Differential associations of sex and D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) genotype with negative affect and other substance abuse risk markers in children of alcoholics

The effects of alcohol use severity and polygenic risk on gray matter volumes in young adults

Introduction

Genetic factors contribute to alcohol misuse. Chronic alcohol consumption is associated with decreases in gray matter volumes (GMVs) of the brain. However, it remains unclear whether or how genetic risks may alter GMVs independent of the effects of alcohol exposure.

Methods

Here, we employed the Human Connectome Project data of neurotypical adults (n = 995; ages 22-35; 534 women) and, with voxel-based morphometry analysis, computed the GMVs of 166 regions in the automated anatomical atlas 3. Alcohol use behaviors were assessed with the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism. Alcohol use severity was quantified by the first principal component (PC1) identified of principal component analysis of 15 drinking measures. Polygenic risk scores (PRS) for alcohol dependence were computed for all subjects using the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium study of alcohol dependence as the base sample. With age, sex, race, and total intracranial volume as covariates, we evaluated the relationships of regional GMVs with PC1 and PRS together in a linear regression.

Results

PC1 was negatively correlated with GMVs of right insula and Heschl's gyrus, and PRS was positively correlated with GMVs of left posterior orbitofrontal cortex, bilateral intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus and lingual gyri.

Discussion

These findings suggest distinct volumetric neural markers of drinking severity and genetic risks of alcohol misuse. Notably, in contrast to volumetric reduction, the genetic risks of dependent drinking may involve larger regional volumes in the reward, emotion, and saliency circuits.

The effects of alcohol use severity and polygenic risk on gray matter volumes in young adults

Genetic factors contribute to alcohol misuse. Chronic alcohol consumption is associated with decreases in gray matter volumes (GMVs) of the brain. However, it remains unclear whether or how genetic risks may alter GMVs independent of the effects of alcohol exposure. Here, we employed the Human Connectome Project data of neurotypical adults (n = 995; age 22-35; 618 women) and, with voxel-based morphometry analysis, computed the GMVs of 166 regions in the automated anatomical atlas 3. Alcohol use behaviors were assessed with the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism. Alcohol use severity was quantified by the first principal component (PC1) identified of principal component analysis of 15 drinking measures. Polygenic risk scores (PRS) for alcohol dependence were computed for all subjects using the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium study of alcohol dependence as the base sample. With age, sex, race, and total intracranial volume as covariates, we evaluated the relationships of regional GMVs with PC1 and PRS together in a linear regression. PC1 was negatively correlated with GMVs of right insula and Heschl's gyrus, and PRS was positively correlated with GMVs of left posterior orbitofrontal cortex, bilateral intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus and lingual gyri. These findings suggest distinct volumetric neural markers of drinking severity and genetic risks of alcohol misuse. Notably, in contrast to volumetric reduction, the genetic risks of dependent drinking may involve larger regional volumes in the reward, emotion, and saliency circuits.

Heritability and molecular-genetic basis of the P3 event-related brain potential: a genome-wide association study

P3 amplitude is a candidate endophenotype for disinhibitory psychopathology, psychosis, and other disorders. The present study is a comprehensive analysis of the behavioral- and molecular-genetic basis of P3 amplitude and a P3 genetic factor score in a large community sample (N = 4,211) of adolescent twins and their parents, genotyped for 527,829 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Biometric models indicated that as much as 65% of the variance in each measure was due to additive genes. All SNPs in aggregate accounted for approximately 40% to 50% of the heritable variance. However, analyses of individual SNPs did not yield any significant associations. Analyses of individual genes did not confirm previous associations between P3 amplitude and candidate genes but did yield a novel association with myelin expression factor 2 (MYEF2). Main effects of individual variants may be too small to be detected by GWAS without larger samples.

Genetic variations in COMT and DRD2 modulate attentional bias for affective facial expressions

Studies have revealed that catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and dopaminegic receptor2 (DRD2) modulate human attention bias for palatable food or tobacco. However, the existing evidence about the modulations of COMT and DRD2 on attentional bias for facial expressions was still limited. In the study, 650 college students were genotyped with regard to COMT Val158Met and DRD2 TaqI A polymorphisms, and the attentional bias for facial expressions was assessed using the spatial cueing task. The results indicated that COMT Val158Met underpinned the individual difference in attentional bias for negative emotional expressions (P = 0.03) and the Met carriers showed more engagement bias for negative expressions than the Val/Val homozygote. On the contrary, DRD2 TaqIA underpinned the individual difference in attentional bias for positive expressions (P = 0.003) and individuals with TT genotype showed much more engagement bias for positive expressions than the individuals with CC genotype. Moreover, the two genes exerted significant interactions on the engagements for negative and positive expressions (P = 0.046, P = 0.005). These findings suggest that the individual differences in the attentional bias for emotional expressions are partially underpinned by the genetic polymorphisms in COMT and DRD2.

