Engineered nanomaterials that exploit blood-brain barrier dysfunction fordelivery to the brain

Numerical simulation of magnetic drug targeting for lung cancer therapy using a bulk superconducting magnet

Primary bronchus cancer is one kind of lung cancer with a very high mortality rate. Magnetic drug targeting (MDT) technology could concentrate drugs in a specific area, which could have useful application in lung cancer therapy. Due to a bulk superconducting magnet's ability to generate a superior magnetic field strength and gradient in comparison to conventional permanent magnets, there is great potential for achieving MDT external to the body. However, current research in this area is still in its infancy, and numerical simulations exploring the guidance ability of this technology have been limited to only two-dimensional geometries, which limits further exploration toward clinical transformation. In this work, a three-dimensional lung and bulk superconducting magnet model have been built in the finite-element software package COMSOL Multiphysics. The model is used to simulate the drug delivery process in the lung via the superconducting magnet. The influence of various parameters on the capture efficiency is investigated, including lung-magnet distance, bulk superconductor properties, particle properties, and physiological or tumor structural parameters. The results demonstrate that the bulk superconducting magnet can effectively improve the capture efficiency of magnetic drugs or drug carriers within a suitable distance outside of the body, which could potentially guide the design of a practical, external superconducting MDT system in the near future.

Hybrid amorphous titanium dioxide/polymeric nano-sonosensitizers towards the actively targeted sonodynamic therapy of brain cancer

This work investigates hybrid ceramic/polymeric sono-responsive nanomaterials made of amorphous titanium dioxide (aTiO2) and a branched poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) block copolymer surface-modified with the shuttle peptide cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp-d-Phe-Val that targets the αvβ3 integrin overexpressed in the blood-brain barrier endothelium and glioblastoma cells for the actively targeted sonodynamic therapy of brain cancer. The size of the nanoparticles is ∼100 nm, as measured by dynamic light scattering. Nanostructural analysis by high resolution-electron microscopies reveals that the nanoparticles consist of a porous aTiO2 matrix with the polymeric amphiphile homogeneously incorporated in it. High-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrates the exposure of the shuttle peptide on the nanoparticle surface. The compatibility, uptake, and sonodynamic efficacy in vitro are studied in 2D and 3D cultures of the glioblastoma cell line U87. Results confirm the good cell compatibility of the nanoparticles and the contribution of the shuttle peptide to significantly increase their uptake and anticancer efficacy in vitro. Moreover, the shuttle peptide modification leads to a 6-fold increase in the nanoparticle accumulation in the brain and a sharp decrease in the accumulation in the liver of healthy mice upon one single intravenous injection, highlighting the promise of this platform for the targeted SDT of brain tumors.

Advanced nanoparticle engineering for precision therapeutics of brain diseases

Despite the increasing global prevalence of neurological disorders, the development of nanoparticle (NP) technologies for brain-targeted therapies confronts considerable challenges. One of the key obstacles in treating brain diseases is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the penetration of NP-based therapies into the brain. To address this issue, NPs can be installed with specific ligands or bioengineered to boost their precision and efficacy in targeting brain-diseased cells by navigating across the BBB, ultimately improving patient treatment outcomes. At the outset of this review, we highlighted the critical role of ligand-functionalized or bioengineered NPs in treating brain diseases from a clinical perspective. We then identified the key obstacles and challenges NPs encounter during brain delivery, including immune clearance, capture by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), the BBB, and the complex post-BBB microenvironment. Following this, we overviewed the recent progress in NPs engineering, focusing on ligand-functionalization or bionic designs to enable active BBB transcytosis and targeted delivery to brain-diseased cells. Lastly, we summarized the critical challenges hindering clinical translation, including scalability issues and off-target effects, while outlining future opportunities for designing cutting-edge brain delivery technologies.

Ultrasound-responsive taurine lipid nanoparticles attenuate oxidative stress and promote macrophage polarization for diabetic wound healing

Diabetic wound healing presents a significant clinical challenge due to disrupted neuro-immune interactions. This study identifies the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) as a key regulator of wound repair by linking cholinergic signaling to macrophage reprogramming. GEO analysis of diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) microenvironments revealed neuronal loss, M1 macrophage dominance, and chronic inflammation, all driven by impaired acetylcholine (ACh) secretion and α7nAChR inactivation. Mechanistically, taurine (TA) restored PC12 cell function under high glucose conditions by activating AMPK, alleviating oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and promoting ACh production. ACh activated macrophage α7nAChR, modulating M1/M2 polarization through JAK2/STAT3 activation and NF-κB suppression. To enhance TA bioavailability, ultrasound-responsive Ccr2-targeted TA nanoparticles (Ccr2@TA@LNP) were developed for site-specific delivery via Ccl2/Ccr2 chemotaxis. In diabetic neuropathy (DPN) mice, Ccr2@TA@LNP accelerated wound healing by increasing ACh levels, enhancing α7nAChR/CD206 expression, and reducing Ccl2-mediated inflammation. By integrating neuroprotection, macrophage reprogramming, and targeted nanotherapy, this study highlights TA as a multi-target agent that restores neuro-immune balance through the AMPK/α7nAChR/JAK2-STAT3 axis, offering a novel therapeutic strategy for diabetic wound treatment.

