Tailoring combinatorial lipid nanoparticles for intracellular delivery of nucleic acids, proteins, and drugs

Ionizable lipid nanoparticles with functionalized PEG-lipids increase retention in the tumor microenvironment

This study explores the efficacy of ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) modified with various functionalized polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lipids for retention within the tumor microenvironment after intratumoral (IT) injection. LNPs were synthesized and characterized with four different functionalized PEG-lipids, and the top performing lipids were evaluated under formulation conditions that varied the ratio of non-modified to functionalized PEG within the LNP. These LNPs were evaluated for size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, pKa, and mRNA encapsulation efficiency, with subsequent in vitro analysis of transfection and association efficiency to HepG2 liver cancer cells. Results demonstrated that LNPs formulated with PEG-folate and PEG-maleimide showed increased association to and interaction with cancer cells, compared with the base LNP formulation, which contained only non-functionalized lipid-PEG. In vivo studies showed increased retention of surface functionalized LNPs after IT injection in a xenograft model of hepatoblastoma. By slightly modifying LNPs in this manner, it is possible to develop delivery platforms that are better suited for local intratumoral administration. Ultimately, this research underscores the potential of LNPs as a vehicle for localized cancer therapy and emphasizes the need for future investigation into the long-term retention and therapeutic efficacy of LNP formulations.

Peptide-Based Strategies in PLGA-Enhanced Tumor Therapy

Peptide-based therapeutics have gained attention in cancer treatment because of their good specificity, low toxicity, and ability to modulate immune responses. However, challenges such as enzymatic degradation and poor bioavailability limit their clinical application. Peptide-functionalized poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) systems have emerged as a transformative platform in cancer therapy that offers unique advantages, including enhanced stability, sustained release, and precise delivery of therapeutic agents. This review highlights the synergistic integration of peptides with PLGA and addresses key challenges of peptide-based therapeutics. The application of peptide-functionalized PLGA systems encompasses a diverse range of strategies for cancer therapy. In chemotherapy, peptides disrupt critical tumor pathways, induce apoptosis, and inhibit angiogenesis, demonstrating their versatility in targeting various aspects of tumor progression. In immunotherapy, peptides act as antigens to stimulate robust immune responses or as immune checkpoint inhibitors to restore T cell activity, overcoming tumor immune evasion. These systems also harness the enhanced permeability and retention effect, facilitating preferential accumulation in tumor tissues while leveraging tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive mechanisms, such as pH-sensitive or enzyme-triggered drug release, to achieve controlled, localized delivery. Collectively, peptide-functionalized PLGA systems represent a promising, versatile approach for precise cancer therapy that integrates innovative delivery strategies with highly specific, potent therapeutic agents.

Efficient Direct Cytosolic Protein Delivery via Protein-Linker Co-engineering

Protein therapeutics have enormous potential for transforming the treatment of intracellular cell disorders, such as genetic disorders and cancers. Due to proteins' cell-membrane impermeability, protein-based drugs against intracellular targets require efficient cytosolic delivery strategies; however, none of the current approaches are optimal. Here, we present a simple approach to render proteins membrane-permeable. We use arginine-mimicking ligand N,N'-dimethyl-1,3-propanediamine (DMPA) to functionalize the surface of a few representative proteins, varying in isoelectric point and molecular weight. We show that when these proteins have a sufficient number of these ligands on their surface, they acquire the property of penetrating the cell cytosol. Uptake experiments at 37 and 4 °C indicate that one of the penetration pathways is energy independent, with no evidence of pore formation, with inhibition assays indicating the presence of other uptake pathways. Functional tests demonstrate that the modified proteins maintain their main cellular function; specifically, modified ovalbumin (OVA) leads to enhanced antigen presentation and modified cytochrome C (Cyto C) leads to enhanced cell apoptosis. We modified bovine serum albumin (BSA) with ligands featuring different hydrophobicity and end group charges and showed that, to confer cytosolic penetration, the ligands must be cationic and that some hydrophobic content improves the penetration efficiency. This study provides a simple strategy for efficiently delivering proteins directly to the cell cytosol and offers important insights into the design and development of arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide mimetic small molecules for protein transduction.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-based brain-targeted delivery systems for glioblastoma therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) poses a formidable challenge because of its high morbidity and mortality. The therapeutic efficacy of GBM is significantly hampered by the intricate blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB). Nanomaterial-based brain-targeted delivery systems have shown great potential for effectively delivering therapeutic agents for GBM treatment by overcoming the limitations of conventional drugs, such as poor BBB penetration, a short half-life, and low bioavailability. This review focuses on an in-depth analysis of the interplay between the BBB/BBTB and drug transport kinetics while analyzing innovative nanoparticle-mediated strategies for enhanced GBM treatment. Moreover, the delivery strategies of nanoparticle-based brain-targeted systems are emphasized, with particular attention given to biomimetic nanoparticles (BMNPs), whose unique advantages. The current challenges, translational potential, and future research directions in this rapidly evolving field are comprehensively discussed, highlighting advances in nanomaterial applications. This review aims to stimulate further research into GBM delivery systems, offering promising avenues for maximizing the therapeutic effects of gene drugs or chemotherapeutic agents in practical applications.

Lipid nanoformulations as a platform for antihypertensive applications of a ruthenium nitrosyl compound

Nitric oxide (NO) and derivatives play key roles in immunomodulation and blood pressure regulation. Nitrosyl ruthenium complexes are studied as vasorelaxant agents with potential applications in cardiovascular and parasitic diseases. Lipid nanoemulsions enhance their stability and bioavailability. Nanoemulsions were prepared using Pluronic F-127 or Tween 80 as surfactants and oleic acid in the oil phase, incorporating the complex cis-[Ru(bpy)2(SO3)(NO)](PF6) (RuNO). Two optimized formulations were selected: NanoPluNO (Dh = 235.0 nm, PdI = 0.094, ζ = -24.7 mV) and NanoTwNO (Dh = 163.0 nm, PdI = 0.138, ζ = -33.5 mV), both stable for at least 90 days. The nitrosyl complex exhibited prolonged release following the Peppas-Sahlin model, suggesting anomalous mass transport. HSA studies indicated protein conformational changes, possibly linked to protein corona formation. NanoTwNO demonstrated superior vasorelaxant efficacy over free RuNO in isolated aorta from hypertensive (SHR) versus normotensive (WKY) rats. In vivo, NanoTwNO induced significant dose-dependent hypotension (0.06-1.8 mg/kg) in SHR rats, whereas RuNO had only a mild effect. These findings highlight the enhanced therapeutic potential of nanoemulsified RuNO.

