Liposomal drug delivery systems: from concept to clinical applications

Targeted nanoliposomes for precision rheumatoid arthritis therapy: a review on mechanisms and in vivo potential

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory immune-triggered disease that causes synovitis, cartilage degradation, and joint injury. In nanotechnology, conventional liposomes were extensively investigated for RA. However, they frequently undergo rapid clearance, reducing circulation time and therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, their stability in the bloodstream is often compromised, resulting in premature drug release. The current review explores the potential of targeted liposomal-based nanosystems in the treatment of RA. It highlights the pathophysiology of RA, explores selective targeting sites, and elucidates diverse mechanisms of novel liposomal types and their applications. Furthermore, the targeting strategies of pH-sensitive, flexible, surface-modified, PEGylated, acoustic, ROS-mediated, and biofunctionalized liposomes are addressed. Targeted nanoliposomes showed potential in precisely delivering drugs to CD44, SR-A, FR-β, FLS, and toll-like receptors through the high affinity of ligands. In vitro studies interpreted stable release profiles and improved stability. Ex vivo studies on skin demonstrated that ultradeformable and glycerol-conjugated liposomes enhanced drug penetrability. In vivo experiments for liposomal types in the arthritis rat model depicted remarkable efficacy in reducing joint swelling, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and synovial hyperplasia. In conclusion, these targeted liposomes represented a significant leap forward in drug delivery, offering effective therapeutic options for RA. In the future, integrating these advanced liposomes with artificial intelligence, immunotherapy, and precision medicine holds great promise.

Core-shell hybrid liposomes: Transforming imaging diagnostics and therapeutic strategies

For the last few years, researchers and industry have intensified efforts to develop a diverse array of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to fight diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and viral infections. Among the emerging technologies, hybrid liposomes (HLs) stand out for their ability to address key limitations of conventional liposomes and deliver multifunctional solutions more effectively. While several novel nanosystems, including polymerlipid conjugates and inorganic nanoparticles (NPs), have shown great potential in the preclinical and clinical phases for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, particularly cancer, HLs can integrate the best of both worlds, combining drug delivery properties with imaging capabilities. HLs, particularly those with core-shell structures, can surpass conventional liposomes by offering improved physicochemical properties, multifunctionality, and the capacity to overcome critical delivery challenges. The integration of natural and synthetic polymers has rapidly emerged as a preferred strategy in the development of HLs, providing significant advantages, such as enhanced stability, stimuli-responsive drug release, prolonged circulation, and improved therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, the customizable structure of HLs allows the incorporation of diverse materials, such as metals, ligands, and functional lipids, improving diagnosis and enhancing targeted delivery and cellular uptake far beyond what conventional liposomes offer. This review provides a critical and updated analysis of core-shell structure exhibiting HLs, with a focus on their preparation, characterization, and functional enhancements. We also examine in vitro/in vivo outcomes in imaging diagnosis and drug delivery while addressing the current barriers to clinical translation and future prospects for these versatile nanoplatforms.

Harnessing the human microbiome and its impact on immuno-oncology and nanotechnology for next-generation cancer therapies

The integration of microbiome research and nanotechnology represents a significant advancement in immuno-oncology, potentially improving the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapies. Recent studies highlight the influential role of the human microbiome in modulating immune responses, presenting new opportunities to enhance immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and other cancer therapies. Nanotechnology offers precise drug delivery and immune modulation capabilities, minimizing off-target effects while maximizing therapeutic outcomes. This review consolidates current knowledge on the interactions between the microbiome and the immune system, emphasizing the microbiome's impact on ICIs, and explores the incorporation of nanotechnology in cancer treatment strategies. Additionally, it provides a forward-looking perspective on the synergistic potential of microbiome modulation and nanotechnology to overcome existing challenges in immuno-oncology. This integrated approach may enhance the personalization and effectiveness of next-generation cancer treatments, paving the way for transformative patient care.

A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances in drug delivery systems for different therapeutic agents in periodontitis

Periodontitis (PD) is a chronic gum illness that may be hard to cure for a number of reasons, including the fact that no one knows what causes it, the side effects of anti-microbial treatment, and how various kinds of bacteria interact with one another. As a result, novel therapeutic approaches for PD treatment must be developed. Additionally, supplementary antibacterial regimens, including local and systemic medication administration of chemical agents, are necessary for deep pockets to assist with mechanical debridement of tooth surfaces. As our knowledge of periodontal disease and drug delivery systems (DDSs) grows, new targeted delivery systems like extracellular vesicles, lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs), metallic NPs, and polymer NPs have been developed. These systems aim to improve the targeting and precision of PD treatments while reducing the systemic side effects of antibiotics. Nanozymes, photodermal therapy, antibacterial metallic NPs, and traditional PD therapies have all been reviewed in this research. Medicinal herbs, antibiotics, photothermal therapy, nanozymes, antibacterial metallic NPs, and conventional therapies for PD have all been examined in this research. After that, we reviewed the key features of many innovative DDSs and how they worked for PD therapy. Finally, we have discussed the advantages and disadvantages of these DDSs.

Dual-delivery of exosome inhibitor and immune-activating gene via lipid nano-assemblies for tumor immune evasion inhibition

The tumor microenvironment, with its complex immune evasion mechanisms, significantly hinders the efficacy of anti-tumor immunotherapies, including immune checkpoint inhibitors. Consequently, there is a strong impetus for extensive research to elucidate the immunosuppressive mechanisms within the tumor microenvironment and to develop novel therapeutic strategies. In this study, we have developed a drug/gene delivery system (folate-modified GW4869-loaded siIRF3 nano-complex, FD9R-GW/siIRF3) designed to simultaneously target and inhibit two key immune evasion pathways in the tumor microenvironment. The folate receptor-mediated delivery of GW4869 to cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) led to the suppression of biosynthesis and release of tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) containing exosomal PD-L1. Furthermore, IRF3 gene silencing effectively inhibited the M2-type differentiation of TAMs, and suppressed the secretion of CC motif chemokine ligand 22 (CCL22) in cancer cells, consequently reducing the recruitment of regulatory T cells (Tregs). The efficacy of FD9R-GW/siIRF3 in impeding tumor immune evasion was substantiated by an augmented recruitment of cytotoxic T cells and a diminished M2 macrophage polarization in the folate receptor-expressing 4 T1 allograft breast cancer model. Furthermore, the combination of a-PD-1 immunotherapy with FD9R-GW/siIRF3 led to a significant enhancement in the antitumor immune response, as evidenced by the inhibition of circulating tumor-derived exosomal PD-L1.

Polymeric Nanoparticles Enable Targeted Visualization of Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer

We report the coencapsulation of fluorocoxib Q (FQ) and chemocoxib A (CA) in micellar nanoparticles (FQ-CA-NPs) of a new PPS135-b-POEGA17 diblock polymer, which exhibited a hydrodynamic diameter of 109.2 ± 4.1 nm and a zeta potential (ζ) of -1.59 ± 0.3 mV. The uptake of FQ-CA-NPs by 4T1 mouse mammary cancer cells and intracellular cargo release were assessed by fluorescence microscopy that resulted in increased fluorescence in 4T1 cells compared to cells pretreated with celecoxib. The viability of primary human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs) or 4T1 mouse mammary carcinoma cells treated with FQ-CA-NPs were assessed, which showed decreased growth of 4T1 breast cancer cells but showed no effect on the growth of primary human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). Intravenous dosing of FQ-CA-NPs in mice enabled ROS-induced cargo (FQ and CA) release and fluorescence activation of FQ and resulted in increased fluorescence in breast tumors compared to the tumors of animals pretreated with tempol or celecoxib, and minimum fluorescence was detected in the tumors of animals treated with nothing or empty-NPs. In addition, tumor tissues from treated animals were analyzed ex vivo by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/MS, and identified increased levels of cargo delivery and retention in the tumor compared to tempol- or celecoxib-pretreated animal tumors. These in vivo and ex vivo results confirmed the targeted delivery of loaded NPs followed by ROS-mediated cargo release and fluorescence activation for targeted visualization of drug delivery in breast tumors and CA-induced therapeutic effect in an in vivo tumor growth inhibition assay and an ex vivo hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining of tumor tissues. Thus, coencapsulation of FQ and CA into polymeric micellar nanoparticles (FQ-CA-NPs) enabled their ROS-sensitive release followed by fluorescence activation and COX-2-dependent tumor targeting and retention in the visualization of CA delivery in solid breast tumors.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Protein Corona Formation on Membrane Surfaces: Effects of Lipid Composition and PEGylation on Selective Plasma Protein Adsorption