Nanoparticles induced neurotoxicity

The early development of nanotechnology has spurred major interest on the toxicity of nanoparticles (NPs) due to their ability to penetrate the biological barriers such as the BBB. This review aims at addressing how silver (AgNPs), titanium dioxide (TiO2NPs), zinc oxide (ZnONPs), iron oxide (Fe3O4NPs), carbon NPs, Copper (Cu-NPs), silicon oxide (SiO2 NPs) nanoparticles and quantum dots cause neurotoxicity. Some of the major signaling that occur are the signaling related to oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction and cell equilibrium, hence results in neuronal damage and neurodegeneration. It is critical to describe that there are multiple ways by how NPs may be toxic based on their size and surface, dosage, and the recipient's age and health condition. A review on in vitro and in vivo analysis provides information about the toxic potentials of NPs and preventive measures including modification of NP surface and antioxidant treatment. The results underline the necessity of comprehensive safety assessments to allow the further utilization of nanoparticles across the economy.

The blood-brain barriers: novel nanocarriers for central nervous system diseases

The central nervous system (CNS) diseases are major contributors to death and disability worldwide. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) often prevents drugs intended for CNS diseases from effectively crossing into the brain parenchyma to deliver their therapeutic effects. The blood-brain barrier is a semi-permeable barrier with high selectivity. The BBB primarily manages the transport of substances between the blood and the CNS. To enhance drug delivery for CNS disease treatment, various brain-based drug delivery strategies overcoming the BBB have been developed. Among them, nanoparticles (NPs) have been emphasized due to their multiple excellent properties. This review starts with an overview of the BBB's anatomical structure and physiological roles, and then explores the mechanisms, both endogenous and exogenous, that facilitate the NP passage across the BBB. The text also delves into how nanoparticles' shape, charge, size, and surface ligands affect their ability to cross the BBB and offers an overview of different nanoparticle classifications. This review concludes with an examination of the current challenges in utilizing nanomaterials for brain drug delivery and discusses corresponding directions for solutions. This review aims to propose innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for CNS diseases and enhance drug design for more effective delivery across the BBB.

Nanotechnology to Overcome Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Damage in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a critical structure that maintains brain homeostasis by selectively regulating nutrient influx and waste efflux. Not surprisingly, it is often compromised in neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to its involvement in these pathologies, the BBB also represents a significant challenge for drug delivery into the central nervous system. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely explored as drug carriers capable of overcoming this barrier and effectively transporting therapies to the brain. However, their potential to directly address and ameliorate BBB dysfunction has received limited attention. In this review, we examine how NPs enhance drug delivery across the BBB to treat neurodegenerative diseases and explore emerging strategies to restore the integrity of this vital structure.

Advancing neurological disorders therapies: Organic nanoparticles as a key to blood-brain barrier penetration

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a vital role in protecting the central nervous system (CNS) by preventing the entry of harmful pathogens from the bloodstream. However, this barrier also presents a significant obstacle when it comes to delivering drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain cancer. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have paved the way for the creation of a wide range of nanoparticles (NPs) that can serve as carriers for diagnosis and therapy. Regarding their promising properties, organic NPs have the potential to be used as effective carriers for drug delivery across the BBB based on recent advancements. These remarkable NPs have the ability to penetrate the BBB using various mechanisms. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate structure and distinct properties of the BBB, emphasizing its crucial function in preserving brain balance and regulating the transport of ions and molecules. The disruption of the BBB in conditions such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease highlights the importance of developing creative approaches for delivering drugs. Through the encapsulation of therapeutic molecules and the precise targeting of transport processes in the brain vasculature, organic NP formulations present a hopeful strategy to improve drug transport across the BBB. We explore the changes in properties of the BBB in various pathological conditions and investigate the factors that affect the successful delivery of organic NPs into the brain. In addition, we explore the most promising delivery systems associated with NPs that have shown positive results in treating neurodegenerative and ischemic disorders. This review opens up new possibilities for nanotechnology-based therapies in cerebral diseases.