Optimization of Lipid Nanoparticles with Robust Efficiency for the Delivery of Protein Therapeutics to Augment Cancer Immunotherapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been successful in delivering nucleic acids like siRNA and mRNA, but face challenges in protein delivery due to limited protein encapsulation and endosome escape. In this study, a family of LNPs is developed with robust high efficiency in addressing the multiple barriers in cytosolic protein delivery by incorporating clinically approved ionizable lipids into traditional cationic LNPs. The combination of cationic and ionizable lipids enables efficient protein binding and endosomal escape. Optimized LNPs efficiently deliver various proteins, including antibodies, enzymes, toxins, and Cas9 into living cells with reserved functions. Moreover, the designed LNPs show high serum stability during protein delivery, and the serum albumin adsorbed on LNPs facilitates protein delivery via albumin receptor-mediated endocytosis, enabling highly efficient protein delivery in vivo. The optimized LNPs successfully deliver therapeutic proteins such as saporin and interleukin-10 (IL-10) to inhibit tumor growth in several animal models. The IL-10 loaded LNPs enhanced the proliferation and cytotoxicity of T cells and improved the antitumor effect of adoptive transferred OT-1 CD8+ T cells to melanoma. This study expands the applications of LNPs for the delivery of biomacromolecules, and the developed LNP formulations have enormous potential for the delivery of protein therapeutics to treat various diseases.

Process development of tangential flow filtration and sterile filtration for manufacturing of mRNA-lipid nanoparticles: A study on membrane performance and filtration modeling

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the most studied delivery systems for mRNA therapeutics and have gained importance in both industry and academia following the approval of multiple mRNA-LNP-based vaccines since 2021. The COVID-19 pandemic proved the remarkable efficacy and rapid deployment of mRNA-LNP vaccines, reinforcing their potential for broader therapeutic and vaccine applications. Currently, multiple mRNA-LNPs are in various stages of preclinical and clinical development. LNPs are sensitive to the manufacturing process, and to mitigate the risks associated with bringing an mRNA-LNP from benchtop to industrial scale, it is recommended to have a systematic process development approach, including mathematical modeling and statistical analysis. Among the unit operations required for mRNA-LNP manufacturing, concentration and buffer exchange by tangential flow filtration (TFF), as well as sterile filtration, are challenging and must be optimized to guarantee process scalability and product quality, while avoiding issues such as membrane fouling and incorrect filter capacity. This study investigates the optimization of TFF and sterile filtration parameters to manufacture higher concentration mRNA-LNPs necessary for cancer vaccines, particularly personalized cancer vaccines. Various flat-sheet TFF cartridges were tested under different process parameters, including flow rate and transmembrane pressure (TMP), to identify the most effective process conditions. Furthermore, the sterile filtration of mRNA-LNPs was analyzed using the gradual plugging model, providing insights into improving filter capacity, optimizing filtration pressures, and defining the design space for large-scale manufacturing. These findings contribute to the development of a robust and scalable mRNA-LNP manufacturing process ensuring product quality.

Current and Near-Future Technologies to Quantify Nanoparticle Therapeutic Loading Efficiency and Surface Coating Efficiency with Targeted Moieties

Active targeting nanoparticles are a new generation of drug and gene delivery systems with the potential for greatly improved therapeutics delivery compared to conventional nanomedicine approaches. Despite their potential, the translation of active targeting nanoparticles faces challenges in production scale-up and batch consistency. Accurate quality control methods for nanoparticle therapeutic payload and coating characterization are critical for attaining the desired levels of batch repeatability, drug/gene loading efficiency, targeting molecule coating effectiveness, and safety profiles. Current limitations in nanoparticle characterization technologies, such as relying on ensemble-average analysis, pose challenges in assessing the drug/gene content and surface modification heterogeneity, which can greatly affect therapeutic outcomes. Single-molecule analysis technologies have emerged as a promising alternative, offering rich information on heterogeneity and stochastic variations between nanoparticle batches. This review first evaluates and identifies the challenges of traditional nanoparticle characterization tools that rely on indirect, bulk solution quantification methods. Subsequently, newly emerging characterization technologies are introduced for the quantification of therapeutic loading and targeted moiety coating efficiencies with single-nanoparticle resolution, to help guide researchers towards advancing the translation of active targeting nanoparticles into the clinical setting.

Strategies to Enhance Protein Delivery

Therapeutic proteins play a crucial role in modern healthcare. However, the rapid clearance of proteins in the circulation system poses a significant threat to their therapeutic efficacy. The generation of anti-drug antibodies expedites drug clearance, resulting in another challenge to overcome in protein delivery. Several methods to increase the circulation half-lives of these proteins and to minimize their immunogenicity have been developed. This Review discusses the causes of protein clearance in the body, evaluates the FDA-approved strategies to prolong protein circulation, and highlights recent progress in the field. Additionally, the strengths and drawbacks of these methods and our perspectives for advancing protein delivery are provided.

Enhancing non-viral DNA delivery systems: Recent advances in improving efficiency and target specificity

DNA-based therapies are often limited by challenges such as stability, long-term integration, low transfection efficiency, and insufficient targeted DNA delivery. This review focuses on recent progress in the design of non-viral delivery systems for enhancing targeted DNA delivery and modulation of therapeutic efficiency. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking mechanisms play a crucial role in optimizing gene delivery efficiency. There are two main strategies employed to improve the efficiency of gene delivery vectors: (i) explore different administration routes (e.g., mucosal, intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intradermal, intratumoural, and intraocular) that best facilitates optimal uptake into the targeted cells and organs and (ii) modify the delivery vectors with cell-specific ligands (e.g., natural ligands, antibodies, peptides, carbohydrates, or aptamers) that enable targeted uptake to specific cells with higher specificity and improved biodistribution. We describe how recent progress in employing these DNA delivery strategies is advancing the field and increasing the clinical translation and ultimate clinical application of DNA therapies.

Influencing inter-cellular junctions with nanomaterials

Cell-cell junctions are essential for maintaining tissue integrity and regulating a wide range of physiological processes. While the disruption of intercellular junctions may lead to pathological conditions, it also presents an opportunity for therapeutic interventions. Nanomaterials have emerged as promising tools for modulating cell-cell junctions, offering new avenues for innovative treatments. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the various nanomaterials interaction with cell-cell junctions. We discussed their underlying mechanisms, heterogenous effects on cellular behavior, and the therapeutic strategies of applying nanomaterial-induced intercellular junction disruption. Additionally, we address the challenges and opportunities involved in translating these strategies into clinical practice and discuss future directions for this rapidly advancing field.

Nonviral targeted mRNA delivery: principles, progresses, and challenges

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapeutics have garnered considerable attention due to their remarkable efficacy in the treatment of various diseases. The COVID-19 mRNA vaccine and RSV mRNA vaccine have been approved on the market. Due to the inherent nuclease-instability and negative charge of mRNA, delivery systems are developed to protect the mRNA from degradation and facilitate its crossing cell membrane to express functional proteins or peptides in the cytoplasm. However, the deficiency in transfection efficiency and targeted biological distribution are still the major challenges for the mRNA delivery systems. In this review, we first described the physiological barriers in the process of mRNA delivery and then discussed the design approach and recent advances in mRNA delivery systems with an emphasis on their tissue/cell-targeted abilities. Finally, we pointed out the existing challenges and future directions with deep insights into the design of efficient mRNA delivery systems. We believe that a high-precision targeted delivery system can greatly improve the therapeutic effects and bio-safety of mRNA therapeutics and accelerate their clinical transformations. This review may provide a new direction for the design of mRNA delivery systems and serve as a useful guide for researchers who are looking for a suitable mRNA delivery system.