The adsorption of plasma proteins (human serum albumin (SA) and apolipoproteins A-I and E-III) onto various lipid bilayers is simulated. With three different binding orientations for each protein, free energy calculations from umbrella sampling simulations show stronger binding of SA to the bilayer composed of lipids with smaller headgroups and stronger binding of apolipoproteins to the bilayer composed of anionic lipids rather than cationic or zwitterionic lipids, in agreement with experiments. Anionic residues of SA form hydrogen bonds more readily with amine headgroups of lipids than with larger trimethylammonium headgroups, where the cationic nitrogen is sterically hindered. In contrast, cationic residues of apolipoproteins form hydrogen bonds predominantly with anionic phosphate groups of lipids, indicating that protein-bilayer binding is attributed to hydrogen bonds facilitated by electrostatic attraction, depending on the electrostatics and size of lipid headgroups. For lipid bilayers grafted with polyethylene glycol (PEG), the binding strength of SA decreases while that of apolipoproteins increases, consistent with experiments, due to hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between proteins and PEG. These findings help explain experimental observations regarding the abundance of specific plasma proteins adsorbed onto various liposomes and suggest manipulating lipid composition and PEGylation to attract specific proteins to liposome-based drug carriers.

Ocular drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology: a comprehensive review for the treatment of eye diseases

Ocular drug delivery is a significant challenge due to the intricate anatomy of the eye and the various physiological barriers. Conventional therapeutic approaches, while effective to some extent, often fall short in effectively targeting ocular diseases, resulting in suboptimal therapeutic outcomes due to factors such as poor ocular bioavailability, frequent dosing requirements, systemic side effects, and limited penetration through ocular barriers. This review elucidates the eye's intricate anatomy and physiology, prevalent ocular diseases, traditional therapeutic modalities, and the inherent pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic limitations associated with these modalities. Subsequently, it delves into nanotechnology-based solutions, presenting breakthroughs in nanoformulations such as nanocrystals, liposomes, dendrimers, and nanoemulsions that have demonstrated enhanced drug stability, controlled release, and deeper ocular penetration. Additionally, it explores a range of nanosized carriers, including nano-structured lipid carriers, hydrogels, nanogels, nanoenzymes, microparticles, conjugates, exosomes, nanosuspensions, viral vectors, and polymeric nanoparticles, and their applications. Unique insights include emerging innovations such as nanowafers and transcorneal iontophoresis, which indicate paradigm shifts in non-invasive ocular drug delivery. Furthermore, it sheds light on the advantages and limitations of these nanotechnology-based platforms in addressing the challenges of ocular drug delivery. Though nano-based drug delivery systems are drawing increasing attention due to their potential to enhance bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy, the review ends up emphasizing the imperative need for further research to drive innovation and improve patient outcomes in ophthalmology.

Nanotechnology Assisted Drug Delivery Strategies for Chemotherapy: Recent Advances and Future Prospects

In pursuit of the treatment of cancer, nanotechnology engineering has emerged as the simplest and most effective means, with the potential to deliver antitumor chemotherapeutics at the targeted site. Employing nanotechnology for drug delivery provides diverse nanosize particles ranging from one to a thousand nanometers. Reduced size improves drug bioavailability by increasing drug diffusion and decreasing the efflux rate. These nanocarriers offer an enormous scope for modification following the chemical and biological properties of both the drug and its disease. Moreover, these nanoformulations assist in targeting pharmaceutically active drug molecules to the desired site and have gained importance in recent years. Their modern use has revolutionized the antitumor action of many therapeutic agents. Higher drug loading efficiency, thermal stability, easy fabrication, low production cost, and large-scale industrial production draw attention to the application of nanotechnology as a better platform for the delivery of drug molecules. Furthermore, the interaction of nanocarrier technology-assisted agents lowers a drug's toxicity and therapeutic dosage, reduces drug tolerance, and enhances active drug concentration in neoplasm tissue, thus decreasing the concentration in healthy tissue. Nanotechnology-based medications are being widely explored and have depicted effective cancer management in vivo and in vitro systems, leading to many clinical trials with promising results. This review summarizes the innovative impact and application of different nanocarriers developed in recent years in cancer therapy. Subsequently, it also describes the essential findings and methodologies and their effects on cancer treatment. Compared with conventional therapy, nanomedicines can significantly improve the therapeutic effectiveness of antitumor drugs. Thus, the adverse effects associated with healthy tissues are decreased, and adverse effects are scaled back through enhanced permeability and retention effects. Lastly, future insights assisting nanotechnology in active therapeutics delivery and their scope in cancer chemotherapeutics have also been discussed.

Microfluidic development of liposome nanoparticles encapsulated with yam polysaccharide

A novel liposome nanoparticle loaded with yam polysaccharide was developed in this study via a tailor-made microfluidic device and further optimized through the Box-Behnken Design method of surface analysis to exploit combinational immunomodulatory effects of liposomes and yam polysaccharide. A chip of 100 μm in height and 200 μm in width with a mixing channel with embedded baffles to enhance fluid mixing was first designed and fabricated. Liposome nanoparticles were obtained by manipulating the operating parameters of the microfluidic chip. The formulation of yam polysaccharide loaded liposomes (YPL1) was optimized using response-surface analysis, and their physicochemical properties were characterized. In vitro cellular assays were performed to assess the effect of YPL on the activity of mouse dendritic cells (DC) and the secretion of immune-related cytokines to investigate the immune-enhancing effect of YPL in vitro. The resulting YPL had a mean size of 154.2±3.8 nm with a narrow size distribution (PDI=0.083) and had a high entrapment efficiency (EE) of 79.02%. The YPL exhibited good stability at 4°C over 14 days of storage, and an in vitro sustained release duration of approximately 30 h. The YPL demonstrated excellent biocompatibility and stimulated the expression of immune-related cytokines, especially TNF-α. Therefore, the YPL with well controlled particle size and high loading capacity, capable of exhibiting potent immunostimulatory activity was successfully developed in this study via a microfluidic device and optimized using response-surface analysis. The current YPL engineering methodology could further serve as an experimental platform for liposome nanoparticle development.

Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of prepared thymol@UIO-66 and thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 nanoparticles against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A synergistic approach

This study introduces a novel approach to enhance the antibacterial properties of UIO-66 by incorporating both Thymol and ZnO nanoparticles within its framework which represents a significant advancement like exhibiting a synergistic antibacterial effect, providing a prolonged and controlled release, and mitigating cytotoxicity associated with the release of free ZnO nanoparticles by combining these two antimicrobial agents within a single, well-defined metal-organic framework. UIO-66 frameworks are investigated as carriers for the natural antimicrobial agent, Thymol, and ZnONPs offering a novel drug delivery system for antibacterial applications. Results demonstrated 132, 90, 184, and 223 nm sizes for UIO-66, ZnONPs, UIO-66 encapsulated Thymol, and UIO-66 encapsulated both Thymol and ZnONPs, respectively. Successful encapsulation of the antibacterial drug with a high entrapment efficiency of 64 % for Thymol was approved, and 49 % in-vitro release of Thymol was achieved for 72 hours. In-vitro antibacterial assays revealed promising results, with the drug-loaded nanoparticles exhibiting significantly lower MIC values and enhanced bactericidal activity against S. Aureus bacterial strains compared to the free drug, as demonstrated by agar disk diffusion and time-kill assays. MIC values reduced from a range of 31.25-250 µg/ml for free Thymol and 12.5-100 µg/ml for free ZnONPs to 3.9-62.5 µg/ml for Thymol@UIO-66 and 1.95-15.63 µg/ml for Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66. According to the results, the mixture of both Thymol and ZnONPs had 41 % and 16 % more antibiofilm activities in comparison with free Thymol and free ZnONPs, respectively. Furthermore, Thymol@UIO-66 had 25 % higher antibiofilm activities relative to not-encapsulated Thymol and ZnONPs, and this improvement was even 46 % more in Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 in comparison with Thymol@UIO-66. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of Thymol/ZnONPs@UIO-66 frameworks as a promising drug delivery platform for effective antibacterial therapy. This approach to overcome antibiotic resistance and improve treatment efficacy potentially.