Cannabis-dependence risk relates to synergism between neuroticism and proenkephalin SNPs associated with amygdala gene expression: case-control study

BACKGROUND

Many young people experiment with cannabis, yet only a subgroup progress to dependence suggesting individual differences that could relate to factors such as genetics and behavioral traits. Dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) and proenkephalin (PENK) genes have been implicated in animal studies with cannabis exposure. Whether polymorphisms of these genes are associated with cannabis dependence and related behavioral traits is unknown.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Healthy young adults (18-27 years) with cannabis dependence and without a dependence diagnosis were studied (N = 50/group) in relation to a priori-determined single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the DRD2 and PENK genes. Negative affect, Impulsive Risk Taking and Neuroticism-Anxiety temperamental traits, positive and negative reward-learning performance and stop-signal reaction times were examined. The findings replicated the known association between the rs6277 DRD2 SNP and decisions associated with negative reinforcement outcomes. Moreover, PENK variants (rs2576573 and rs2609997) significantly related to Neuroticism and cannabis dependence. Cigarette smoking is common in cannabis users, but it was not associated to PENK SNPs as also validated in another cohort (N = 247 smokers, N = 312 non-smokers). Neuroticism mediated (15.3%-19.5%) the genetic risk to cannabis dependence and interacted with risk SNPs, resulting in a 9-fold increase risk for cannabis dependence. Molecular characterization of the postmortem human brain in a different population revealed an association between PENK SNPs and PENK mRNA expression in the central amygdala nucleus emphasizing the functional relevance of the SNPs in a brain region strongly linked to negative affect.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Overall, the findings suggest an important role for Neuroticism as an endophenotype linking PENK polymorphisms to cannabis-dependence vulnerability synergistically amplifying the apparent genetic risk.

DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism affects corticostriatal activity in response to negative affective facial stimuli

DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism has been suggested to be involved in a reward-related psychiatric disorders. However, the effect of Dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) on emotional processing has not been investigated yet. We investigated the possible relationship between DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism and corticostriatal response to negative facial stimuli using functional magnetic resonance imaging. All participants were genotyped with regard to the DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism. Our results suggest an association between the DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism and activations in the putamen, the anterior cingulate cortex, and amygdala in response to negative facial stimuli. Furthermore, molecular heterosis at the TaqI polymorphism of DRD2/ANKK1 may play an important role in affective regulation by corticostriatal pathway.

Sex difference in alcoholism: who is at a greater risk for development of alcoholic complication?

AIMS

Alcohol abuse and alcoholism are among the major medical problems afflicting both men and women. While men display a higher prevalence for alcoholism, it is women who suffer a much greater risk for alcoholism-associated bodily damage. Although women generally consume less alcohol compared to men, females usually suffer more severe brain and other organ damage following binge or chronic alcohol abuse.

MAIN METHODS AND KEY FINDINGS

Although many biological (i.e., genetic risk and neurological abnormalities) and psychosocial (i.e., impact of positive drinking expectancies, personality characteristics and deviance proneness) factors appear to impact men and women equally. These factors especially social and environmental, physiological, genetic and neurobiological ones have been demonstrated to contribute to the sex difference in response to alcohol intake, as well as the development of alcoholic complications. A number of neurotransmitters and growth factors may be partially involved in these differences between men and women. The mesolimbic dopamine system is implicated in the development of addictive behaviors. Differences in dopamine receptor density are found between sexes where gonadal steroid hormones may play a role. Inhibitory GABAergic and stimulatory glutamatergic systems also act as neuromodulators in the brain and differences in their specific receptors have been identified between men and women (particularly GABA(A) receptors and NMDA receptors).

SIGNIFICANCE

Given the variety of factors contributing to the sex difference in response to alcohol intake, alcoholism treatment should take sex dimorphism into consideration. Furthermore, future research needs to be directed towards a better understanding of the mechanism of action of alcohol in both men and women.

Pharmacogenetics of D2 dopamine receptor gene in prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD

Dopamine-agonists are the treatment of choice of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas (PRL-omas). Their actions on D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) and the clinical outcome may be affected by polymorphisms.

AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW

PRL-omas are well-differentiated endocrine tumors expressing DRD2. The dopamine-agonist cabergoline (CB), normalizes prolactin and reduces tumor size in about 80 - 90% of patients. DRD2 polymorphisms correlate with neuropsychiatric disorders, in particular alcoholism and schizophrenia. This review describes the DRD2 polymorphisms, their functional effects, and their impact on susceptibility and response to dopamine-agonists treatment. Searching PubMed database for pertinent articles we found that some DRD2 polymorphisms, particularly TaqIA, TaqIB and NcoI, are associated with different receptor binding in brain areas. One study carried out in patients with PRL-omas found a correlation between NcoI and TaqIA and resistance to CB. In particular, resistant patients had higher prevalence of NcoI-T allele than the responsive patients, while the commonest haplotype (having TaqIA2 allele) was associated with better response.

WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN

This review deals with the connection between DRD2 polymorphisms and PRL-oma treatment and suggests hypotheses for further studies.

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Only one study was carried out to analyze the role of DRD2 polymorphisms in PRLomas response to CB. Further studies, including pituitary and hypothalamus in vivo determination of DRD2 binding according to DRD2 genotypes, investigation of possible post-receptorial mechanisms involved, as well as population studies in collaboration with psychiatrists and neurologists, are needed.

Effect of the TaqIA polymorphism on ethanol response in the brain

Acute ethanol administration increases striatal dopamine release and decreases cerebral glucose metabolism. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 TaqIa polymorphism is associated with lower dopaminergic tone and greater risk for alcoholism, but the mechanisms are unclear. We hypothesized that ethanol would be more reinforcing in men with the A1 allele (A1+) than in men without it (A1-), as indicated by decreased anxiety and fatigue and altered activity in associated brain regions. In a pilot study, A1+ and A1- men (6/group) drank ethanol (0.75 ml/kg) or placebo beverages on each of 2 days. Positron emission tomography with [F-18]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) was used to assess regional cerebral glucose metabolism as a measure of relative brain activity while participants performed a vigilance task. Significant findings were as follows: Ethanol decreased anxiety and fatigue in A1+ men but increased them in A1- men. Ethanol increased activity in the striatum and insula of A1+ men, but reduced activity in the anterior cingulate of A1- men. Reduced anxiety and fatigue in A1+ men were significantly associated with greater activity within a right orbitofrontal region previously implicated in cognitive control, and less activity in structures associated with anxiety (amygdala), fatigue (thalamus), and craving/reinforcement (striatum). In contrast, anxiety and fatigue changes were unrelated to brain activity in A1- men. Although these results require replication in a larger sample, alcohol-induced negative reinforcement may explain the greater risk for alcoholism associated with the A1 allele.

DRD2 C32806T modifies the effect of child-rearing environment on adulthood novelty seeking

Preliminary evidence suggests that there may be longitudinal interactions between environmental and genetic factors in predicting Novelty seeking. We have previously found in small and selected subsample from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study, that an association between the polymorphism of dopamine receptor D4 was moderated by the childhood environment, as indexed by hostile maternal child-rearing. We wanted to replicate this finding in a population based sample of 1,114 men and women using another candidate gene of dopaminergic system, that is, the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2). The child-rearing environment of the participants was assessed by their mothers when the participants were children or adolescents, and adulthood Novelty seeking was self-rated by the participants 17 and 21 years later at the ages of 24-39. Genotyping of DRD2 C32806T (rs 1800497) was performed using TaqMan 5'nuclease assay. DRD2 was not directly associated with Novelty seeking, but there was a significant DRD2 x strict maternal disciplinary style interaction in predicting Novelty seeking (F = 7.08, P = 0.008). The interaction showed that when the child-rearing environment was punitive, participants carrying any A1 allele of the DRD2 gene had higher scores on Novelty seeking than carriers of the A2/A2 genotype. The genotype had no effect on Novelty seeking when the childhood environment was more favorable. The findings suggest that the DRD2 may have an environmentally moderated impact on Novelty seeking and that the origins of such an association may lie already in childhood.

Candidate genes for cannabis use disorders: findings, challenges and directions

AIM

Twin studies have shown that cannabis use disorders (abuse/dependence) are highly heritable. This review aims to: (i) review existing linkage studies of cannabis use disorders and (ii) review gene association studies, to identify potential candidate genes, including those that have been tested for composite substance use disorders and (iii) to highlight challenges in the genomic study of cannabis use disorders.

METHODS

Peer-reviewed linkage and candidate gene association studies are reviewed.