Enhancing Cytoplasmic Expression of Exogenous mRNA Through Dynamic Mechanical Stimulation

Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are pivotal in combating COVID-19, and numerous preclinical and clinical studies have highlighted their potential in nucleic acid-based therapies and vaccines. However, the effectiveness of endosomal escape for the nucleic acid cargos encapsulated in LNPs is still low, leading to suboptimal treatment outcomes and side effects. Hence, improving endosomal escape is crucial for enhancing the efficacy of nucleic acid delivery using LNPs. Here, a mechanical oscillation (frequency: 65 Hz) is utilized to prompt the LNP-mediated endosomal escape. The results reveal this mechanical oscillation can induce the combination and fusion between LNPs with opposite surface charges, enhance endosomal escape of mRNA, and increase the transfection efficiency of mRNA. Additionally, cell viability remains high at 99.3% after treatment with oscillation, which is comparable to that of untreated cells. Furthermore, there is no obvious damage to mitochondrial membrane potential and Golgi apparatus integrity. Thus, this work presents a user-friendly and safe approach to enhancing endosomal escape of mRNA and boosting gene expression. As a result, this work can be potentially utilized in both research and clinical fields to facilitate LNP-based delivery by enabling more effective release of LNP-encapsulated cargos from endosomes.

Targeting noncoding RNAs to treat atherosclerosis

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are pivotal for various pathological processes, impacting disease progression. The potential for leveraging ncRNAs to prevent or treat atherosclerosis and associated cardiovascular diseases is of great significance, especially given the increasing prevalence of atherosclerosis in an ageing and sedentary population. Together, these diseases impose a substantial socio-economic burden, demanding innovative therapeutic solutions. This review explores the potential of ncRNAs in atherosclerosis treatment. We commence by examining approaches for identifying and characterizing atherosclerosis-associated ncRNAs. We then delve into the functional aspects of ncRNAs in atherosclerosis development and progression. Additionally, we review current RNA and RNA-targeting molecules in development or under approval for clinical use, offering insights into their pharmacological potential. The importance of improved ncRNA delivery strategies is highlighted. Finally, we suggest avenues for advanced research to accelerate the use of ncRNAs in treating atherosclerosis and mitigating its societal impact. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue Non-coding RNA Therapeutics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v182.2/issuetoc.

Formulation strategies, preparation methods, and devices for pulmonary delivery of biologics

Biological products, including vaccines, blood components, and recombinant therapeutic proteins, are derived from natural sources such as humans, animals, or microorganisms and are typically produced using advanced biotechnological methods. The success of biologics, particularly monoclonal antibodies, can be attributed to their favorable safety profiles and target specificity. However, their large molecular size presents significant challenges in drug delivery, particularly in overcoming biological barriers. Pulmonary delivery has emerged as a promising route for administering biologics, offering non-invasive delivery with rapid absorption, high systemic bioavailability, and avoidance of first-pass metabolism. This review first details the anatomy and physiological barriers of the respiratory tract and the associated challenges of pulmonary drug delivery (PDD). It further discusses innovations in PDD, the impact of particle size on drug deposition, and the use of secondary particles, such as nanoparticles, to enhance bioavailability and targeting. The review also explains various devices used for PDD, including dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and nebulizers, highlighting their advantages and limitations in delivering biologics. The role of excipients in improving the stability and performance of inhalation products is also addressed. Since dry powders are considered the suitable format for delivering biomolecules, particular emphasis is placed on the excipients used in DPI development. The final section of the article reviews and compares various dry powder manufacturing methods, clarifying their clinical relevance and potential for future applications in the field of inhalable drug formulation.

Innovative lipid nanoparticles: A cutting-edge approach for potential renal cell carcinoma therapeutics

The kidney plays a crucial role in regulating homeostasis within the human body. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common form of kidney cancer, accounting for nearly 90 % of all renal malignancies. Despite the availability of various therapeutic strategies, RCC remains a challenging disease due to its resistance to conventional treatments. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising field, offering new opportunities in cancer therapeutics. It presents several advantages over traditional methods, enabling diverse biomedical applications, including drug delivery, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), approximately 100 nm in size, are derived from a range of lipids and other biochemical compounds. these particulates are designed to overcome biological barriers, allowing them to selectively accumulate at diseased target sites for effective therapeutic action. Many pharmaceutically important compounds face challenges such as poor solubility in aqueous solutions, chemical and physiological instability, or toxicity. LNP technology stands out as a promising drug delivery system for bioactive organic compounds. This article reviews the applications of LNPs in RCC treatment and explores their potential clinical translation, identifying the most viable LNPs for medical use. With ongoing advancement in LNP-based anticancer strategies, there is a growing potential to improve the management and treatment of renal cancer.

Enhancing RNA-lipid nanoparticle delivery: Organ- and cell-specificity and barcoding strategies

Recent advancements in RNA therapeutics highlight the critical need for precision gene delivery systems that target specific organs and cells. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as key vectors in delivering mRNA and siRNA, offering protection against enzymatic degradation, enabling targeted delivery and cellular uptake, and facilitating RNA cargo release into the cytosol. This review discusses the development and optimization of organ- and cell-specific LNPs, focusing on their design, mechanisms of action, and therapeutic applications. We explore innovations such as DNA/RNA barcoding, which facilitates high-throughput screening and precise adjustments in formulations. We address major challenges, including improving endosomal escape, minimizing off-target effects, and enhancing delivery efficiencies. Notable clinical trials and recent FDA approvals illustrate the practical applications and future potential of LNP-based RNA therapies. Our findings suggest that while considerable progress has been made, continued research is essential to resolve existing limitations and bridge the gap between preclinical and clinical evaluation of the safety and efficacy of RNA therapeutics. This review highlights the dynamic progress in LNP research. It outlines a roadmap for future advancements in RNA-based precision medicine.

Enhancing Cytoplasmic Expression of Exogenous mRNA through Dynamic Mechanical Stimulation

Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been pivotal in combating COVID-19, and numerous preclinical and clinical studies have highlighted their potential in nucleic acid-based therapies and vaccines. However, the effectiveness of endosomal escape for the nucleic acid cargos encapsulated in LNPs is still low, leading to suboptimal treatment outcomes and side effects. Hence, improving endosomal escape is crucial for enhancing the efficacy of nucleic acid delivery using LNPs. Here, a mechanical oscillation (frequency: 65 Hz) is utilized to prompt the LNP-mediated endosomal escape. The results reveal this mechanical oscillation can induce the combination and fusion between LNPs with opposite surface charges, enhance endosomal escape of mRNA, and increase the transfection efficiency of mRNA. Additionally, cell viability remains high at 99.3% after treatment with oscillation, which is comparable to that of untreated cells. Furthermore, there is no obvious damage to mitochondrial membrane potential and Golgi apparatus integrity. Thus, this work presents a user-friendly and safe approach to enhancing endosomal escape of mRNA and boosting gene expression. As a result, our work can be potentially utilized in both research and clinical fields to facilitate LNP-based delivery by enabling more effective release of LNP-encapsulated cargos from endosomes.