Local delivery of lipid-based nanoparticles containing microbial nucleic acid for osteoimmunomodulation

Osteoimmunomodulation is a strategy to promote bone regeneration in implants by modifying the immune environment. CpG-containing oligonucleotides type C (CpG ODN C) and Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly[I:C]) are analogs of microbial nucleic acids that have been studied for various immunotherapeutic applications. This research investigates the potential of CpG ODN C and Poly(I:C) as an osteoimmunomodulatory agent for bone regenerative purposes. We encapsulated each nucleic acid in a lipid-based nanoparticle to facilitate the delivery into intracellular pathogen recognition receptors in immune cells. The lipid-based nanoparticles were ±250 nm in size with a negative charge (-36 to -40 mV) and an encapsulation efficiency of ±60 %. Lipid-based nanoparticles containing nucleic acids, Lip/CpG ODN C and Lip/Poly(I:C), increased the production of TNF, IL-6, and IL-10 by primary human macrophages compared to free-form nucleic acids. Conditioned medium from macrophages treated with CpG ODN C (10 µg/ml) and Lip/CpG ODN C (0.1, 1, and 10 µg/ml) promoted osteoblast differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells by 2.6-fold and 3-fold, respectively; no effect was seen for Lip/Poly(I:C). Bone implants were prepared, consisting of a biphasic calcium phosphate scaffold, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 2, and lipid-based nanoparticles suspended in gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel. Implants were evaluated for de novo bone formation in an extra-skeletal implantation model in rabbits for 5 weeks. Based on the particles suspended in GelMA, six groups of implants were prepared: Lip/CpG ODN C, Lip/Poly(I:C), Lip (empty), CpG ODN C, Poly(I:C), and a control group consisting of empty GelMA. After 5 weeks, healthy bone tissue formed in all of the implants with active osteoblast and osteoclast activity, however, the amount of new bone volume and scaffold degradation were similar for all implants. We suggest that the working concentrations of the nucleic acids employed were inadequate to induce a relevant inflammatory response. Additionally, the dosage of BMP-2 used may potentially mask the immune-stimulatory effect. Lip/CpG ODN C holds potential as a bioactive agent for osteoimmunomodulation, although further in vivo demonstration should corroborate the current in vitro findings.

Acoustic tweezers for targeted drug delivery

Acoustic tweezers are a highly promising technology for targeted drug delivery thanks to their unique capabilities: (i) they can effectively operate in both in vitro and in vivo environments, (ii) they can manipulate a wide range of particle sizes and materials, and (iii) they can exert forces several orders of magnitude larger than competing techniques while remaining safe for biological tissues. In particular, tweezers capable of selectively capturing and manipulating objects in 3D with a single beam, known as 'single beam tweezers', open new perspectives for delivering drug carriers to precise locations. In this review, we first introduce the fundamental physical principles underlying the manipulation of particles using acoustic tweezers and highlight the latest advancements in the field. We then discuss essential considerations for the design of drug delivery carriers suitable for use with acoustic tweezers. Finally, we summarise recent promising studies that explore the use of acoustic tweezers for in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo drug delivery.

The Fomivirsen, Patisiran, and Givosiran Odyssey: How the Success Stories May Pave the Way for Future Clinical Translation of Nucleic Acid Drugs

Over the past 25 years, the approval of several nucleic acid-based drugs by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has marked a significant milestone, establishing nucleic acid drugs as a viable therapeutic modality. These groundbreaking discoveries are the result of some crucial points in the timeline of nucleic acid drug development. The inventions used in fomivirsen (Vitravene; Isis Pharmaceuticals) development paved the road for structural backbone modifications as well as nucleobase and sugar modifications. The approval of patisiran (Onpattro; Alnylam) demonstrated an effective and safe delivery system for small interfering RNA (siRNA), extending potential applications to other nucleic acids such as messenger RNA (mRNA). Givosiran (Givlaari; Alnylam) further revolutionized the field with a carrier-free, targeted platform, utilizing N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)-siRNA conjugates to enable efficient delivery, expanding therapeutic applications beyond rare genetic disorders to more common conditions such as hyperlipidemia and hypertension. In this review paper, we highlight the evolution of nucleic acid-based drug development, focusing on the pioneering agents fomivirsen, patisiran, and givosiran, and discuss the ongoing challenges in advancing these therapeutics and vaccines.

Self-Assembled systems for Nose-to-Brain delivery of Temozolamide (TMZ) in brain tumor therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive and highly invasive primary brain tumor with poor prognosis and resistance to conventional therapies. The therapeutic efficacy of existing treatments is significantly hampered by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), tumor heterogeneity, and intrinsic drug resistance mechanisms. Temozolomide (TMZ), the standard chemotherapeutic agent for GBM, suffers from low bioavailability, rapid systemic clearance, and enzymatic degradation, limiting its clinical success. This review highlights the potential of self-assembled nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for enhancing the therapeutic index of TMZ through intranasal administration, which provides a direct and non-invasive route to the brain, circumventing the BBB and improving central nervous system (CNS) drug bioavailability. Self-assembled systems are highly customizable, allowing for precise control over particle size, surface charge, and release profiles, which can be tailored to improve the penetration and retention of TMZ in the brain. We comprehensively discuss recent advancements in polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, niosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles, emphasizing their physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics, and mechanisms of targeted drug release. Additionally, we explore molecular and oxidative stress-related pathways contributing to GBM progression and TMZ resistance. Emerging research suggests that nanocarrier-based intranasal delivery of TMZ enhances drug stability, prolongs brain retention time, and minimizes systemic toxicity, offering a promising avenue for improving GBM treatment outcomes.

Non-covalent binding of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to antibiotics: preparation, characterization, physicochemical properties and study of single crystals of tolfenamic acid-enrofloxacin drug-drug salt and their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities

To improve the physicochemical properties and biological activities of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug tolfenamic acid (TA) and the fluoroquinolone enrofloxacin (ENR). Based on the previous experience of our group in designing and synthesizing quinolone pharmaceutical co-crystals/salts single crystals by non-covalent bonding to improve their physicochemical properties, a drug-drug salt single crystal of tolfenamic acid-enrofloxacin was prepared for the first time using TA and ENR(TA-ENR, C19H23FN3O3·C14H11ClNO2·C2H3N). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis indicated that TA and ENR interacted predominantly through charge-assisted hydrogen bonds (CAHBs) within non-covalent bonds to form asymmetric units. Subsequently, the formation of dimers between ENR+ cations in adjacent asymmetric units was promoted, leading to the formation of a stable crystalline structure through C6-H6···O2 and π···π stacking. Solubility experiments demonstrated that the solubility of TA-ENR was notably increased compared to TA. This can be ascribed to the CAHBs formed between TA and ENR, which facilitated the dissociation of TA in the dissolution medium, thereby enhancing TA's affinity for the dissolution medium. Permeability experiments also revealed that the permeability of TA-ENR was significantly improved compared to both TA and ENR. The in vitro antimicrobial activity and anti-inflammatory activity of TA-ENR were also somewhat improved compared to TA and ENR. The success of this work implies that we may provide new ideas for designing and synthesizing solid drugs with better physicochemical properties and bioactivity, as well as for the treatment of septic arthritis, through the formation of drug-drug co-crystals/salts.

More than a delivery system: the evolving role of lipid-based nanoparticles

Lipid-based nanoparticles, including liposomes and lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), make up an important class of drug delivery systems. Their modularity enables encapsulation of a wide range of therapeutic cargoes, their ease of functionalization allows for incorporation of targeting motifs and anti-fouling coatings, and their scalability facilitates rapid translation to the clinic. While the discovery and early understanding of lipid-based nanoparticles is heavily rooted in biology, formulation development has largely focused on materials properties, such as how liposome and lipid nanoparticle composition can be altered to maximize drug loading, stability and circulation. To achieve targeted delivery and enable improved accumulation of therapeutics at target tissues or disease sites, emphasis is typically placed on the use of external modifications, such as peptide, protein, and polymer motifs. However, these approaches can increase the complexity of the nanocarrier and complicate scale up. In this review, we focus on how our understanding of lipid structure and function in biological contexts can be used to design intrinsically functional and targeted nanocarriers. We highlight formulation-based strategies, such as the incorporation of bioactive lipids, that have been used to modulate liposome and lipid nanoparticle properties and improve their functionality while retaining simple nanocarrier designs. We also highlight classes of naturally occurring lipids, their functions, and how they have been incorporated into lipid-based nanoparticles. We will additionally position these approaches into the historical context of both liposome and LNP development.