RESULTS

Four linkage studies are reviewed: results from these have homed in on regions on chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 9, 14, 17 and 18, which harbor candidates of predicted biological relevance, such as monoglyceride lipase (MGLL) on chromosome 3, but also novel genes, including ELTD1[epidermal growth factor (EGF), latrophilin and seven transmembrane domain containing 1] on chromosome 1. Gene association studies are presented for (a) genes posited to have specific influences on cannabis use disorders: CNR1, CB2, FAAH, MGLL, TRPV1 and GPR55 and (b) genes from various neurotransmitter systems that are likely to exert a non-specific influence on risk of cannabis use disorders, e.g. GABRA2, DRD2 and OPRM1.

CONCLUSIONS

There are challenges associated with (i) understanding biological complexity underlying cannabis use disorders (including the need to study gene-gene and gene-environment interactions), (ii) using diagnostic versus quantitative phenotypes, (iii) delineating which stage of cannabis involvement (e.g. use versus misuse) genes influence and (iv) problems of sample ascertainment.

The interaction of DRD2 and violent victimization on depression: an analysis by gender and race

BACKGROUND

Recent research has shown that a polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) moderates the association between stressful life events and depression. The present study builds off this literature and examines whether DRD2 moderates the effect of violent victimization on depression. Furthermore, the current analyses investigate whether the effects of DRD2 and violent victimization vary by gender and by race for females.

METHODS

Respondents from waves II and III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) completed questionnaires regarding their depressive symptoms and violent victimization experiences (n = 2380).

RESULTS

Multivariate regression results reveal that violent victimization has a strong independent effect on depressive symptoms for Caucasian females. In contrast, violent victimization is only associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms among African American females when they carry at least one A1 allele of DRD2. Results also show that DRD2 has a significant independent effect on depressive symptoms for males and African American females.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that African American females who carry the A1 allele of DRD2 may be more vulnerable to the negative effects of violent victimization than African American females who do not carry at least one copy of the A1 allele.

LIMITATIONS

The current study's findings may not generalize to clinical populations, adults, and individuals residing in other countries. In addition, the effects of DRD2 may reflect other polymorphisms that are in linkage with DRD2.

Association study of dopamine D2, D4 receptor gene, GABAA receptor beta subunit gene, serotonin transporter gene polymorphism with children of alcoholics in Korea: a preliminary study

The studies on the genetic risk factors of the children of alcoholics (COAs) are still in an early stage. The A1 allele of the dopamine receptor 2 gene (DRD2) may be associated with positive alcohol expectancy of the COAs. In addition, several researchers reported that the COAs might be associated with the GABA A receptor beta3 subunit gene (GABRB3) and serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR). In this study, we investigated the association of the polymorphism of the DRD2, Dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4), GABRB3, 5-HTTLPR with the COAs. Twenty-two COAs and 23 age and sex-matched control children were included for the genetic study (children of nonAlcoholics; nonCOAs). All COAs aged 6-18 were recruited and selected from family of alcoholic patients in Alcohol Clinic of the University hospital. The genotyping of the DRD2, DRD4, GABRB3, 5-HTTLPR was carried out. We used the Chi-square method for evaluating the association of genetic polymorphic allelic status with the COAs. The frequency of the A1+ allele at DRD2 in the COAs was significantly higher than nonCOAs. Significant association between the genotype at DRD4 and the COAs was found. The G1- alleles of the GABRB3 in COAs were significantly higher than nonCOAs. However, no association of the polymorphic alleles of the 5-HTTLPR with the COAs was found. We found that the children of alcoholics had a significantly increased number of risk alleles of candidate genes of alcohol drinking expectancy. Despite of several limitations, this study provides some preliminary information on the risk and protective factors associated with the COAs, which can be used as a foundation for prevention and intervention of future psychopathology.

Genetic variants in the DRD2 gene moderate the relationship between stressful life events and depressive symptoms in adults: cardiovascular risk in young Finns study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the potential moderating role of DRD2 polymorphism (rs1800497) in the association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms among young adults. Although stressful life events, such as divorce, unemployment, and serious illness in the family, are generally associated with negative health outcomes, including depressive symptoms, there are large individual differences in coping with such events. A number of studies suggest that variants in dopamine receptor genes, such as DRD2, are associated with depression but it is unclear if such variants also modify the association between life events and depression.

METHODS

We analyzed the prospective data on life events and depressive symptoms in 1992 and 2001 related to 1611 young adults (672 men and 939 women, aged 15-30 years at baseline) who participated in the ongoing population-based cardiovascular risk in young Finns study.

RESULTS

Occurrence of stressful life events was associated with increased risk of subsequent depressive symptoms in men and women. However, this association was seen only among those who carried A2/A2 (n = 872) genotype. No such association was detected in participants carrying A1/A1 or A1/A2 (n = 486) genotype.