Lipid nanoparticles for enhancing oral bioavailability

In recent studies, lipid nanoparticles have attracted attention as drug delivery systems owing to their preeminent potential in achieving the desired bioavailability of biopharmaceutics (BCS) class II and class IV drugs. The current debate concerns the bioavailability of these poorly absorbed drugs with their simultaneous oral degradation. Lipid nanoparticles, including solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), are lipid-based carrier systems that can effectively encapsulate both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs, offering versatile drug delivery systems. The unique properties of lipids (biodegradability and biocompatibility) and their transportation pathways enhance the biological availability of drugs. These particles can increase the gastrointestinal absorption and solubilization of minimally bioavailable drugs via a selective lymphatic pathway. This review mainly focuses on providing a brief update on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) that synergistically increase the bioavailability of limited permeable drugs and highlight the transversal mechanisms of LNPs across the gastrointestinal hurdles, transmembrane absorption, transport kinetics, and computational tools. Finally, the present hurdles and future perspectives of LNPs for oral drug delivery systems are discussed.

Protein is expressed in all major organs after intravenous infusion of mRNA-lipid nanoparticles in swine

In vivo delivery of mRNA is promising for the study of gene expression and the treatment of diseases. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) enable efficient delivery of mRNA constructs, but protein expression has been assumed to be limited to the liver. With specialized LNPs, delivery to extrahepatic tissue occurs in small animal models; however, it is unclear if global delivery of mRNA to all major organs is possible in humans because delivery may be affected by differences in innate immune response and relative organ size. Furthermore, limited studies with LNPs have been performed in large animal models, such as swine, due to their sensitivity to complement activation-related pseudoallergy (CARPA). In this study, we found that exogenous protein expression occurred in all major organs when swine were injected intravenously with a relatively low dose of mRNA encapsulated in a clinically relevant LNP formulation. Exogenous protein was detected in the liver, spleen, lung, heart, uterus, colon, stomach, kidney, small intestine, and brain of the swine without inducing CARPA. Furthermore, protein expression was detected in the bone marrow, including megakaryocytes, hematopoietic stem cells, and granulocytes, and in circulating white blood cells and platelets. These results show that nearly all major organs contain exogenous protein expression and are viable targets for mRNA therapies.

Intranasal Delivery of circATF7IP siRNA via Lipid Nanoparticles Alleviates LPS-induced Depressive-Like Behaviors

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent mental disorder that significantly impacts social and psychological function, but no effective medication is currently available. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been reported to participate in the pathogenesis of MDD which are envisioned as promising therapeutic targets. However, nonviral-based delivery strategies targeting circRNA against MDD are not thoroughly investigated. Here, it is identified that circATF7IP is significantly upregulated in plasma samples and positively correlated with 24-Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD-24) scores of MDD patients. Synergistic amine lipid nanoparticles (SALNPs) are designed to deliver siRNA targeting circATF7IP (si-circATF7IP) into the hippocampus brain region by intranasal administration. Intranasal delivery of SALNP-si-circATF7IP successfully alleviated the depressive-like behaviors in the LPS-induced mouse depression model via decreasing CD11b+CD45dim microglia population and pro-inflammatory cytokine productions (TNF-α and IL-6). These results indicate that the level of circATF7IP positively correlates with MDD pathogenesis, and SALNP delivery of si-circATF7IP via intranasal administration is an effective strategy to ameliorate LPS-induced depressive-like behaviors.

Lipid nanoparticle (LNP) mediated mRNA delivery in cardiovascular diseases: Advances in genome editing and CAR T cell therapy

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of global mortality among non-communicable diseases. Current cardiac regeneration treatments have limitations and may lead to adverse reactions. Hence, innovative technologies are needed to address these shortcomings. Messenger RNA (mRNA) emerges as a promising therapeutic agent due to its versatility in encoding therapeutic proteins and targeting "undruggable" conditions. It offers low toxicity, high transfection efficiency, and controlled protein production without genome insertion or mutagenesis risk. However, mRNA faces challenges such as immunogenicity, instability, and difficulty in cellular entry and endosomal escape, hindering its clinical application. To overcome these hurdles, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), notably used in COVID-19 vaccines, have a great potential to deliver mRNA therapeutics for CVDs. This review highlights recent progress in mRNA-LNP therapies for CVDs, including Myocardial Infarction (MI), Heart Failure (HF), and hypercholesterolemia. In addition, LNP-mediated mRNA delivery for CAR T-cell therapy and CRISPR/Cas genome editing in CVDs and the related clinical trials are explored. To enhance the efficiency, safety, and clinical translation of mRNA-LNPs, advanced technologies like artificial intelligence (AGILE platform) in RNA structure design, and optimization of LNP formulation could be integrated. We conclude that the strategies to facilitate the extra-hepatic delivery and targeted organ tropism of mRNA-LNPs (SORT, ASSET, SMRT, and barcoded LNPs) hold great prospects to accelerate the development and translation of mRNA-LNPs in CVD treatment.

Lung-Specific mRNA Delivery Enabled by Sulfonium Lipid Nanoparticles

Among various mRNA carrier systems, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) stand out as the most clinically advanced. While current clinical trials of mRNA/LNP therapeutics mainly address liver diseases, the potential of mRNA therapy extends far beyond─yet to be unraveled. To fully unlock the promises of mRNA therapy, there is an urgent need to develop safe and effective LNP systems that can target extrahepatic organs. Here, we report on the development of sulfonium lipid nanoparticles (sLNPs) for systemic mRNA delivery to the lungs. sLNP effectively and specifically delivered mRNA to the lungs following intravenous administration in mice. No evidence of lung and systemic inflammation or toxicity in major organs was induced by sLNP. Our findings demonstrated that the newly developed lung-specific sLNP platform is both safe and efficacious. It holds great promise for advancing the development of new mRNA-based therapies for the treatment of lung-associated diseases and conditions.

Lipid nanoparticle mediated small interfering RNA delivery as a potential therapy for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative condition that exhibits a gradual decline in cognitive function and is prevalent among a significant number of individuals globally. The use of small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules in RNA interference (RNAi) presents a promising therapeutic strategy for AD. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been developed as a delivery vehicle for siRNA, which can selectively suppress target genes, by enhancing cellular uptake and safeguarding siRNA from degradation. Numerous research studies have exhibited the effectiveness of LNP-mediated siRNA delivery in reducing amyloid beta (Aβ) levels and enhancing cognitive function in animal models of AD. The feasibility of employing LNP-mediated siRNA delivery as a therapeutic approach for AD is emphasized by the encouraging outcomes reported in clinical studies for other medical conditions. The use of LNP-mediated siRNA delivery has emerged as a promising strategy to slow down or even reverse the progression of AD by targeting the synthesis of tau phosphorylation and other genes linked to the condition. Improvement of the delivery mechanism and determination of the most suitable siRNA targets are crucial for the efficacious management of AD. This review focuses on the delivery of siRNA through LNPs as a promising therapeutic strategy for AD, based on the available literature.