Combined Strategies for Nanodrugs Noninvasively Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier and Actively Targeting Glioma Lesions

Drugs for tumor treatment face various challenges, including poor solubility, poor stability, short blood half-life, nontargeting ability, and strong toxic side effects. Fortunately, nanodrug delivery systems provide excellent solution to these problems. However, nanodrugs for glioma treatment also face some key challenges including overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and, specifically, accumulation in glioma lesions. In this review, we systematically summarize the advantages and disadvantages of combined strategies for nanodrugs noninvasively overcoming BBB and actively targeting glioma lesions to achieve effective glioma therapy. Common noninvasive strategies for nanodrugs overcoming the BBB include bypassing the BBB via the nose-to-brain route, opening the tight junction of the BBB by focused ultrasound with microbubbles, and transendothelial cell transport by intact cell loading, ligand decoration, or cell membrane camouflage of nanodrugs. Actively targeting glioma lesions after overcoming the BBB is another key factor helping nanodrugs accurately treat in situ gliomas. This aim can also be achieved by loading nanodrugs into intact cells and modifying ligand or cell membrane fragments on the surface of nanodrugs. Targeting decorated nanodrugs can guarantee precise glioma killing and avoid side effects on normal brain tissues that contribute to the specific recognition of glioma lesions. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of nanodrugs in clinical glioma treatment are discussed.

Peptide-Functionalized Lipid Nanoparticles for Targeted Systemic mRNA Delivery to the Brain

Systemic delivery of large nucleic acids, such as mRNA, to the brain remains challenging in part due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the tendency of delivery vehicles to accumulate in the liver. Here, we design a peptide-functionalized lipid nanoparticle (LNP) platform for targeted mRNA delivery to the brain. We utilize click chemistry to functionalize LNPs with peptides that target receptors overexpressed on brain endothelial cells and neurons, namely the RVG29, T7, AP2, and mApoE peptides. We evaluate the effect of LNP targeting on brain endothelial and neuronal cell transfection in vitro, investigating factors such as serum protein adsorption, intracellular trafficking, endothelial transcytosis, and exosome secretion. Finally, we show that LNP peptide functionalization enhances mRNA transfection in the mouse brain and reduces hepatic delivery after systemic administration. Specifically, RVG29 LNPs improved neuronal transfection in vivo, establishing its potential as a nonviral platform for delivering mRNA to the brain.

Synthesis and Relaxivity study of amino acid-branched radical dendrimers as MRI contrast agents for potential brain tumor imaging

This study introduces a series of water-soluble radical dendrimers (G0 to G5) as promising magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents that could potentially address clinical safety concerns associated with current gadolinium-based contrast agents. By using a simplified synthetic approach based on a cyclotriphosphazene core and lysine-derived branching units, we successfully developed a G5 dendrimer containing up to 192 units of 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidinyloxy (TEMPO) radical. This synthesis offers advantages including ease of preparation, purification, and tunable water solubility through the incorporation of glutamic acid anion residues. Comprehensive characterization using 1H NMR, FT-IR, and SEC-HPLC confirmed the dendrimers' structures and purity. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy revealed that TEMPO groups in higher generation dendrimers exhibited decreased mobility and stronger spin exchange in their local environments. In vitro MRI showed that relaxivity (r1) increased with higher dendrimer generations, with G5 exhibiting an exceptionally high r1 of over 24 mM-1s-1. Molecular dynamics simulations provided crucial insights into structure-property relationships, revealing the importance of water accessibility to TEMPO groups for enhancing relaxivity. Vero cell viability assay demonstrated G3 and G3.5 have good biocompatibility. In vivo MRI experiments in mice demonstrated that G3.5 was excreted through the kidneys and selectively accumulated in glioblastoma tumors. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This study explores a class of MRI contrast agents based on organic radical dendrimers as a potential alternative to gadolinium-based agents. We present a simplified synthesis method for water-soluble dendrimers containing up to 192 TEMPO radical units-the highest number achieved to date for this class of compounds-resulting in record-high relaxivity values. Our approach offers easier preparation, purification, and tunable water solubility, representing an improvement over existing methods. Through combined experimental and computational studies, we provide insights into the structure-property relationships governing relaxivity. In vivo experiments demonstrate the dendrimers' potential for glioblastoma imaging, with predominantly renal excretion. This work represents a step towards developing metal-free MRI contrast agents with promising relaxivity and biocompatibility, potentially opening new avenues for diagnostic imaging research.