Bioorthogonal Reaction of o-Quinone with Furan-2(3H)-One for Site-Selective Tyrosine Conjugation and Construction of Bispecific Antibody Complexes

Bioorthogonal reactions enable the chemical conjugation of functional moieties to native proteins and empower the development of new diagnostic tools and therapeutics. Through site-selective reactions, therapeutic molecules can be conjugated with antibodies in a stoichiometry- and site-controlled manner. Here, a one-pot chemoenzymatic reaction is reported that preferentially modifies a terminal tyrosine of recombinant proteins, or tyrosine 296 in the Fc domain of selected human antibodies. This reaction combines tyrosinase-catalyzed oxidation of phenol to o-quinone, the bioorthogonal addition reaction of o-quinone with an azide-containing furan-2(3H)-one (FuA) moiety, and the subsequent azide click reactions. To this surprise, experimental evidence indicates that the o-quinone-FuA reaction proceeds through nucleophilic addition instead of the cycloaddition pathway. This reaction enables site-selective modification of therapeutic human antibodies, including atezolizumab, trastuzumab, daratumumab, and cetuximab. Monofunctionalized antibody conjugates and DNA-templated bispecific antibody complexes (DNA-bsAbC) are thus constructed in a modular way. DNA-bsAbC acts as a bispecific engager to mediate the interaction between immune cells and cancer cells, resulting in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) toward cancer cells. Taken together, here a bioorthogonal reaction is reported for site-selective tyrosine conjugation in recombinant proteins and human antibodies and showcase its application in constructing antibody conjugates for potential applications in immunotherapies.

Current status and recent progress of nanomaterials in transcatheter arterial chemoembolization therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the most common cancers worldwide. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization has become a common treatment modality for some patients with unresectable advanced HCC. Since the introduction of nanomaterials in 1974, their use in various fields has evolved rapidly. In medical applications, nanomaterials can serve as carriers for the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs to tumour tissues. Additionally, nanomaterials have potential for in vivo tumour imaging. This article covers the properties and uses of several kinds of nanomaterials, focusing on their use in transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for HCC treatment. This paper also discusses the limitations currently associated with the use of nanomaterials.

A Metabolite Co-Delivery Strategy to Improve mRNA Lipid Nanoparticle Delivery

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) effectively protect mRNA and facilitate its entry into target cells for protein synthesis. Despite these successes, cellular entry alone may not be enough for optimal protein expression, as mRNA translation also depends on the availability of essential metabolites, including metabolic energy sources, coenzymes, and amino acids. Without adequate metabolites, mRNA translation may be less efficient, potentially leading to higher dosing requirements or poorer therapeutic outcomes for LNP therapies. To address this, we develop a metabolite co-delivery strategy by encapsulating essential metabolites within mRNA LNPs, hypothesizing that our approach can uniformly improve mRNA delivery. Instead of adding a fifth component to the organic phase, our strategy involves mixing the metabolite with the mRNA payload in the aqueous phase, while maintaining the molar ratio of the components in the organic phase during LNP formulation. We verify our approach in vitro and in vivo, highlighting the broad applicability of our strategy through mechanism and efficacy studies across multiple cell lines, and physiological conditions, such as normoxia (i.e., 21% oxygen), hypoxia (i.e., 1% oxygen), and in mice. Taken collectively, we anticipate that our metabolite co-delivery strategy may serve as a generalizable strategy to enhance in vitro and in vivo protein expression using mRNA LNPs, potentially offering broad applicability for the study and treatment of disease.

Optimised formulation and characterisation of liposomes for enhanced stability and antiproliferative efficacy of Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus extract in lung cancer treatment

This study aimed to characterise and evaluate the antiproliferative potency of a standardised 50% ethanol extract of Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus leaves against human lung cancer cells in vitro. A liposomal drug delivery system was developed to enhance bioavailability and efficacy. Three formulations were designed with different extract-to-phospholipid ratios, phospholipid, and cholesterol content. NP2, formulated with a 1:1 extract-to-phosphatidylcholine ratio and 20% cholesterol, demonstrated optimal stability and efficacy. Liposomes were quantitatively and qualitatively characterised using light microscopy, TEM, SEM, zeta sizer, and zeta potential analysis. NP2 demonstrated better bioactive compounds release properties and better stability than the extract. The extract and liposomes inhibited the proliferation of human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) and normal endothelial cells (EA.hy926). The findings indicate that the extract possesses potent anti-lung cancer activity, with the NP2 liposomal formulation enhancing its therapeutic potential.

Composition-dependent tunability of the cell interactions of hybrid lipid - block copolymer vesicles

Hybrid vesicles composed of phospholipids and block copolymers are of interest for a wide range of applications due to the broad tunability of their material properties that can synergistically combine desirable properties of liposomes and polymersomes. A major application of vesicles in biotechnology has been in the field of drug delivery, where understanding and controlling vesicle interactions with cells is of vital importance. Here, we investigate the tunability of hybrid vesicle interaction with three distinct cell lines through modulating non-specific interactions. We formulate vesicles composed of three different constituents, the zwitterionic lipid 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), the cationic lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DOTAP) and the amphiphilic diblock copolymer Poly(1,2-butadiene)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) (PBD22-PEO14). This enables the tunability of cell interactions through electrostatic attraction to anionic cellular membranes and steric repulsion from the polymeric PEO brush layer. We establish a microfluidic flow protocol to enhance the reproducibility of vesicle-cell interactions by controlling the hydrodynamic stresses during incubation and washing steps. We demonstrate a high degree of tunability of cell interactions and low cytotoxicity across the three cell lines investigated (HFFF2, HEK293, HepG2). These initial findings offer critical insights into the engineering of hybrid vesicles and their potential applications in drug delivery.

Aptamer- vs Fab-Conjugated Liposomes: A Comparative Study in Targeting Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a hematologic malignancy characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal myeloid cells with a generally poor prognosis despite advancements in chemotherapy and stem cell transplantation. To enhance therapeutic efficacy and minimize systemic toxicity, we designed liposomal nanoparticles functionalized with two distinct targeting ligands, a DNA aptamer or fragment-antigen-binding (Fab) antibody, targeting the surface marker transmembrane glycoprotein CD33 antigen (CD33) on AML cells. Aptamer- and Fab-conjugated liposomes (Apt-Lipm and Fab-Lipm, respectively) were prepared and tested for cellular uptake by CD33-positive AML cell lines. Comparative studies revealed that Fab-Lipm exhibited significantly superior binding affinity, targeting efficiency, and cellular uptake compared with Apt-Lipm. Furthermore, we demonstrated the intracellular distribution and endocytic pathways of Fab-Lipm during the cellular uptake. This comparative study of aptamer- and Fab-conjugated liposomes suggests that the Fab-conjugated liposomal system offers enhanced precision in targeting AML cells for the development of effective therapeutic strategies against hematologic malignancies.

Nanosized Shikonin Disrupts Tumor-Cell Mismatch Repair and Synergizes with Manganese to Sensitize Squamous Carcinoma to Immunotherapy

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) frequently develops resistance to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy, resulting from an immune-excluded microenvironment. Immunogenic cell death (ICD) can increase tumor immunogenicity and further augment immune-cell infiltration by releasing immunogenic molecules. Hence, inducing ICD within tumors might be a promising strategy to restore antitumor immunity and sensitize HNSCC to ICB. Herein, we developed shikonin (SHK)-loaded, CGKRK-modified lipid nanoparticles (C-SNPs) and demonstrated that C-SNPs could enrich in tumor cells and induce necroptosis in vitro and in vivo. Transcriptomic profiling revealed that C-SNPs suppressed tumor-cell mismatch repair, which later activated the cGAS-mediated IFN response and further increased the expression of PD-L1. Combining C-SNPs with an anti-PD-1 antibody increased the infiltration of DCs and CD8+ T cells, yet the response was limited. Modifying C-SNPs with Mn2+ (C-SMNPs) enhanced the activation of cGAS-STING signaling and further boosted the maturation of DCs and the differentiation of cytotoxic T cells within ICB-treated tumors. Importantly, compared to C-SNPs, the combination of C-SMNPs with ICB resulted in more sustained tumor suppression in vivo. Together, we developed a versatile nanoparticle that delivered SHK and Mn2+ which sensitized HNSCC to ICB by disrupting tumor-cell mismatch repair and boosting the cGAS-STING-mediated IFN response. This nanosized ICD inducer-based strategy holds therapeutic potential in synergizing with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy to enhance treatment efficacy in HNSCC.