Injectable long-acting formulations (ILAFs) and manufacturing techniques

INTRODUCTION

Most therapeutics delivered using short-acting formulations need repeated administration, which can harm patient compliance and raise failure risks related to inconsistent treatment. Injectable long-acting formulations (ILAFs) are controlled/sustained-release formulations fabricated to deliver active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and extend their half-life over days to months. Longer half-lives of ILAFs minimize the necessity for frequent doses, increase patient compliance, and reduce the risk of side effects from intravenous (IV) infusions. Using ILAF technologies, the immediate drug release can also be controlled, thereby minimizing potential adverse effects due to high initial drug blood concentrations.

AREA COVERED

In this review, we have discussed various ILAFs, their physiochemical properties, fabrication technologies, advantages, and practical issues, as well as address some major challenges in their application. Especially, the approved ILAFs are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

ILAFs are sustained-release formulations with extended activity, which can improve patient compliance. ILAFs are designed to deliver APIs like proteins and peptides and extend their half-life over days to months. The specific properties of each ILAF preparation, such as extended-release and improved drug targeting capabilities, make them an effective approach for precise and focused therapy. Furthermore, this is especially helpful for biopharmaceuticals with short biological half-lives and low stability since most environmental conditions can protect them from sustained-release delivery methods.

Biodynamer Nano-Complexes and -Emulsions for Peptide and Protein Drug Delivery

Background

Therapeutic proteins and peptides offer great advantages compared to traditional synthetic molecular drugs. However, stable protein loading and precise control of protein release pose significant challenges due to the extensive range of physicochemical properties inherent to proteins. The development of a comprehensive protein delivery strategy becomes imperative accounting for the diverse nature of therapeutic proteins.

Methods

Biodynamers are amphiphilic proteoid dynamic polymers consisting of amino acid derivatives connected through pH-responsive dynamic covalent chemistry. Taking advantage of the amphiphilic nature of the biodynamers, PNCs and DEs were possible to be prepared and investigated to compare the delivery efficiency in drug loading, stability, and cell uptake.

Results

As a result, the optimized PNCs showed 3-fold encapsulation (<90%) and 5-fold loading capacity (30%) compared to DE-NPs. PNCs enhanced the delivery efficiency into the cells but aggregated easily on the cell membrane due to the limited stability. Although DE-NPs were limited in loading capacity compared to PNCs, they exhibit superior adaptability in stability and capacity for delivering a wider range of proteins compared to PNCs.

Conclusion

Our study highlights the potential of formulating both PNCs and DE-NPs using the same biodynamers, providing a comparative view on protein delivery efficacy using formulation methods.

Topical gene editing therapeutics using lipid nanoparticles: 'gene creams' for genetic skin diseases?

Patients living with inherited skin diseases have benefited from recent advances in DNA sequencing technologies that provide new or improved diagnostics. However, developing and delivering new treatments for the 'genodermatoses' remains challenging. The goal of creating topical preparations that can recover the inherent gene pathology remains largely aspirational. However, recent progress in two fields - the chemistry of topical delivery formulations (lipid nanoparticles) and the molecular biology of gene repair (CRISPR-Cas9, base and prime editing) - presents new opportunities to address this unmet need. In this review, we discuss how lipid nanoparticle delivery vehicles could be used to deliver gene-editing tools to formulate topical 'gene creams' suitable for the treatment of genodermatoses. We summarize the historical landscape of topical therapeutics and advances in gene editing that may herald an era of new therapies for patients with inherited skin disorders.

Nano-formulated delivery of active ingredients from traditional Chinese herbal medicines for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has garnered promise in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis through establishing durable and memorable immunological activity. However, low response rates, adverse side effects, and high costs compromise the additional benefits for patients treated with current chemical and biological agents. Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) are a potential treasure trove of natural medicines and are gaining momentum in cancer immunomodulation with multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway characteristics. The active ingredient extracted from CHMs benefit generalized patients through modulating immune response mechanisms. Additionally, the introduction of nanotechnology has greatly improved the pharmacological qualities of active ingredients through increasing the hydrophilicity, stability, permeability, and targeting characteristics, further enhancing anti-cancer immunity. In this review, we summarize the mechanism of active ingredients for cancer immunomodulation, highlight nano-formulated deliveries of active ingredients for cancer immunotherapy, and provide insights into the future applications in the emerging field of nano-formulated active ingredients of CHMs.

Which Lipid Nanoparticle (LNP) Designs Work? A Simple Kinetic Model Linking LNP Chemical Structure to In Vivo Delivery Performance

Although lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the predominant nanocarriers for short-interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery, most therapies use nearly identical formulations that have taken 30 years to design but lack the diverse property ranges necessary for versatile application. This dearth in variety and the extended timeline for implementation are attributed to a limited understanding of how LNP properties facilitate overcoming biological barriers. Herein, a simple kinetic model was developed by using major rate-limiting steps for siRNA delivery, and this model enabled the identification of a critical parameter to predict LNP efficacy without extensive experimental testing. A volume-averaged log D, the "solubility" of charged molecules as a function of pH weighted by component volume fractions, resulted in a good correlation between LNP composition and siRNA delivery. Both the effects of modifying the structures of ionizable lipids and LNP composition on gene silencing were easily captured in the model predictions. Thus, this approach provides a robust LNP structure-activity relationship to dramatically accelerate the realization of effective LNP formulations.

Development of plug-and-deliverable intracellular protein delivery platforms based on botulinum neurotoxin

Intracellular protein delivery systems have great potential in the fields of therapeutics development and biomedical research. However, targeted delivery, passing through the cell membrane without damaging the cells, and escaping from endosomal entrapment of endocytosed molecular cargos are major challenges of the system. Here, we present a novel intracellular protein delivery system based on modularly engineered botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A). LHNA domain, consisting of light chain and endosomal escape machinery of BoNT/A, was genetically fused with SpyCatcher (SC) and EGFR targeting affibody (EGFRAfb) to create SC-LHNA-EGFRAfb, a target-specific and protein cargo-switchable BoNT/A-based intracellular protein delivery platform. SC-LHNA-EGFRAfb was purely purified in large quantities, efficiently ligated with multiple ST-fused protein cargos individually, generating a variety of protein cargo-containing intracellular delivery complexes, and successfully delivered ligated protein cargos into the cytosol of target cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis, followed by endosomal escape and subsequent cytosolic delivery. SC-LHNA-EGFRAfb enhanced intracellular delivery efficiency of protein toxin, gelonin, by approximately 100-fold, highlighting the crucial roles of EGFRAfb and LHNA domain as a targeting ligand and an endosomal escape machinery, respectively, in the delivery process. The BoNT-based plug-and-deliverable intracellular protein delivery system has the potential to expand its applications in protein therapeutics and manipulating cellular processes.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Inhalable dry powders of microRNA-laden extracellular vesicles prepared by thin-film freeze-drying