Targeting Cytokine-Mediated Inflammation in Brain Disorders: Developing New Treatment Strategies

Cytokine-mediated inflammation is increasingly recognized for playing a vital role in the pathophysiology of a wide range of brain disorders, including neurodegenerative, psychiatric, and neurodevelopmental problems. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) cause neuroinflammation, alter brain function, and accelerate disease development. Despite progress in understanding these pathways, effective medicines targeting brain inflammation are still limited. Traditional anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory drugs are effective in peripheral inflammatory illnesses. Still, they face substantial hurdles when applied to the central nervous system (CNS), such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and unwanted systemic effects. This review highlights the developing treatment techniques for modifying cytokine-driven neuroinflammation, focusing on advances that selectively target critical cytokines involved in brain pathology. Novel approaches, including cytokine-specific inhibitors, antibody-based therapeutics, gene- and RNA-based interventions, and sophisticated drug delivery systems like nanoparticles, show promise with respect to lowering neuroinflammation with greater specificity and safety. Furthermore, developments in biomarker discoveries and neuroimaging techniques are improving our ability to monitor inflammatory responses, allowing for more accurate and personalized treatment regimens. Preclinical and clinical trial data demonstrate the therapeutic potential of these tailored techniques. However, significant challenges remain, such as improving delivery across the BBB and reducing off-target effects. As research advances, the creation of personalized, cytokine-centered therapeutics has the potential to alter the therapy landscape for brain illnesses, giving patients hope for better results and a higher quality of life.

Advancing brain immunotherapy through functional nanomaterials

Glioblastoma (GBM), a highly aggressive brain tumor, poses significant treatment challenges due to its highly immunosuppressive microenvironment and the brain immune privilege. Immunotherapy activating the immune system and T lymphocyte infiltration holds great promise against GBM. However, the brain's low immunogenicity and the difficulty of crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) hinder therapeutic efficacy. Recent advancements in immune-actuated particles for targeted drug delivery have shown the potential to overcome these obstacles. These particles interact with the BBB by rapidly and reversibly disrupting its structure, thereby significantly enhancing targeting and penetrating delivery. The BBB targeting also minimizes potential long-term damage. At GBM, the particles demonstrated effective chemotherapy, chemodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), radiotherapy, or magnetotherapy, facilitating tumor disruption and promoting antigen release. Additionally, components of the delivery system retained autologous tumor-associated antigens and presented them to dendritic cells (DCs), ensuring prolonged immune activation. This review explores the immunosuppressive mechanisms of GBM, existing therapeutic strategies, and the role of nanomaterials in enhancing immunotherapy. We also discuss innovative particle-based approaches designed to traverse the BBB by mimicking innate immune functions to improve treatment outcomes for brain tumors.

Engineering Stimuli-Responsive Materials for Precision Medicine

Over the past decade, precision medicine has garnered increasing attention, making significant strides in discovering new therapeutic drugs and mechanisms, resulting in notable achievements in symptom alleviation, pain reduction, and extended survival rates. However, the limited target specificity of primary drugs and inter-individual differences have often necessitated high-dosage strategies, leading to challenges such as restricted deep tissue penetration rates and systemic side effects. Material science advancements present a promising avenue for these issues. By leveraging the distinct internal features of diseased regions and the application of specific external stimuli, responsive materials can be tailored to achieve targeted delivery, controllable release, and specific biochemical reactions. This review aims to highlight the latest advancements in stimuli-responsive materials and their potential in precision medicine. Initially, we introduce disease-related internal stimuli and capable external stimuli, elucidating the reaction principles of responsive functional groups. Subsequently, we provide a detailed analysis of representative pre-clinical achievements of stimuli responsive materials across various clinical applications, including enhancements in the treatment of cancers, injury diseases, inflammatory diseases, infection diseases, and high-throughput microfluidic biosensors. Finally, we discuss some clinical challenges, such as off-target effects, long-term impacts of nano-materials, potential ethical concerns, and offer insights into future perspectives of stimuli-responsive materials.

Effects of nanoparticle size, shape, and zeta potential on drug delivery

Nanotechnology has brought about a significant revolution in drug delivery, and research in this domain is increasingly focusing on understanding the role of nanoparticle (NP) characteristics in drug delivery efficiency. First and foremost, we center our attention on the size of nanoparticles. Studies have indicated that NP size significantly influences factors such as circulation time, targeting capabilities, and cellular uptake. Secondly, we examine the significance of nanoparticle shape. Various studies suggest that NPs of different shapes affect cellular uptake mechanisms and offer potential advantages in directing drug delivery. For instance, cylindrical or needle-like NPs may facilitate better cellular uptake compared to spherical NPs. Lastly, we address the importance of nanoparticle charge. Zeta potential can impact the targeting and cellular uptake of NPs. Positively charged NPs may be better absorbed by negatively charged cells, whereas negatively charged NPs might perform more effectively in positively charged cells. This review provides essential insights into understanding the role of nanoparticles in drug delivery. The properties of nanoparticles, including size, shape, and charge, should be taken into consideration in the rational design of drug delivery systems, as optimizing these characteristics can contribute to more efficient targeting of drugs to the desired tissues. Thus, research into nanoparticle properties will continue to play a crucial role in the future of drug delivery.