Advancements in delivery systems for dietary polyphenols in enhancing radioprotection effects: challenges and opportunities

Radiotherapy, a widely employed cancer treatment, often triggers diverse inflammatory responses such as radiation enteritis, pulmonary injury, pelvic inflammation, dermatitis, and osteitis. Dietary polyphenols have recently emerged as promising agents for mitigating radiation-induced inflammation. However, their clinical application faced challenges related to variable bioavailability, individual pharmacokinetics, optimal dosing, and limited clinical evidence. Current researches revealed the efficacy of bioactive small molecule polyphenols in addressing radiation-induced inflammation. In this review, along with a comprehensive examination of the etiology and categories of radiation-induced inflammatory conditions, the diversity of polyphenols and elucidating their anti-inflammatory mechanisms are explored. This study emphasizes the recent progresses in delivery systems for dietary polyphenols, aiming to enhance radioprotection effects. The optimized utilization of polyphenols, with a theoretical framework and reference guide, is of paramount relevance. Through diverse delivery mechanisms, the more effective and safer radioprotective strategies become achievable. This endeavor aspires to contribute to breakthroughs in the dietary polyphenols' application, significantly enhancing human health protection during radiotherapy. These comprehensive insights presented here also support (pre)-clinical practices in navigating the complexities of utilizing dietary polyphenols for radioprotection, fostering advancements in the field and improving patient outcomes.

Sonoporation with Echogenic Liposomes: The Evaluation of Glioblastoma Applicability Using In Vivo Xenograft Models

Objective: In previous studies, echogenic liposomes with liquid and gas cores were analyzed as alternative carriers of drug molecules and cavitation nuclei for sonoporation. The possibility of small interfering RNA (si-RNA) encapsulation has also been presented. In this study, the usability of echogenic liposomes as drug carriers and cavitation seeds was evaluated using an in vivo model. Methods: A doxorubicin-loaded echogenic liposome was synthesized as a drug carrier. The size distribution and the number of formed echogenic liposomes were measured. Five comparative in vivo experiments were conducted with and without doxorubicin-loaded echogenic liposomes, and the results were statically analyzed. Results: Sonoporation with doxorubicin-loaded echogenic liposomes at 3.05 W/cm2 of ISPTA ultrasound sonication and 0.98 MHz results in an average tumor volume growth of less than 25% of that following the simple administration of doxorubicin. Considering the p-value between the two groups is approximately 0.03, doxorubicin-loaded echogenic liposomes were effectively applicable as cavitation nuclei for sonoporation. Conclusions: Although further studies are needed to clarify the responses to incident ultrasound fields, the proposed echogenic liposome appears to be a promising alternative cavitation nuclei/carrier for sonoporation.

Tumor-stromal opening via S. typhimurium VNP20009 administration for complete inhibition of refractory tumor growth with liposomal anticancer drugs

Many clinical tumors exhibit a vascular endothelium covered by mural cells and stroma with abundant collagen fibers, which greatly inhibit the penetration of nanoparticle drug delivery systems (DDS) formulations deep into the tumors. We previously found that Salmonella typhimurium VNP20009 attracting attention as live bacterial therapeutics, which is a novel pharmaceutical modality for cancer treatment, can grow within deep tumors with abundant stroma and tight vasculature. Because this finding interestingly indicates that VNP20009 administration disrupts vascular and stromal structures even in refractory tumors, we investigated the possibility that VNP20009 administration improves DDS formulations migrations into tumors in this study. VNP20009 co-administration drastically improved the translocation and diffusion of liposomes deep into the tumors, particularly in stroma-rich xenografted tumors, indicating its tumor stromal opening ability. Furthermore, this approach can completely inhibit tumors in various refractory tumor models, including pancreatic cancers, using liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil®) and liposomal irinotecan (Onivyde®). Notably, this remarkable anticancer effect is not simply attributed to the therapeutic effects of liposomal anticancer drugs and VNP20009, but it involves an additional effect, improving the intratumor pharmacokinetics of liposomal anticancer drugs following VNP20009 co-administration. The unique tumor stromal opening ability of VNP20009 demonstrated in this study is a promising strategy for resolving the major challenges faced by tumor DDS.

PROTAC Delivery Strategies for Overcoming Physicochemical Properties and Physiological Barriers in Targeted Protein Degradation

Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs), heterobifunctional molecules that hijack the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) to degrade specific proteins, hold great promise in treating diseases driven by traditionally "undruggable" targets. However, their large molecular weight, high hydrophobicity, and other physicochemical hurdles contribute to their limited bioavailability, suboptimal pharmacokinetics, and attenuated therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, diverse formulation innovations have been investigated to optimize PROTAC delivery. This review examines current challenges and advances in specialized drug delivery approaches designed to bolster PROTAC pharmacological performance. We first outline the fundamental limitations of PROTACs-their low aqueous solubility, poor cell permeability, rapid clearance, and concentration-dependent "hook effect". We then discuss how various enabling formulations address these issues, including polymeric micelles, emulsions, amorphous solid dispersions, lipid-based nanoparticles, liposomes, and exosomes. Collectively, these delivery technologies substantially improve the therapeutic outcomes of PROTACs in preclinical cancer models. Future applications may extend beyond oncology to address other complex diseases using newly emerging heterobifunctional molecules. By integrating advanced formulation science with innovative degrader design, the field stands poised to unlock the clinical potential of PROTACs for protein degradation therapies.

Bortezomib-loaded hybrid liposome inducing pyroptosis for targeted therapy against colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a highly invasive malignant tumor. At present, the combination of surgery with chemotherapy constitutes the predominant strategy in the treatment of CRC. The serious side effects of chemotherapy profoundly impair patients' quality of life. It is of great importance to develop novel approach to reduce side effects and increase anti-tumor efficacy in CRC treatment. Bortezomib (Btz), a reversible proteasome inhibitor, possessing both chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic effects by inducing cell pyroptotic. However, the application of Btz is impeded by their lack of tumor-targeting capability and lipid solubility. To address these restrictions and develop an ideal drug carrier, we performed a biohybrid approach by fusing liposomes with artificial extracellular vesicles engineered from cancer cells to generate hybrid liposomes (HV@Btz) for the targeted delivery of Btz. In contrast to liposomes, HV@Btz possessed higher cellular uptake efficiency and strong cytotoxicity against CT26 cells by inducing cell pyroptotic. Additionally, HV@Btz had superior tumor-targeting ability and prolonged circulation time. HV@Btz significantly suppressed tumor growth and triggered robust anti-tumor immune response with minimum systemic toxicity in both subcutaneous and orthotopic CRC-bearing mice. This study demonstrated that HV@Btz could serve as a scalable approach by inducing cell pyroptotic for the management of colorectal cancer.

Comprehensive insights into pancreatic cancer treatment approaches and cutting-edge nanocarrier solutions: from pathology to nanomedicine

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal malignancies worldwide. It is characterized by poor prognosis, high mortality, and recurrence rates. Various modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors are associated with pancreatic cancer incidence. Available treatments for pancreatic cancer include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, supportive care, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. However, the survival rates for PC are very low. Regrettably, despite efforts to enhance prognosis, the survival rate of pancreatic cancer remains relatively low. Therefore, it is essential to investigate new approaches to improve pancreatic cancer treatment. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying existing gaps, this article provides a comprehensive overview of risk factors, pathology, conventional treatments, targeted therapies, and recent advancements in nanocarriers for its treatment, along with various clinical trials and patents that justify the safety and efficacy of innovative carriers for drug delivery systems. Ultimately, this review underscores the potential of these innovative formulations to improve outcomes and contribute significantly to the advancement of Pancreatic Cancer treatment. Together, these insights highlight nano-formulations as a promising frontier for effectively treating Pancreatic Cancer.