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are endogenous vesicles that comprise a variety of submicron vesicular structures. Among these, exosomes have been widely investigated as delivery systems for small and large molecules. Herein, the thin-film freeze-drying technology was utilized to engineer aerosolizable dry powders of miR-335-laden induced EVs (iEV-335) generated in B cells for potential delivery into the lung to treat primary lung cancer and/or pulmonary metastases. The size distribution, structure, and morphology of iEV-335 were preserved after they were subjected to thin-film freeze-drying with the proper excipients. Importantly, iEV-335, in liquid or reconstituted from thin-film freeze-dried powders, were equally effective in downregulating SOX4 gene expression in LM2 human triple-negative mammary cancer cells. The iEV-335 dry powder compositions showed mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMAD) of around 1.2 µm with > 60 % of the emitted doses had an MMAD of ≤ 3 µm, indicating that the powders can potentially achieve efficient deposition within the alveolar region following oral inhalation, which is desirable for treatment of primary lung cancer and pulmonary metastases. Overall, it is concluded that it is feasible to apply thin-film freeze-drying to prepare aerosolizable dry powders of iEVs for pulmonary delivery.

Immunostimulatory gene therapy combined with checkpoint blockade reshapes tumor microenvironment and enhances ovarian cancer immunotherapy

Immune evasion has made ovarian cancer notorious for its refractory features, making the development of immunotherapy highly appealing to ovarian cancer treatment. The immune-stimulating cytokine IL-12 exhibits excellent antitumor activities. However, IL-12 can induce IFN-γ release and subsequently upregulate PDL-1 expression on tumor cells. Therefore, the tumor-targeting folate-modified delivery system F-DPC is constructed for concurrent delivery of IL-12 encoding gene and small molecular PDL-1 inhibitor (iPDL-1) to reduce immune escape and boost anti-tumor immunity. The physicochemical characteristics, gene transfection efficiency of the F-DPC nanoparticles in ovarian cancer cells are analyzed. The immune-modulation effects of combination therapy on different immune cells are also studied. Results show that compared with non-folate-modified vector, folate-modified F-DPC can improve the targeting of ovarian cancer and enhance the transfection efficiency of pIL-12. The underlying anti-tumor mechanisms include the regulation of T cells proliferation and activation, NK activation, macrophage polarization and DC maturation. The F-DPC/pIL-12/iPDL-1 complexes have shown outstanding antitumor effects and low toxicity in peritoneal model of ovarian cancer in mice. Taken together, our work provides new insights into ovarian cancer immunotherapy. Novel F-DPC/pIL-12/iPDL-1 complexes are revealed to exert prominent anti-tumor effect by modulating tumor immune microenvironment and preventing immune escape and might be a promising treatment option for ovarian cancer treatment.

Lipid nanovehicles overcome barriers to systemic RNA delivery: Lipid components, fabrication methods, and rational design

Lipid nanovehicles are currently the most advanced vehicles used for RNA delivery, as demonstrated by the approval of patisiran for amyloidosis therapy in 2018. To illuminate the unique superiority of lipid nanovehicles in RNA delivery, in this review, we first introduce various RNA therapeutics, describe systemic delivery barriers, and explain the lipid components and methods used for lipid nanovehicle preparation. Then, we emphasize crucial advances in lipid nanovehicle design for overcoming barriers to systemic RNA delivery. Finally, the current status and challenges of lipid nanovehicle-based RNA therapeutics in clinical applications are also discussed. Our objective is to provide a comprehensive overview showing how to utilize lipid nanovehicles to overcome multiple barriers to systemic RNA delivery, inspiring the development of more high-performance RNA lipid nanovesicles in the future.

Engineered EVs with pathogen proteins: promising vaccine alternatives to LNP-mRNA vaccines

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny, lipid membrane-bound structures that are released by most cells. They play a vital role in facilitating intercellular communication by delivering bioactive cargoes to recipient cells and triggering cellular as well as biological responses. EVs have enormous potential for therapeutic applications as native or engineered exosomes. Native EVs are naturally released by cells without undergoing any modifications to either the exosomes or the cells that secrete them. In contrast, engineered EVs have been deliberately modified post-secretion or through genetic engineering of the secreting cells to alter their composition. Here we propose that engineered EVs displaying pathogen proteins could serve as promising alternatives to lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-mRNA vaccines. By leveraging their unique characteristics, these engineered EVs have the potential to overcome certain limitations associated with LNP-mRNA vaccines.

Lipid Nanoparticles Optimized for Targeting and Release of Nucleic Acid

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are currently the most promising clinical nucleic acids drug delivery vehicles. LNPs prevent the degradation of cargo nucleic acids during blood circulation. Upon entry into the cell, specific components of the lipid nanoparticles can promote the endosomal escape of nucleic acids. These are the basic properties of lipid nanoparticles as nucleic acid carriers. As LNPs exhibit hepatic aggregation characteristics, enhancing targeting out of the liver is a crucial way to improve LNPs administrated in vivo. Meanwhile, endosomal escape of nucleic acids loaded in LNPs is often considered inadequate, and therefore, much effort is devoted to enhancing the intracellular release efficiency of nucleic acids. Here, different strategies to efficiently deliver nucleic acid delivery from LNPs are concluded and their mechanisms are investigated. In addition, based on the information on LNPs that are in clinical trials or have completed clinical trials, the issues that are necessary to be approached in the clinical translation of LNPs are discussed, which it is hoped will shed light on the development of LNP nucleic acid drugs.

Lipid carriers for mRNA delivery

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the template for protein biosynthesis and is emerging as an essential active molecule to combat various diseases, including viral infection and cancer. Especially, mRNA-based vaccines, as a new type of vaccine, have played a leading role in fighting against the current global pandemic of COVID-19. However, the inherent drawbacks, including large size, negative charge, and instability, hinder its use as a therapeutic agent. Lipid carriers are distinguishable and promising vehicles for mRNA delivery, owning the capacity to encapsulate and deliver negatively charged drugs to the targeted tissues and release cargoes at the desired time. Here, we first summarized the structure and properties of different lipid carriers, such as liposomes, liposome-like nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, exosomes and lipoprotein particles, and their applications in delivering mRNA. Then, the development of lipid-based formulations as vaccine delivery systems was discussed and highlighted. Recent advancements in the mRNA vaccine of COVID-19 were emphasized. Finally, we described our future vision and perspectives in this field.