Cerebral biomimetic nano-drug delivery systems: A frontier strategy for immunotherapy

Brain diseases are a significant threat to human health, especially in the elderly, and this problem is growing as the aging population increases. Efficient brain-targeted drug delivery has been the greatest challenge in treating brain disorders due to the unique immune environment of the brain, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Recently, cerebral biomimetic nano-drug delivery systems (CBNDSs) have provided a promising strategy for brain targeting by mimicking natural biological materials. Herein, this review explores the latest understanding of the immune microenvironment of the brain, emphasizing the immune mechanisms of the occurrence and progression of brain disease. Several brain targeting systems are summarized, including cell-based, exosome-based, protein-based, and microbe-based CBNDSs, and their immunological mechanisms are highlighted. Moreover, given the rise of immunotherapy, the latest applications of CBNDSs in immunotherapy are also discussed. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of CBNDSs and serves as a guideline for immunotherapy in treating brain diseases. In addition, it provides inspiration for the future of CBNDSs.

Numerical simulation study of nanoparticle diffusion in gray matter

Purpose

Nanomedicine-based approaches have shown great potential in the treatment of central nervous system diseases. However, the fate of nanoparticles (NPs) within the brain parenchyma has not received much attention. The complexity of the microstructure of the brain and the invisibility of NPs make it difficult to study NP transport within the grey matter. Moreover, regulation of NP delivery is not fully understood.

Methods

2D interstitial system (ISS) models reflecting actual extracellular space (ECS) were constructed. A particle tracing model was used to simulate the diffusion of the NPs. The effect of NP size on NP diffusion was studied using numerical simulations. The diffusion of charged NPs was explored by comparing experimental and numerical simulation data, and the effect of cell membrane potential on the diffusion of charged NPs was further studied.

Results

The model was verified using previously published experimental data. Small NPs could diffuse efficiently into the ISS. The diffusion of charged NPs was hindered in the ISS. Changes in cell membrane potential had little effect on NP diffusion.

Conclusion

This study constructed 2D brain ISS models that reflected the actual ECS and simulated the diffusion of NPs within it. The study found that uncharged small NPs could effectively diffuse within the ISS and that the cell membrane potential had a limited effect on the diffusion of charged NPs. The model and findings of this study can aid the design of nanomedicines and nanocarriers for the diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases.

Gut microbial metabolism in Alzheimer's disease and related dementias

Multiple studies over the last decade have established that Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) are associated with changes in the gut microbiome. These alterations in organismal composition result in changes in the abundances of functions encoded by the microbial community, including metabolic capabilities, which likely impact host disease mechanisms. Gut microbes access dietary components and other molecules made by the host and produce metabolites that can enter circulation and cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In recent years, several microbial metabolites have been associated with or have been shown to influence host pathways relevant to ADRD pathology. These include short chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids, tryptophan derivatives (such as kynurenine, serotonin, tryptamine, and indoles), and trimethylamine/trimethylamine N-oxide. Notably, some of these metabolites cross the BBB and can have various effects on the brain, including modulating the release of neurotransmitters and neuronal function, inducing oxidative stress and inflammation, and impacting synaptic function. Microbial metabolites can also impact the central nervous system through immune, enteroendocrine, and enteric nervous system pathways, these perturbations in turn impact the gut barrier function and peripheral immune responses, as well as the BBB integrity, neuronal homeostasis and neurogenesis, and glial cell maturation and activation. This review examines the evidence supporting the notion that ADRD is influenced by gut microbiota and its metabolites. The potential therapeutic advantages of microbial metabolites for preventing and treating ADRD are also discussed, highlighting their potential role in developing new treatments.

Potential application of aptamers combined with DNA nanoflowers in neurodegenerative diseases

The efficacy of neurotherapeutic drugs hinges on their ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier and access the brain, which is crucial for treating or alleviating neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Given the absence of definitive cures for NDs, early diagnosis and intervention become paramount in impeding disease progression. However, conventional therapeutic drugs and existing diagnostic approaches must meet clinical demands. Consequently, there is a pressing need to advance drug delivery systems and early diagnostic methods tailored for NDs. Certain aptamers endowed with specific functionalities find widespread utility in the targeted therapy and diagnosis of NDs. DNA nanoflowers (DNFs), distinctive flower-shaped DNA nanomaterials, are intricately self-assembled through rolling ring amplification (RCA) of circular DNA templates. Notably, imbuing DNFs with diverse functionalities becomes seamlessly achievable by integrating aptamer sequences with specific functions into RCA templates, resulting in a novel nanomaterial, aptamer-bound DNFs (ADNFs) that amalgamates the advantageous features of both components. This article delves into the characteristics and applications of aptamers and DNFs, exploring the potential or application of ADNFs in drug-targeted delivery, direct treatment, early diagnosis, etc. The objective is to offer prospective ideas for the clinical treatment or diagnosis of NDs, thereby contributing to the ongoing efforts in this critical field.