Influence of Solvents on Drug Loading Capacity of Metal-Organic Frameworks Focusing on Solvent Dipole Moment

The application of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as drug delivery systems with a high drug-loading capacity and targeted delivery is advancing rapidly. This study is the first to elucidate the mechanism of drug-loading in MOFs. It focused on the crucial role of solvents in drug-loading capacity. Ibuprofen, which is widely used as a nonsteroidal antiflammatory drug, was selected as a model drug. The drug-loading capacities of zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) and Universitetet i Oslo-66-NH2 (UiO-66-NH2) were investigated in various solvents. For ZIF-8, an increase in the solvent dipole moment corresponded to an increase in the drug-loading capacity. Intriguingly, the converse trend was observed for UiO-66-NH2. Therein, a decrease in the solvent dipole moment caused an increase in the drug-loading. These observations indicated that the solvent dipole moment plays a critical role in the drug-loading mechanism of the MOFs. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy in the solvents with different polarities revealed significant variations in the molecular vibrations of ZIF-8 and UiO-66-NH2. It was indicated that in both the MOFs, the drug-loading amount increased in the solvents when the molecular vibrations of the MOF were constrained. This study revealed that the solvent plays a crucial role in the drug-loading in MOFs, and the polarity of the solvents contributes significantly to the molecular vibration of MOFs during drug-loading, thereby affecting the drug-loading capacity.

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery system for the diagnosis and treatment of ovarian cancer

Current research in nanotechnology is improving or developing novel applications that could improve disease diagnosis or treatment. This study highlights several nanoscale drug delivery technologies, such as nano micelles, nanocapsules, nanoparticles, liposomes, branching dendrimers, and nanostructured lipid formulations for the targeted therapy of ovarian cancer (OC), to overcome the limitations of traditional delivery. Because traditional drug delivery to malignant cells has intrinsic flaws, new nanotechnological-based treatments have been developed to address these conditions. Ovarian cancer is the most common gynecological cancer and has a higher death rate because of its late diagnosis and recurrence. This review emphasizes the discipline of medical nanotechnology, which has made great strides in recent years to solve current issues and enhance the detection and treatment of many diseases, including cancer. This system has the potential to provide real-time monitoring and diagnostics for ovarian cancer treatment, as well as simultaneous delivery of therapeutic agents.

Recent advances in functional lipid-based nanomedicines as drug carriers for organ-specific delivery

Lipid-based nanoparticles have emerged as promising drug delivery systems for a wide range of therapeutic agents, including plasmids, mRNA, and proteins. However, these nanoparticles still encounter various challenges in drug delivery, including drug leakage, poor solubility, and inadequate target specificity. In this comprehensive review, we present an in-depth investigation of four distinct drug delivery methods: liposomes, lipid nanoparticle formulations, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanoemulsions. Moreover, we explore recent advances in lipid-based nanomedicines (LBNs) for organ-specific delivery, employing ligand-functionalized particles that specifically target receptors in desired organs. Through this strategy, LBNs enable direct and efficient drug delivery to the intended organs, leading to superior DNA or mRNA expression outcomes compared to conventional approaches. Importantly, the development of novel ligands and their judicious combination holds promise for minimizing the side effects associated with nonspecific drug delivery. By leveraging the unique properties of lipid-based nanoparticles and optimizing their design, researchers can overcome the limitations associated with current drug delivery systems. In this review, we aim to provide valuable insights into the advancements, challenges, and future directions of lipid-based nanoparticles in the field of drug delivery, paving the way for enhanced therapeutic strategies with improved efficacy and reduced adverse effects.

Advanced disease therapeutics using engineered living drug delivery systems

Biological barriers significantly impede the delivery of nanotherapeutics to diseased tissues, diminishing therapeutic efficacy across pathologies such as cancer and inflammatory disorders. Although conventional strategies integrate multifunctional designs and molecular components into nanomaterials (NMs), many approaches remain insufficient to overcome these barriers. Key challenges, including inadequate drug accumulation at target sites and nonspecific biodistribution, persist in nanotherapeutic development. NMs, which harness the ability to precisely modulate drug delivery spatiotemporally and control release kinetics, represent a transformative platform for targeted cancer therapy. In this review, we highlight the biological obstacles limiting effective cancer treatment and evaluate how stimuli-responsive NMs address these constraints. By leveraging exogenous and endogenous stimuli, such NMs improve therapeutic specificity, reduce off-target effects, and amplify drug activity within pathological microenvironments. We systematically analyze the rational design and synthesis of stimuli-responsive NMs, driven by advances in oncology, biomaterials science, and nanoscale engineering. Furthermore, we highlight advances across NM classes-including polymeric, lipid-based, inorganic, and hybrid systems and explore functionalization approaches using targeting ligands, antibodies, and biomimetic coatings. Diverse delivery strategies are evaluated, such as small-molecule prodrug activation, peptide- and protein-based targeting, nucleic acid payloads, and engineered cell-mediated transport. Despite the promise of stimuli-responsive NMs, challenges such as biocompatibility, scalable fabrication, and clinical translation barriers must be addressed. By elucidating structure-function relationships and refining stimulus-triggered mechanisms, these NMs pave the way for transformative precision oncology strategies, enabling patient-specific therapies with enhanced efficacy and safety. This synthesis of interdisciplinary insights aims to catalyze innovation in next-generation nanomedicine for cancer treatment.

The Role of Inorganic Nanomaterials in Overcoming Challenges in Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Colorectal cancer poses a significant threat to human health due to its high aggressiveness and poor prognosis. Key factors impacting patient outcomes include post-surgical recurrence, chemotherapeutic drug resistance, and insensitivity to immunotherapy. Consequently, early diagnosis and the development of effective targeted therapies are essential for improving prevention and treatment strategies. Inorganic nanomaterials have gained prominence in the diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer owing to their unique size, advantageous properties, and high modifiability. Various types of inorganic nanomaterials-such as metal-based, metal oxide, quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, carbon-based, and rare-earth nanomaterials-have demonstrated significant potential in enhancing multimodal imaging, drug delivery, and synergistic therapies. These advancements underscore their critical role in improving therapeutic outcomes. This review highlights the properties and development of inorganic nanomaterials, summarizes their recent applications and progress in colorectal cancer diagnosis and treatment, and discusses the challenges in translating these materials into clinical use. It aims to provide valuable insights for future research and the clinical application of inorganic nanomaterials in colorectal cancer management.

PLGA/TPGS nanoparticles for docetaxel delivery: The pegylation effect on nanoparticle physicochemical properties and uptake and cytotoxicity in prostate cancer cells

Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy in men worldwide and docetaxel (DTX) is the treatment of choice. However, both the drug and formulation excipients for drug solubilization can cause side effects. In this context, the development of polymeric nanoparticles offers advantages to improve drug delivery and reduce toxicity. In the present work, factorial design was used to evaluate the effect of the amount of poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) or poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide acid-polyethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG), D-Alpha-Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate (TPGS) and ratio between aqueous and oily phases on the nanoparticle characteristics. The nanocarriers were characterized regarding particle size, polydispersity, zeta potential, DTX encapsulation efficiency, morphology by transmission electron microscopy, DSC, TGA and FTIR. It was evaluated in vitro for cytotoxicity and cellular uptake in prostate cancer cells. Pegylated nanoparticles, which have a different composition (TPGS%, AP:OP ratio), reduced the nanoparticle size to 105.97 ± 5.16 nm, in PDI 0.13 ± 0.03, zeta potential of -34.73 ± 1.19 mV and increased the encapsulation efficiency to 96.78 ± 1.20%. Characterization by DSC, TGA and FTIR confirmed drug encapsulation and showed colloidal stability. Pegylated nanoparticles were more stable upon serum incubation and adsorbed less proteins. In conclusion, the pegylation of the nanoparticles affected the physicochemical parameters. Also, the pegylation of nanoparticles decreased uptake by macrophages. Finally, cellular uptake and cell cytotoxicity were higher in tumor cells when compared to non-tumor cells, although they were not affected by pegylation.