Advancements in Nanogels for Enhanced Ocular Drug Delivery: Cutting-Edge Strategies to Overcome Eye Barriers

Nanomedicine in gel or particle formation holds considerable potential for enhancing passive and active targeting within ocular drug delivery systems. The complex barriers of the eye, exemplified by the intricate network of closely connected tissue structures, pose significant challenges for drug administration. Leveraging the capability of engineered nanomedicine offers a promising approach to enhance drug penetration, particularly through active targeting agents such as protein peptides and aptamers, which facilitate targeted release and heightened bioavailability. Simultaneously, DNA carriers have emerged as a cutting-edge class of active-targeting structures, connecting active targeting agents and illustrating their potential in ocular drug delivery applications. This review aims to consolidate recent findings regarding the optimization of various nanoparticles, i.e., hydrogel-based systems, incorporating both passive and active targeting agents for ocular drug delivery, thereby identifying novel mechanisms and strategies. Furthermore, the review delves into the potential application of DNA nanostructures, exploring their role in the development of targeted drug delivery approaches within the field of ocular therapy.

Nanoparticles (NPs)-mediated lncBCMA silencing to promote eEF1A1 ubiquitination and suppress breast cancer growth and metastasis

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play an important role in cancer metastasis. Exploring metastasis-associated lncRNAs and developing effective strategy for targeted regulation of lncRNA function in vivo are of utmost importance for the treatment of metastatic cancer, which however remains a big challenge. Herein, we identified a new functional lncRNA (denoted lncBCMA), which could stabilize the expression of eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1A1 (eEF1A1) via antagonizing its ubiquitination to promote triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) growth and metastasis. Based on this regulatory mechanism, an endosomal pH-responsive nanoparticle (NP) platform was engineered for systemic lncBCMA siRNA (siBCMA) delivery. This NPs-mediated siBCMA delivery could effectively silence lncBCMA expression and promote eEF1A1 ubiquitination, thereby leading to a significant inhibition of TNBC tumor growth and metastasis. These findings show that lncBCMA could be used as a potential biomarker to predict the prognosis of TNBC patients and NPs-mediated lncBCMA silencing could be an effective strategy for metastatic TNBC treatment.

The Dawn of a New Era: Targeting the "Undruggables" with Antibody-Based Therapeutics

The high selectivity and affinity of antibodies toward their antigens have made them a highly valuable tool in disease therapy, diagnosis, and basic research. A plethora of chemical and genetic approaches have been devised to make antibodies accessible to more "undruggable" targets and equipped with new functions of illustrating or regulating biological processes more precisely. In this Review, in addition to introducing how naked antibodies and various antibody conjugates (such as antibody-drug conjugates, antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates, antibody-enzyme conjugates, etc.) work in therapeutic applications, special attention has been paid to how chemistry tools have helped to optimize the therapeutic outcome (i.e., with enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects) or facilitate the multifunctionalization of antibodies, with a focus on emerging fields such as targeted protein degradation, real-time live-cell imaging, catalytic labeling or decaging with spatiotemporal control as well as the engagement of antibodies inside cells. With advances in modern chemistry and biotechnology, well-designed antibodies and their derivatives via size miniaturization or multifunctionalization together with efficient delivery systems have emerged, which have gradually improved our understanding of important biological processes and paved the way to pursue novel targets for potential treatments of various diseases.

Proteolysis-targeting chimeras in biotherapeutics: Current trends and future applications

The success of inhibitor-based therapeutics is largely constrained by the acquisition of therapeutic resistance, which is partially driven by the undruggable proteome. The emergence of proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology, designed for degrading proteins involved in specific biological processes, might provide a novel framework for solving the above constraint. A heterobifunctional PROTAC molecule could structurally connect an E3 ubiquitin ligase ligand with a protein of interest (POI)-binding ligand by chemical linkers. Such technology would result in the degradation of the targeted protein via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), opening up a novel way of selectively inhibiting undruggable proteins. Herein, we will highlight the advantages of PROTAC technology and summarize the current understanding of the potential mechanisms involved in biotherapeutics, with a particular focus on its application and development where therapeutic benefits over classical small-molecule inhibitors have been achieved. Finally, we discuss how this technology can contribute to developing biotherapeutic drugs, such as antivirals against infectious diseases, for use in clinical practices.

Research Advances in Nucleic Acid Delivery System for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that affects the lives of nearly 1% of the total population worldwide. With the understanding of RA, more and more therapeutic drugs have been developed. However, lots of them possess severe side effects, and gene therapy may be a potential method for RA treatment. A nanoparticle delivery system is vital for gene therapy, as it can keep the nucleic acids stable and enhance the efficiency of transfection in vivo. With the development of materials science, pharmaceutics and pathology, more novel nanomaterials and intelligent strategies are applied to better and safer gene therapy for RA. In this review, we first summarized the existing nanomaterials and active targeting ligands used for RA gene therapy. Then, we introduced various gene delivery systems for RA treatment, which may enlighten the relevant research in the future.

Medicinal plant-derived mtDNA via nanovesicles induces the cGAS-STING pathway to remold tumor-associated macrophages for tumor regression

Plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) have been proposed as a major mechanism for the inter-kingdom interaction and communication, but the effector components enclosed in the vesicles and the mechanisms involved are largely unknown. The plant Artemisia annua is known as an anti-malaria agent that also exhibits a wide range of biological activities including the immunoregulatory and anti-tumor properties with the mechanisms to be further addressed. Here, we isolated and purified the exosome-like particles from A. annua, which were characterized by nano-scaled and membrane-bound shape and hence termed artemisia-derived nanovesicles (ADNVs). Remarkably, the vesicles demonstrated to inhibit tumor growth and boost anti-tumor immunity in a mouse model of lung cancer, primarily through remolding the tumor microenvironment and reprogramming tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). We identified plant-derived mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), upon internalized into TAMs via the vesicles, as a major effector molecule to induce the cGAS-STING pathway driving the shift of pro-tumor macrophages to anti-tumor phenotype. Furthermore, our data showed that administration of ADNVs greatly improved the efficacy of PD-L1 inhibitor, a prototypic immune checkpoint inhibitor, in tumor-bearing mice. Together, the present study, for the first time, to our knowledge, unravels an inter-kingdom interaction wherein the medical plant-derived mtDNA, via the nanovesicles, induces the immunostimulatory signaling in mammalian immune cells for resetting anti-tumor immunity and promoting tumor eradication.

Nucleic acid nanoassembly-enhanced RNA therapeutics and diagnosis

RNAs are involved in the crucial processes of disease progression and have emerged as powerful therapeutic targets and diagnostic biomarkers. However, efficient delivery of therapeutic RNA to the targeted location and precise detection of RNA markers remains challenging. Recently, more and more attention has been paid to applying nucleic acid nanoassemblies in diagnosing and treating. Due to the flexibility and deformability of nucleic acids, the nanoassemblies could be fabricated with different shapes and structures. With hybridization, nucleic acid nanoassemblies, including DNA and RNA nanostructures, can be applied to enhance RNA therapeutics and diagnosis. This review briefly introduces the construction and properties of different nucleic acid nanoassemblies and their applications for RNA therapy and diagnosis and makes further prospects for their development.