CONCLUSION

DRD2 polymorphism moderates the effect of stressful life events on depressive symptoms and those who carry A2/A2 DRD2 genotypes may be more vulnerable than others.

Gender differences in associations between depressive symptoms and patterns of substance use and risky sexual behavior among a nationally representative sample of U.S. adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study uses a cluster analysis of adolescents, based on their substance use and sexual risk behaviors, to 1) examine associations between risk behavior patterns and depressive symptoms, stratified by gender, and 2) examine gender differences in risk for depression.

METHODS

Data are from a nationally representative survey of over 20,000 U.S. adolescents. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations between 16 risk behavior patterns and current depressive symptoms by gender.

RESULTS

Compared to abstention, involvement in common adolescent risk behaviors (drinking, smoking, and sexual intercourse) was associated with increased odds of depressive symptoms in both sexes. However, sex differences in depressive symptoms vary by risk behavior pattern. There were no differences in odds for depressive symptoms between abstaining male and female adolescents (OR = 1.07, 95% CI 0.70-1.62). There were also few sex differences in odds of depressive symptoms within the highest-risk behavior profiles. Among adolescents showing light and moderate risk behavior patterns, females experienced significantly more depressive symptoms than males.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents who engage in risk behaviors are at increased risk for depressive symptoms. Girls engaging in low and moderate substance use and sexual activity experience more depressive symptoms than boys with similar behavior. Screening for depression is indicated for female adolescents engaging in even experimental risk behaviors.

P300 development during adolescence: Effects of DRD2 genotype

OBJECTIVE

Young boys at high risk for alcoholism by having a family history of alcoholism (FH+) have lower amplitude of the visual P300 event-related scalp potential. They have also been reported to have a slowing in the rate of P300 amplitude change during adolescence. The present study examined whether the change in P300 amplitude during adolescence in sons of alcoholics and nonalcoholics is affected by D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2) polymorphism.

METHODS

P300 was elicited with a visual discrimination task from 71 adolescent sons of alcoholics and social drinkers (Time 1, T1). The task was readministered 2 years later (Time 2, T2). Comparisons were made between boys who had the DRD2 A1 allele (A1+) and boys who did not (A1-), and between boys with one or both parents being alcoholic (FH+) and boys having no alcoholic parents (FH-).

RESULTS

Discrimination task accuracy was lowest in the highest risk group (A1+, FH+) at T1, and highest in the lowest risk group (A1-, FH-) at T2, producing a significant interaction of allelic group x family history group x session. Reaction time was faster at T2 than T1, and this effect was larger in FH-boys (125 ms) than FH+boys (40 ms). Overall, the behavioral results suggest mild performance deficits on the discrimination task are associated with higher risk for alcoholism. In both testing sessions, P300 attained larger amplitudes in sons of nonalcoholics than sons of alcoholics. At T2 compared to T1, both the latency and amplitude of the P300 were decreased. However, while the developmental P300 latency effect was equivalent in both the A1+ and A1- allelic groups, the P300 amplitude reduction during adolescence, measured both in response to targets and in target minus non-target subtraction waveforms, was only found in boys with the A1- allele.

CONCLUSION

Differences in the developmental course of P300 amplitude over the course of adolescence are dependent on DRD2 polymorphism.

SIGNIFICANCE

These results suggest the importance of genetic determinants of the dopaminergic system in understanding the P300 as a risk marker for substance abuse using an integrative developmental perspective.

DRD2 genotypes and substance use in adolescent children of alcoholics

Research has identified children of alcoholics (COAs) as a population at increased risk for developing substance use problems. Genetic studies support the Al allele of the D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) as a risk marker for alcoholism and substance use disorders. In this study, substance use was assessed in 48 adolescent boys of alcoholics with the DRDR A1(+) allele (A1A1/A1A2 genotypes) or the A1(-) allele (A2A2 genotype). The results revealed that boys with the A1(+) allele tried (p=0.0001) and got intoxicated on alcohol more often (p=0.009) than boys with the A1(-) allele. Boys with the A1(+) allele tried more (p=0.004) and used more substances overall (p=0.008) than boys with the A1(-) allele. Boys with the A1(+) allele developed a tobacco habit more often (p=0.03) and experienced marijuana high at an earlier age (p=0.001) than boys with the A1(-) allele. The best predictors of substance use severity in boys with the A1(+) allele were Psychoticism (p=0.01) and Negative Affect (p=0.04). The results provide support for the DRD2 A1 allele as a marker identifying a subgroup of COAs at high risk for developing substance use problems.