An Endogenous Proton-Powered Adaptive Nanomotor for Treating Muscle Atrophy

Nanomotors driven by endogenous enzymes are favored in biology and pharmacy due to their spontaneous driving and efficient biocatalytic activity, and have potential applications in the treatment of clinical diseases that are highly dependent on targeted effects. For diseases such as muscle atrophy, using energy molecules such as ATP to improve cellular metabolism is a relatively efficient treatment method. However, traditional adenosine triphosphate (ATP) therapies for muscle atrophy face limitations due to instability under physiological conditions and poor targeting efficiency. To address these challenges, we developed an endogenous proton-gradient-driven ATP transport motor (ATM), a nanomotor integrating chloroplast-derived FoF1-ATPase with a biocompatible flask-shaped organic shell (FOS). The ATM is synthesized by vacuum-injecting phospholipid-embedded FoF1-ATPase nanothylakoids into ribose-based FOS, enabling autonomous propulsion in acidic microenvironments through proton-driven negative chemotaxis (directional movement away from regions of higher proton concentration). This nanomotor converts proton gradients into ATP synthesis, directly replenishing cellular energy deficits in atrophic tissues. In vitro studies demonstrated high biocompatibility (>90% cell viability at 150 μg/mL) and pH-responsive motility, achieving speeds up to 4.32 μm/s under physiological gradients (ΔpH = 3). In vivo experiments using dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy mice revealed that ATM treatment accelerated weight recovery and restored normal muscle morphology, with treated mice exhibiting cell sizes comparable to healthy controls (30-40 μm vs. 15-25 μm in untreated). These results highlight the ATM's potential as a precision therapeutic platform for metabolic disorders, leveraging the natural enzyme functionality and synthetic material design to enhance efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity.

Effect of oral resveratrol-loaded nanoliposomes on hyperlipidemia via toll-like receptor 3 and TIR domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-β protein expression in an animal model

Hyperlipidemia, a critical risk factor for various health conditions, necessitates innovative therapeutic strategies. Investigating the effectiveness of liposomal formulations in managing hyperlipidemia is essential. Resveratrol (RES)-loaded nanoliposomes present a promising new approach for hyperlipidemia treatment. In this study, we investigated the anti-hyperlipidemic potential of RES-loaded nanoliposomes in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats. The nanoliposomes were prepared using a thin-film hydration method. According to transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) results, the mean size of prepared RES-loaded nanoliposomes were about 42 nm and 68 nm, respectively, with a zeta potential of -65.6 mV. The entrapment efficiency and loading content were 83.78% and 14.25%, respectively. Additionally, the RES-loaded nanoliposomes exhibited controlled release kinetics compared to the free RES form. Moreover, in a hyperlipidemic rat model induced by an HFD, orally administered RES-loaded nanoliposomes significantly reduced total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), and triglycerides (TG), while concurrently increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. Additionally, liver damage induced by HFD was alleviated by RES-loaded nanoliposomes. The expression levels of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) were assessed using fluorescence immunohistochemistry. Notably, RES-loaded nanoliposomes significantly reduced the expression of these protein. The effect of RES-loaded nanoliposomes was measured on body weight of HFD rats, demonstrting RES-loaded nanoliposomes hold promise for weight management. These findings underscore the potential of RES-loaded nanoliposomes as a safe and effective therapeutic option for hyperlipidemia.

Next-Generation Metal-Organic Frameworks: Shaping the Future of Steroid Compound Management

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), as a new type of porous material, have attracted widespread attention in the fields of chemistry, materials science, and biomedicine owing to their unique structural characteristics and potential for functionalization. This review summarizes the latest research progress of MOFs in the field of steroid compounds, including the latest research progress of MOFs in the purification and separation of steroids, sensing and detection, catalytic transformation, and drug delivery. First, we explore how the porous structure and chemical functionalization of MOFs achieve efficient separation and purification of steroid compounds. Second, the high sensitivity and selectivity of MOFs as sensing materials in steroid detection, as well as their application potential in actual sample analysis, are analyzed. Furthermore, the role of MOFs in steroid catalytic transformation reactions is discussed, including their performance as catalysts or catalyst carriers. Finally, we focus on the innovative applications of MOFs in drug delivery systems, especially their advantages in controlled release and targeted drug delivery. This article also explores the future development trends and application prospects of MOFs in the field of steroids, highlighting the challenges and opportunities in material design, functionalization strategies, and practical implementations. Through this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive theoretical basis and practical guidance for further research and application of MOFs in the field of steroids.

Advances in Liposomal Interleukin and Liposomal Interleukin Gene Therapy for Cancer: A Comprehensive Review of Preclinical Studies

BACKGROUND

Preclinical studies on liposomal interleukin (IL) therapy demonstrate considerable promise in cancer treatment. This review explores the achievements, challenges, and future potential of liposomal IL encapsulation, focusing on preclinical studies.

METHODS

A structured search was conducted using the PubMed and Web of Science databases with the following search terms and Boolean operators: ("liposomal interleukin" OR "liposome-encapsulated interleukin") AND ("gene therapy" OR "gene delivery") AND ("cancer" OR "tumor" OR "oncology") AND ("pre-clinical studies" OR "animal models" OR "in vitro studies".

RESULTS

Liposomal IL-2 formulations are notable for enhancing delivery and retention at tumor sites. Recombinant human interleukin (rhIL-2) adsorbed onto small liposomes (35-50 nm) substantially reduces metastases in murine models. Hepatic metastasis models demonstrate superior efficacy of liposomal IL-2 over free IL-2 by enhancing immune responses, particularly in the liver. Localized delivery strategies, including nebulized liposomal IL-2 in canine pulmonary metastases and intrathoracic administration in murine sarcoma models, reduce systemic toxicity while promoting immune activation and tumor regression. Liposomal IL gene therapy, delivering cytokine genes directly to tumor sites, represents a notable advancement. Combining IL-2 gene therapy with other cytokines, including IL-6 or double-stranded RNA adjuvants, synergistically enhances macrophage and T-cell activation. Liposomal IL-4, IL-6, and IL-21 therapies show potential across various tumor types. Pairing liposomal IL-2 with chemotherapy or immune agents improves remission and survival. Innovative strategies, including PEGylation and ligand-targeted systems, optimize delivery, release, and therapeutic outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing immune-stimulatory ILs through advanced liposomal delivery and gene therapy establishes a strong foundation for advancing cancer immunotherapy.

Structure and morphology of vesicular dispersions based on novel phosphatidyl glucose and phosphatidyl choline with different acyl chains

HYPOTHESIS

Phospholipids are widely used in food and pharmacological formulations. However, these typically suffer from limitations such as low colloidal stability. Promising stability has been observed for vesicles based on phosphatidylglucose (P-Glu), but fundamental knowledge on this lipid is missing and those observations were made using P-Glu containing mixed acyl groups. The acyl groups are expected to influence the properties of phosphatidylglucose to a large extent.

EXPERIMENTS

Using an enzyme-based method, P-Glu containing either palmitic (DPP-Glu), stearic (DSP-Glu) or oleic (DOP-Glu) acid were synthesized. The morphology of the lipid dispersions was studied using small angle x-ray scattering and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy and the data was modelled to extract bilayer structural parameters. Phosphatidylcholine lipids containing the same fatty acids were studied for comparison.

FINDINGS

All phosphatidylcholine lipids formed mainly multilamellar vesicles. DOP-Glu formed unilamellar vesicles (ULVs), while disc like objects were observed in the case of DPP-Glu and DSP-Glu formed predominantly bilayer stacks. In the 1:1 mixture of the DOPC and DOP-Glu, ULVs were formed. The bilayer thickness increased as follows: DOP-Glu < DPP-Glu < DSP-Glu and in the PC series the same trend was seen for the lamellar spacing. DSP-Glu had similar lamellar spacing as DSPC.

Exosome technology: A novel and effective drug delivery system in the field of cancer therapy

In this article, we revisit an article, which specifically focuses on the utilization of exosomes derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for targeted delivery of gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer treatment. The experimental results demonstrated that the exosome-based drug delivery system derived from MSCs significantly augmented apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells. The biocompatibility, targeting specificity, and low immunogenicity of exosomes render them as optimal carriers for drug delivery, enabling precise administration of therapeutics to diseased tissues while mitigating adverse effects, thereby achieving targeted treatment of cancer cells and significantly enhancing anti-tumor efficacy. However, the clinical application of exosome drug delivery platforms in oncology still presents challenges, necessitating further optimization to ensure their stability and efficacy. This study focuses on elucidating the advantages of exosomes as a drug delivery platform, exploring the utilization of MSC-derived exosomes in oncology therapy, and discussing their potential and future directions in cancer treatment.