Targeting specific brain districts for advanced nanotherapies: A review from the perspective of precision nanomedicine

Numerous studies are focused on nanoparticle penetration into the brain functionalizing them with ligands useful to cross the blood-brain barrier. However, cell targeting is also crucial, given that cerebral pathologies frequently affect specific brain cells or areas. Functionalize nanoparticles with the most appropriate targeting elements, tailor their physical parameters, and consider the brain's complex anatomy are essential aspects for precise therapy and diagnosis. In this review, we addressed the state of the art on targeted nanoparticles for drug delivery in diseased brain regions, outlining progress, limitations, and ongoing challenges. We also provide a summary and overview of general design principles that can be applied to nanotherapies, considering the areas and cell types affected by the most common brain disorders. We then emphasize lingering uncertainties that hinder the translational possibilities of nanotherapies for clinical use. Finally, we offer suggestions for continuing preclinical investigations to enhance the overall effectiveness of precision nanomedicine in addressing neurological conditions. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Using Nanoscale Passports To Understand and Unlock Ion Channels as Gatekeepers of the Cell

Natural ion channels are proteins embedded in the cell membrane that control many aspects of cell and human physiology by acting as gatekeepers, regulating the flow of ions in and out of cells. Advances in nanotechnology have influenced the methods for studying ion channels in vitro, as well as ways to unlock the delivery of therapeutics by modulating them in vivo. This review provides an overview of nanotechnology-enabled approaches for ion channel research with a focus on the synthesis and applications of synthetic ion channels. Further, the uses of nanotechnology for therapeutic applications are critically analyzed. Finally, we provide an outlook on the opportunities and challenges at the intersection of nanotechnology and ion channels. This work highlights the key role of nanoscale interactions in the operation and modulation of ion channels, which may prompt insights into nanotechnology-enabled mechanisms to study and exploit these systems in the near future.

Brain gliomas: Diagnostic and therapeutic issues and the prospects of drug-targeted nano-delivery technology

Glioma is the most common intracranial malignant tumor, with severe difficulty in treatment and a low patient survival rate. Due to the heterogeneity and invasiveness of tumors, lack of personalized clinical treatment design, and physiological barriers, it is often difficult to accurately distinguish gliomas, which dramatically affects the subsequent diagnosis, imaging treatment, and prognosis. Fortunately, nano-delivery systems have demonstrated unprecedented capabilities in diagnosing and treating gliomas in recent years. They have been modified and surface modified to efficiently traverse BBB/BBTB, target lesion sites, and intelligently release therapeutic or contrast agents, thereby achieving precise imaging and treatment. In this review, we focus on nano-delivery systems. Firstly, we provide an overview of the standard and emerging diagnostic and treatment technologies for glioma in clinical practice. After induction and analysis, we focus on summarizing the delivery methods of drug delivery systems, the design of nanoparticles, and their new advances in glioma imaging and treatment in recent years. Finally, we discussed the prospects and potential challenges of drug-delivery systems in diagnosing and treating glioma.

Checkpoint for Considering Interleukin-6 as a Potential Target to Mitigate Secondary Brain Injury after Cardiac Arrest

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) was suggested as a potential target for intervention to mitigate brain injury. However, its neuro-protective effect in post-resuscitation care has not been proven. We investigated the time-course of changes in IL-6 and its association with other markers (systemic inflammation and myocardial and neuronal injury), according to the injury severity of the cardiac arrest. This retrospective study analyzed IL-6 and other markers at baseline and 24, 48, and 72 h after the return of spontaneous circulation. The primary outcome was the association of IL-6 with injury severity as assessed using the revised Post-Cardiac Arrest Syndrome for Therapeutic Hypothermia scoring system (low, moderate, and high severity). Of 111 patients, 22 (19.8%), 61 (55.0%), and 28 (25.2%) had low-, moderate-, and high-severity scores, respectively. IL-6 levels were significantly lower in the low-severity group than in the moderate- and high-severity groups at baseline and at 24 h and 72 h (p < 0.005). While IL-6 was not independently associated with neuronal injury markers in the low-severity group, it was demonstrated to be associated with it in the moderate-severity (β [95% CI] = 4.3 [0.1-8.6], R2 = 0.11) and high-severity (β [95% CI] = 7.9 [3.4-12.5], R2 = 0.14) groups. IL-6 exhibits distinct patterns across severity and shows differential associations with systemic inflammation or neuronal injury.

