resolution mass spectrometers, antibody glycosylation analysis at the intact or middle-up level has gained more interest, providing an integrated view of different post-translational modifications (including glycosylation). Alongside the in-depth methods, there is also great interest in robust, high-throughput techniques for routine glycosylation profiling in biopharma and clinical laboratories. With an emphasis on IgG Fc glycosylation, several highly robust separation-based techniques are employed for this purpose. In this review, we describe recent advances in MS methods, separation techniques and orthogonal approaches for the characterization of immunoglobulin glycosylation in different settings. We put emphasis on the current status and expected developments of antibody glycosylation analysis in biomedical, biopharmaceutical and clinical research.

Sheathless CE-MS as a tool for monitoring exchange efficiency and stability of bispecific antibodies

Bispecific monoclonal antibodies (BsAbs) are receiving great attention due to their extensive benefits as biopharmaceuticals and their involvement in IgG4 mediated autoimmune diseases. While the production of BsAbs is getting more accessible, their analytical characterization remains challenging. We explored the potential of sheathless CE-MS for monitoring exchange efficiency and stability of in-house produced bispecific antibodies. Two IgG4 bispecific antibodies with different molecular characteristics were prepared using controlled Fragment antigen binding (Fab)-arm exchange. Separation of BsAbs from their parent monospecific antibodies was achieved using a polyethyleniimine (PEI)-coated capillary and acidic background electrolytes permitting reliable assessment of the exchange efficiency. This was especially valuable for a Fab-glycosylated BsAb where the high glycan heterogeneity resulted in an overlap of masses with the monospecific parent antibody, hindering their discrimination by MS only. The method showed also good capabilities to monitor the stability of the generated BsAbs under different storage conditions. The levels of degradation products were different for the studied antibodies indicating pronounced differences in stability. Overall, the proposed method represents a useful analytical tool for exchange efficiency and stability studies of bispecific antibodies.

MS-Based Allotype-Specific Analysis of Polyclonal IgG-Fc N-Glycosylation

Current approaches to study glycosylation of polyclonal human immunoglobulins G (IgG) usually imply protein digestion or glycan release. While these approaches allow in-depth characterization, they also result in a loss of valuable information regarding certain subclasses, allotypes and co-occuring post-translational modifications (PTMs). Unfortunately, the high variability of polyclonal IgGs makes their intact mass spectrometry (MS) analysis extremely challenging. We propose here a middle-up strategy for the analysis of the intact fragment crystallizable (Fc) region of human plasma IgGs, with the aim of acquiring integrated information of the N-glycosylation and other PTMs of subclasses and allotypes. Human plasma IgG was isolated using Fc-specific beads followed by an on-bead C _H 2 domain digestion with the enzyme IdeS. The obtained mixture of Fc subunits was analyzed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) hyphenated with MS. CE-MS provided separation of different IgG-subclasses and allotypes, while HILIC-MS allowed resolution of the different glycoforms and their oxidized variants. The orthogonality of these techniques was key to reliably assign Fc allotypes. Five individual donors were analyzed using this approach. Heterozygosis was observed in all the analyzed donors resulting in a total of 12 allotypes identified. The assignments were further confirmed using recombinant monoclonal IgG allotypes as standards. While the glycosylation patterns were similar within allotypes of the same subclass, clear differences were observed between IgG subclasses and donors, highlighting the relevance of the proposed approach. In a single analysis, glycosylation levels specific for each allotype, relative abundances of subclasses and information on co-occurring modifications are obtained. This middle-up method represents an important step toward a comprehensive analysis of immunoglobulin G-Fc variants.

Recent progress in the analysis of protein deamidation using mass spectrometry

Deamidation is a nonenzymatic and spontaneous posttranslational modification (PTM) that introduces changes in both structure and charge of proteins, strongly associated with aging proteome instability and degenerative diseases. Deamidation is also a common PTM occurring in biopharmaceutical proteins, representing a major cause of degradation. Therefore, characterization of deamidation alongside its inter-related modifications, isomerization and racemization, is critically important to understand their roles in protein stability and diseases. Mass spectrometry (MS) has become an indispensable tool in site-specific identification of PTMs for proteomics and structural studies. In this review, we focus on the recent advances of MS analysis in protein deamidation. In particular, we provide an update on sample preparation, chromatographic separation, and MS technologies at multi-level scales, for accurate and reliable characterization of protein deamidation in both simple and complex biological samples, yielding important new insight on how deamidation together with isomerization and racemization occurs. These technological progresses will lead to a better understanding of how deamidation contributes to the pathology of aging and other degenerative diseases and the development of biopharmaceutical drugs.

An in-line enzymatic microreactor for the middle-up analysis of monoclonal antibodies by capillary electrophoresis

In-line enzymatic microreactor and electrophoretic strategy for the middle-up analysis of monoclonal antibodies.

Recent trends of capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry in proteomics research

Progress in proteomics research has led to a demand for powerful analytical tools with high separation efficiency and sensitivity for confident identification and quantification of proteins, posttranslational modifications, and protein complexes expressed in cells and tissues. This demand has significantly increased interest in capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) in the past few years. This review provides highlights of recent advances in CE-MS for proteomics research, including a short introduction to top-down mass spectrometry and native mass spectrometry (native MS), as well as a detailed overview of CE methods. Both the potential and limitations of these methods for the analysis of proteins and peptides in synthetic and biological samples and the challenges of CE methods are discussed, along with perspectives about the future direction of CE-MS. @ 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 00:1-16, 2019.

Separation methods hyphenated to mass spectrometry for the characterization of the protein glycosylation at the intact level

Glycosylation is one of the most common post-translational modifications of proteins that affects their biological activity, solubility, and half-life. Therefore, its characterization is of great interest in proteomic, particularly from a diagnostic and therapeutic point of view. However, the number and type of glycosylation sites, the degree of site occupancy and the different possible structures of glycans can lead to a very large number of isoforms for a given protein, called glycoforms. The identification of these glycoforms constitutes an important analytical challenge. Indeed, to attempt to characterize all of them, it is necessary to develop efficient separation methods associated with a sensitive and informative detection mode, such as mass spectrometry (MS). Most analytical methods are based on bottom-up proteomics, which consists in the analysis of the protein at the glycopeptides level after its digestion. Even if this approach provides essential information, including the localization and composition of glycans on the protein, it is also characterized by a loss of information on macro-heterogeneity, i.e. the nature of the glycans present on a given glycoform. The analysis of glycoforms at the intact level can overcome this disadvantage. The aim of this review is to detail the state-of-the art of separation methods that can be easily hyphenated with MS for the characterization of protein glycosylation at the intact level. The different electrophoretic and chromatographic approaches are discussed in detail. The miniaturization of these separation methods is also discussed with their potential applications. While the first studies focused on the development and optimization of the separation step to achieve high resolution between isoforms, the recent ones are much more application-oriented, such as clinical diagnosis, quality control, and glycoprotein monitoring in formulations or biological samples.