AI-driven innovations in smart multifunctional nanocarriers for drug and gene delivery: A mini-review

The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and nanomedicine has revolutionized the design of smart multifunctional nanocarriers (SMNs) for drug and gene delivery, offering unprecedented precision, efficiency, and personalization in therapeutic applications. AI-driven approaches enhance the development of these nanocarriers by accelerating their design, optimizing drug loading and release kinetics, improving biocompatibility, and predicting interactions with biological barriers. This review explores the transformative role of AI in the fabrication and functionalization of SMNs, emphasizing its impact on overcoming challenges in targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and theranostics. We discuss the integration of AI with advanced nanomaterials-such as polymeric, lipidic, and inorganic nanoparticles-highlighting their potential in oncology and hematology. Furthermore, we examine recent clinical and preclinical case studies demonstrating AI-assisted nanocarrier development for personalized medicine. The synergy between AI and nanotechnology paves the way for next-generation precision therapeutics, addressing critical limitations in traditional drug delivery systems. However, data standardization, regulatory compliance, and translational scalability challenges remain. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to unlock AI's potential in nanomedicine fully, ultimately advancing the clinical application of SMNs for more effective and safer patient care.

Nanoenabling MbtI Inhibitors for Next-Generation Tuberculosis Therapy

The urgent need for safer and innovative antitubercular agents remains a priority for the scientific community. In pursuit of this goal, we designed and evaluated novel 5-phenylfuran-2-carboxylic acid derivatives targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) salicylate synthase (MbtI), a key enzyme, absent in humans, that plays a crucial role in Mtb virulence. Several potent MbtI inhibitors demonstrating significant antitubercular activity and a favorable safety profile were identified. Structure-guided optimization yielded 5-(3-cyano-5-isobutoxyphenyl)furan-2-carboxylic acid (1e), which exhibited strong MbtI inhibition (IC50 = 11.2 μM) and a promising in vitro antitubercular activity (MIC99 = 32 μM against M. bovis BCG). Esters of 1e were effectively loaded into poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)-poly(2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PMPC-PDPA) polymersomes (POs) and delivered to intracellular mycobacteria, resulting in reduced Mtb viability. This study provides a foundation for the use of POs in the development of future MbtI-targeted therapies for tuberculosis.

Hallmarks of Polymersome Characterization

Polymersomes have the potential to become the next generation of vesicular drug delivery systems. Their high chemical versatility and in certain cases higher membrane stability than liposomes raised the high hopes for polymersomes as a drug carrier, but the clinical translation has been slow. To jump-start translation, there is a need for meticulous characterization and reporting of key parameters of polymersome formulations. Regulatory authorities have provided valuable insights on critical quality attributes of liposomes in their guidance document on liposomal nanosimilars. Inspired by this guidance document, this Perspective proposes necessary characterization of polymersomes (hallmarks) regarding their chemical composition, physicochemical properties, drug release profile, stability, stimuli responsiveness, and pharmacokinetics and biodistribution.

A synthetic model of bioinspired liposomes to study cancer-cell derived extracellular vesicles and their uptake by recipient cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by most cell types and play a central role in cell-cell communication. These naturally occurring nanoparticles have been particularly implicated in cancer, but EV heterogeneity and lengthy isolation methods with low yield make them difficult to study. To circumvent the challenges in EV research, we aimed to develop a unique synthetic model by engineering bioinspired liposomes to study EV properties and their impact on cellular uptake. We produced EV-like liposomes mimicking the physicochemical properties as cancer EVs. First, using a panel of cancer and non-cancer cell lines, small EVs were isolated by ultracentrifugation and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). Cancer EVs ranged in mean size from 107.9 to 161 nm by NTA, hydrodynamic diameter from 152 to 355 nm by DLS, with a zeta potential ranging from - 25 to -6 mV. EV markers TSG101 and CD81 were positive on all EVs. Using a microfluidics bottom-up approach, liposomes were produced using the nanoprecipitation method adapted to micromixers developed by our group. A library of liposome formulations was created that mimicked the ranges of size (90-222 nm) and zeta potential (anionic [-47 mV] to neutral [-1 mV]) at a production throughput of up to 41 mL/h and yielding a concentration of 1 × 1012 particles per mL. EV size and zeta potential were reproduced by controlling the flow conditions and lipid composition set by a statistical model based on the response surface methodology. The model was fairly accurate with an R-squared > 70% for both parameters between the targeted EV and the obtained liposomes. Finally, the internalization of fluorescently labeled EV-like liposomes was assessed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry, and correlated with decreasing liposome size and less negative zeta potential, providing insights into the effects of key EV physicochemical properties. Our data demonstrated that liposomes can be used as a powerful synthetic model of EVs. By mimicking cancer cell-derived EV properties, the effects on cellular internalization can be assessed individually and in combination. Taken together, we present a novel system that can accelerate research on the effects of EVs in cancer models.

Size-specific clonidine-loaded liposomes: Advancing melanoma microenvironment suppression with safety and precision

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in the progression and treatment resistance of melanoma. Modulating the TME is thus a key strategy for enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Previousstudies have identified clonidine (CLD), an α2-adrenergic receptor agonist, as a promising agent that enhances T lymphocyte infiltration and reduces myeloid-derived suppressor cells within the TME, thereby promoting antitumor immune responses. In this study, we discovered that CLD reshaped the melanoma immune microenvironment, facilitating T-cell activation and exerting antitumor effects. However, the high doses of CLD required for effective TME modulation pose significant toxicity concerns, limiting its clinical applicability. To address this, we employed the controllable cavitation-on-a-chip (CCC) platform to formulate CLD-loaded liposomes and optimize their size. This approach aimed to enhance the precision and efficacy of drug delivery while reducing systemic side effects. Our results demonstrated that size-specific CLD liposomes, particularly those at 50 nm, significantly improved tumor growth inhibition and immune cell infiltration within the TME. Moreover, these optimized liposomes mitigate adverse effects associated with high-dose CLD treatment. This study indicates the potential of CCC-optimized CLD liposomes as a safer and more effective melanoma therapy, highlighting the critical interplay between liposome size control and therapeutic outcomes in cancer treatment.

Computational Methods for Modeling Lipid-Mediated Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Delivery

Lipid-mediated delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) opened new possibilities in advanced therapies. By encapsulating an API into a lipid nanocarrier (LNC), one can safely deliver APIs not soluble in water, those with otherwise strong adverse effects, or very fragile ones such as nucleic acids. However, for the rational design of LNCs, a detailed understanding of the composition-structure-function relationships is missing. This review presents currently available computational methods for LNC investigation, screening, and design. The state-of-the-art physics-based approaches are described, with the focus on molecular dynamics simulations in all-atom and coarse-grained resolution. Their strengths and weaknesses are discussed, highlighting the aspects necessary for obtaining reliable results in the simulations. Furthermore, a machine learning, i.e., data-based learning, approach to the design of lipid-mediated API delivery is introduced. The data produced by the experimental and theoretical approaches provide valuable insights. Processing these data can help optimize the design of LNCs for better performance. In the final section of this Review, state-of-the-art of computer simulations of LNCs are reviewed, specifically addressing the compatibility of experimental and computational insights.

Stimuli-responsive nanoscale drug delivery system for epilepsy theranostics

Epilepsy is a common neurological disease characterized by distinct pathological changes in the epileptogenic zone. Antiseizure drugs (ASDs) are widely used as the primary treatment for epilepsy. To improve the efficiency of ASDs medication, stimuli-responsive nanoscale drug delivery systems (nanoDDSs), triggered by either endogenous or exogenous factors, have been developed and been considered as a noninvasive and spatial-temporal approach to epilepsy theranostics. In this review, we introduce the pathological variations observed in epileptic lesions such as dysregulated neurotransmitter systems, disrupted ion homeostasis, and dynamic inflammatory cytokine networks. Furthermore, we summarize the recent advances in functional nano-assemblies that could be activated by endogenous stimuli of pathological alterations or exogenous stimuli such as electricity, light, and other interventions. Finally, we discuss the remaining challenges and prospect the insight into perspective of future development in this field. In summary, this review aims to highlight the potential of stimuli-responsive nanoDDSs as precise, controllable and efficient strategies for addressing unresolved issues in epilepsy theranostics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This review summarizes recent progress in pathological changes such as dysregulated neurotransmitter system, disrupted ion homeostasis and dynamic inflammatory cytokine network, and emphasizes endogenous/exogenous stimuli-responsive nanoscale platforms including neurotransmitter-, ion-, and other stimuli-responsive nanoDDSs, providing the prospects of smart nanoDDSs applications and discussing the challenges to offer generalized guideline for further development of epilepsy theranostics.