Peptide-Hitchhiking for the Development of Nanosystems in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) remains the epitome of aggressiveness and lethality in the spectrum of brain tumors, primarily due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that hinders effective treatment delivery, tumor heterogeneity, and the presence of treatment-resistant stem cells that contribute to tumor recurrence. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been used to overcome these obstacles by attaching targeting ligands to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Among these ligands, peptides stand out due to their ease of synthesis and high selectivity. This article aims to review single and multiligand strategies critically. In addition, it highlights other strategies that integrate the effects of external stimuli, biomimetic approaches, and chemical approaches as nanocatalytic medicine, revealing their significant potential in treating GBM with peptide-functionalized NPs. Alternative routes of parenteral administration, specifically nose-to-brain delivery and local treatment within the resected tumor cavity, are also discussed. Finally, an overview of the significant obstacles and potential strategies to overcome them are discussed to provide a perspective on this promising field of GBM therapy.

Blood-Brain Barrier-Targeting Nanoparticles: Biomaterial Properties and Biomedical Applications in Translational Neuroscience

Overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB) remains a significant hurdle in effective drug delivery to the brain. While the BBB serves as a crucial protective barrier, it poses challenges in delivering therapeutic agents to their intended targets within the brain parenchyma. To enhance drug delivery for the treatment of neurological diseases, several delivery technologies to circumvent the BBB have been developed in the last few years. Among them, nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the most versatile and promising tools. Here, we summarize the characteristics of NPs that facilitate BBB penetration, including their size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and importantly, their conjugation with various biological or synthetic molecules such as glucose, transferrin, insulin, polyethylene glycol, peptides, and aptamers. Additionally, we discuss the coating of NPs with surfactants. A comprehensive overview of the common in vitro and in vivo models of the BBB for NP penetration studies is also provided. The discussion extends to discussing BBB impairment under pathological conditions and leveraging BBB alterations under pathological conditions to enhance drug delivery. Emphasizing the need for future studies to uncover the inherent therapeutic properties of NPs, the review advocates for their role beyond delivery systems and calls for efforts translating NPs to the clinic as therapeutics. Overall, NPs stand out as a highly promising therapeutic strategy for precise BBB targeting and drug delivery in neurological disorders.

Implications of environmental nanoparticles on neurodegeneration

The ubiquity of nanoparticles, sourced from both natural environments and human activities, presents critical challenges for public health. While offering significant potential for innovative biomedical applications-especially in enhancing drug transport across the blood-brain barrier-these particles also introduce possible hazards due to inadvertent exposure. This concise review explores the paradoxical nature of nanoparticles, emphasizing their promising applications in healthcare juxtaposed with their potential neurotoxic consequences. Through a detailed examination, we delineate the pathways through which nanoparticles can reach the brain and the subsequent health implications. There is growing evidence of a disturbing association between nanoparticle exposure and the onset of neurodegenerative conditions, highlighting the imperative for comprehensive research and strategic interventions. Gaining a deep understanding of these mechanisms and enacting protective policies are crucial steps toward reducing the health threats of nanoparticles, thereby maximizing their therapeutic advantages.

Plant-Based Approaches for Rheumatoid Arthritis Regulation: Mechanistic Insights on Pathogenesis, Molecular Pathways, and Delivery Systems

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is classified as a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder, associated with a varied range of immunological changes, synovial hyperplasia, cartilage destructions, as well as bone erosion. The infiltration of immune-modulatory cells and excessive release of proinflammatory chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors into the inflamed regions are key molecules involved in the progression of RA. Even though many conventional drugs are suggested by a medical practitioner such as DMARDs, NSAIDs, glucocorticoids, etc., to treat RA, but have allied with various side effects. Thus, alternative therapeutics in the form of herbal therapy or phytomedicine has been increasingly explored for this inflammatory disorder of joints. Herbal interventions contribute substantial therapeutic benefits including accessibility, less or no toxicity and affordability. But the major challenge with these natural actives is the need of a tailored approach for treating inflamed tissues by delivering these bioactive agentsat an appropriate dose within the treatment regimen for an extended periodof time. Drug incorporated with wide range of delivery systems such as liposomes, nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, and other nano-vehicles have been developed to achieve this goal. Thus, inclinations of modern treatment are persuaded on the way to herbal therapy or phytomedicines in combination with novel carriers is an alternative approach with less adverse effects. The present review further summarizes the significanceof use of phytocompounds, their target molecules/pathways and, toxicity and challenges associated with phytomolecule-based nanoformulations.

Non-Invasive Drug Delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier: A Prospective Analysis

Non-invasive drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) represents a significant advancement in treating neurological diseases. The BBB is a tightly packed layer of endothelial cells that shields the brain from harmful substances in the blood, allowing necessary nutrients to pass through. It is a highly selective barrier, which poses a challenge to delivering therapeutic agents into the brain. Several non-invasive procedures and devices have been developed or are currently being investigated to enhance drug delivery across the BBB. This paper presents a review and a prospective analysis of the art and science that address pharmacology, technology, delivery systems, regulatory approval, ethical concerns, and future possibilities.