Functionalized PAMAM constructed nanosystems for biomacromolecule delivery

Polyamidoamines (PAMAMs) are a class of dendrimer with monodispersity and controlled topology, which can deliver biologically active macromolecules (e.g., genes and proteins) to specific regions with high efficiency and minimum side effects. In detail, PAMAMs can be functionalized easily by core modification or surface amendment to encapsulate a wide range of biomacromolecules. Besides, self-assembled, cross-linked and hybrid PAMAMs with customized therapeutic purposes are developed as delivery vehicles, which makes PAMAMs promising for biomacromolecule therapy. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the application of PAMAMs in biomacromolecule delivery from the synthesis of functionalized PAMAM carriers to the development of PAMAM-based drug delivery systems. The underlying strategies for PAMAM functionalization and assembly are first systematically discussed, and then the current applications of PAMAMs for biomacromolecule delivery are reviewed. Finally, a brief perspective on the further applications of PAMAMs concludes, aiming to provide insights into developing PAMAM-based biomacromolecule delivery systems.

Integrated Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Crucial mRNAs and miRNAs Related to Fecundity in the Hypothalamus of Yunshang Black Goats during the Luteal Phase

A normal estrus cycle is essential for the breeding of goats, and the luteal phase accounts for most of the estrus cycle. The corpus luteum (CL) formed during the luteal phase is a transient endocrine gland that is crucial for the reproductive cycle and pregnancy maintenance, and is controlled by many regulatory factors. However, the molecular mechanism of the hypothalamus effect on the reproductive performance of different litter sizes during the luteal phase of goats has not been elucidated. In this study, RNA-sequencing was used to analyze the mRNA and miRNA expression profiles of the hypothalamic tissues with the high-fecundity goats during the luteal phase (LP-HF) and low-fecundity goats during the luteal phase (LP-LF). The RNA-seq results found that there were 1963 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (890 up-regulated and 1073 down-regulated). The miRNA-seq identified 57 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs), including 11 up-regulated and 46 down-regulated, of which 199 DEGs were predicted to be potential target genes of DEMs. Meanwhile, the functional enrichment analysis identified several mRNA-miRNA pairs involved in the regulation of the hypothalamic activity, such as the common target gene MEA1 of novel-miR-972, novel-miR-125 and novel-miR-403, which can play a certain role as a related gene of the reproductive development in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and its regulated network, by regulating the androgen secretion. While another target gene ADIPOR2 of the novel-miR-403, is distributed in the hypothalamus and affects the reproductive system through a central role on the HPG axis and a peripheral role in the gonadal tissue. An annotation analysis of the DE miRNA-mRNA pairs identified targets related to biological processes, such as anion binding (GO:0043168) and small molecule binding (GO: 0036094). Subsequently, the KEGG(Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways were performed to analyze the miRNA-mRNA pairs with negatively correlated miRNAs. We found that the GnRH signaling pathway (ko04912), the estrogen signaling pathway (ko04915), the Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis (ko04666), and the IL-17 signaling pathway (ko04657), etc., were directly and indirectly associated with the reproductive process. These targeting interactions may be closely related to the reproductive performance of goats. The results of this study provide a reference for further research on the molecular regulation mechanism for the high fertility in goats.

Tumor-microenvironment activated duplex genome-editing nanoprodrug for sensitized near-infrared titania phototherapy

Near-infrared (NIR)-light-triggered nanomedicine, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), is growing an attractive approach for cancer therapy due to its high spatiotemporal controllability and minimal invasion, but the tumor eradication is limited by the intrinsic anti-stress response of tumor cells. Herein, we fabricate a tumor-microenvironment responsive CRISPR nanoplatform based on oxygen-deficient titania (TiO2-x ) for mild NIR-phototherapy. In tumor microenvironment, the overexpressed hyaluronidase (HAase) and glutathione (GSH) can readily destroy hyaluronic acid (HA) and disulfide bond and releases the Cas9/sgRNA from TiO2-x to target the stress alleviating regulators, i.e., nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and heat shock protein 90α (HSP90α), thereby reducing the stress tolerance of tumor cells. Under subsequent NIR light illumination, the TiO2-x demonstrates a higher anticancer effect both in vitro and in vivo. This strategy not only provides a promising modality to kills cancer cells in a minimal side-effects manner by interrupting anti-stress pathways but also proposes a general approach to achieve controllable gene editing in tumor region without unwanted genetic mutation in normal environments.

Bioengineered polyester nanoparticles for the synergistic treatment of androgenic alopecia via the suppression of 5α-reductase and knockdown of androgen receptor

Androgenic alopecia (AGA) is a common disease that negatively affects patients’ physical and mental health. AGA can be treated with drugs that improve the perifollicular microenvironment, such as 5α-reductase inhibitors (e.g., dutasteride [DUT]), androgen receptor blockers, and minoxidil. However, the efficacy of these treatments is limited. Therefore, this study aimed to show that nanoparticles are effective as stable carriers with high curative benefits and little adverse effects. The in vitro study showed that PLGA-DUT/siAR@DPCM NPs could deliver both DUT and siAR to dermal papilla cells. They could successfully suppress 5α-reductase and knock down androgen receptor, respectively, and thereby promote cell proliferation. In the in vivo study, PLGA-DUT/siAR@DPCM NPs showed a significant therapeutic effect in an AGA mouse model. They successfully penetrated the stratum corneum and showed a clear targeting effect on hair follicles and surrounding tissues. PLGA-DUT/siAR@DPCM NPs could enable the targeted delivery of DUT and siAR through percutaneous penetration, enhancing phagocytosis and decreasing adverse effects. Thus, they have great potential in the clinical treatment of AGA.

Self-assembly hydrogels of therapeutic agents for local drug delivery

Advanced drug delivery systems are of vital importance to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Among various recently developed formulations, self-assembling hydrogels composed of therapeutic agents have shown promising potential for local drug delivery owing to their excellent biocompatibility, high drug-loading efficiency, low systemic toxicity, and sustained drug release behavior. In particular, therapeutic agents self-assembling hydrogels with well-defined nanostructures are beneficial for direct delivery to the target site via injection, not only improving drug availability, but also extending their retention time and promoting cellular uptake. In brief, the self-assembly approach offers better opportunities to improve the precision of pharmaceutical treatment and achieve superior treatment efficacies. In this review, we intend to cover the recent developments in therapeutic agent self-assembling hydrogels. First, the molecular structures, self-assembly mechanisms, and application of self-assembling hydrogels are systematically outlined. Then, we summarize the various self-assembly strategies, including the single therapeutic agent, metal-coordination, enzyme-instruction, and co-assembly of multiple therapeutic agents. Finally, the potential challenges and future perspectives are discussed. We hope that this review will provide useful insights into the design and preparation of therapeutic agent self-assembling hydrogels.