The blood-brain barrier, a key bridge to treat neurodegenerative diseases

As a highly selective and semi-permeable barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain and central nervous system (CNS), the blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a critical role in the onset and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). To delay or reverse the NDs progression, the dysfunction of BBB should be improved to protect the brain from harmful substances. Simultaneously, a highly efficient drug delivery across the BBB is indispensable. Here, we summarized several methods to improve BBB dysfunction in NDs, including knocking out risk geneAPOE4, regulating circadian rhythms, restoring the gut microenvironment, and activating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Then we discussed the advances in BBB penetration techniques, such as transient BBB opening, carrier-mediated drug delivery, and nasal administration, which facilitates drug delivery across the BBB. Furthermore, various in vivo and in vitro BBB models and research methods related to NDs are reviewed. Based on the current research progress, the treatment of NDs in the long term should prioritize the integrity of the BBB. However, a treatment approach that combines precise control of transient BBB permeability and non-invasive targeted BBB drug delivery holds profound significance in improving treatment effectiveness, safety, and clinical feasibility during drug therapy. This review involves the cross application of biology, materials science, imaging, engineering and other disciplines in the field of BBB, aiming to provide multi-dimensional research directions and clinical ideas for the treating NDs.

Nanomaterial payload delivery to central nervous system glia for neural protection and repair

Central nervous system (CNS) glia, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes, play prominent roles in traumatic injury and degenerative disorders. Due to their importance, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are being developed to modulate CNS glia in order to improve outcomes in traumatic injury and disease. While many of these APIs show promise in vitro, the majority of APIs that are systemically delivered show little penetration through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) or blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) and into the CNS, rendering them ineffective. Novel nanomaterials are being developed to deliver APIs into the CNS to modulate glial responses and improve outcomes in injury and disease. Nanomaterials are attractive options as therapies for central nervous system protection and repair in degenerative disorders and traumatic injury due to their intrinsic capabilities in API delivery. Nanomaterials can improve API accumulation in the CNS by increasing permeation through the BBB of systemically delivered APIs, extending the timeline of API release, and interacting biophysically with CNS cell populations due to their mechanical properties and nanoscale architectures. In this review, we present the recent advances in the fields of both locally implanted nanomaterials and systemically administered nanoparticles developed for the delivery of APIs to the CNS that modulate glial activity as a strategy to improve outcomes in traumatic injury and disease. We identify current research gaps and discuss potential developments in the field that will continue to translate the use of glia-targeting nanomaterials to the clinic.

Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

The use of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the detection and treatment of cancer. Developments in protein engineering and materials science have led to the emergence of new nanoscale targeting techniques, which offer renewed hope for cancer patients. While several nanocarriers for medicinal purposes have been approved for human trials, only a few have been authorized for clinical use in targeting cancer cells. In this review, we analyze some of the authorized formulations and discuss the challenges of translating findings from the lab to the clinic. This study highlights the various nanocarriers and compounds that can be used for selective tumor targeting and the inherent difficulties in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for improving cancer detection and treatment in the future, but further research is needed to overcome the current limitations in clinical translation.

Autophagy Inhibition with Chloroquine Increased Pro-Apoptotic Potential of New Aziridine-Hydrazide Hydrazone Derivatives against Glioblastoma Cells

Tumor therapy escape due to undesired side effects induced by treatment, such as prosurvival autophagy or cellular senescence, is one of the key mechanisms of resistance that eventually leads to tumor dormancy and recurrence. Glioblastoma is the most frequent and practically incurable neoplasm of the central nervous system; thus, new treatment modalities have been investigated to find a solution more effective than the currently applied standards based on temozolomide. The present study examined the newly synthesized compounds of aziridine-hydrazide hydrazone derivatives to determine their antineoplastic potential against glioblastoma cells in vitro. Although the output of our investigation clearly demonstrates their proapoptotic activity, the cytotoxic effect appeared to be blocked by treatment-induced autophagy, the phenomenon also detected in the case of temozolomide action. The addition of an autophagy inhibitor, chloroquine, resulted in a significant increase in apoptosis triggered by the tested compounds, as well as temozolomide. The new aziridine-hydrazide hydrazone derivatives, which present cytotoxic potential against glioblastoma cells comparable to or even higher than that of temozolomide, show promising results and, thus, should be further investigated as antineoplastic agents. Moreover, our findings suggest that the combination of an apoptosis inducer with an autophagy inhibitor could optimize chemotherapeutic efficiency, and the addition of an autophagy inhibitor should be considered as an optional adjunctive therapy minimizing the risk of tumor escape from treatment.