The role of Bcl-2 family members in tumorigenesis

Molecular Profile (Estrogen Receptor, Progesterone Receptor, Bcl-2 and Ki-67) of the Ectopic Endometrium in Patients with Endometriosis

Endometriosis is characterized by alterations of the action and control mechanisms that lead to the development of ectopic endometrial tissue. This study aimed to analyze the molecular profile of ectopic endometrium by evaluating the expression of several biomarkers [estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, and Ki-67 antigen] in relation to the stage of the disease and symptoms. A prospective study over a period of one year, consisting of 14 patients with endometriosis, was performed. All patients received laparoscopic surgical treatment for excision of the lesions and staging of the disease. The expression of the aforementioned biomarkers was assessed in the ectopic endometrial tissue from the excised lesions using immunohistochemistry to determine their expression in the glandular epithelium and stroma. The mean expression of biomarkers in the epithelial and stromal levels did not differ significantly based on disease stage. Epithelial ER expression was significantly positively correlated with stromal ER, epithelial PR, and stromal PR. Stromal ER was significantly positively correlated with epithelial PR and stromal Ki-67. Epithelial Bcl-2 was significantly positively correlated with stromal Bcl-2. Epithelial Ki-67 was significantly positively correlated with stromal Ki-67. Finally, epithelial Bcl-2 expression was significantly positively correlated with the intensity of dyspareunia. The correlation between epithelial Bcl-2 expression and the intensity of dyspareunia highlights a potential molecular link to the severity of symptoms in endometriosis. These results suggest that further exploration of these biomarkers could lead to improved understanding of their clinical implications and more personalized therapies for patients with endometriosis.

Fragment-Based Drug Discovery: Small Fragments, Big Impact - Success Stories of Approved Oncology Therapeutics

Fragment-Based Drug Discovery (FBDD) has revolutionized drug discovery by overcoming the challenges of traditional methods like combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening (HTS). Leveraging small, low-molecular-weight fragments, FBDD achieves higher hit rates, reduced screening costs, and faster development timelines for clinically relevant drug candidates. This review explores FBDD's core principles, innovative methodologies, and its success in targeting diverse protein classes, including previously "undruggable" targets. Key advancements in fragment libraries, screening techniques, and computational tools are discussed, along with the efficient progression from fragment hits to clinical drugs. Notably, we highlight FDA-approved fragment-derived drugs, including capivasertib, which has increased the total number of fragment-based oncology drugs to seven. As FBDD continues to evolve, its potential to address unmet therapeutic needs and drive the discovery of groundbreaking treatments across various disease areas becomes increasingly evident.

Molecular Docking of Lactoferrin with Apoptosis-Related Proteins Insights into Its Anticancer Mechanism

Human Lactoferrin (hLf), a multifunctional glycoprotein, has been analyzed through molecular docking to evaluate its role in apoptosis regulation and its potential as an anticancer agent. The docking results highlight XIAP (X-linked Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein) and Caspase-3 as the most reliable targets, where hLf disrupts XIAP's inhibition of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9, potentially restoring apoptotic signaling; hLf also stabilizes Caspase-3, enhancing its activation in intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Weaker interactions were observed with Fas, Bcl-2, and Akt. hLf's role in Fas signaling is likely due to expression upregulation rather than direct binding. In contrast, its binding to Bcl-2 may disrupt anti-apoptotic function, and its interaction with Akt suggests interference with pro-survival signaling. These findings suggest that hLf may promote apoptosis by enhancing caspase activation and modulating key apoptotic regulators, supporting its potential use in cancer treatment. However, further experimental validation is needed to confirm these interactions and their therapeutic implications.

Exploring TGF-β Signaling in Cancer Progression: Prospects and Therapeutic Strategies

Cancer persists as a ubiquitous global challenge despite the remarkable advances. It is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and metastasis. The Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway is considered a primary regulator of various normal physiological processes in the human body. Recently, factors determining the nature of TGF-β response have received attention, specifically its signaling pathway which can be an attractive therapeutic target for various cancer treatments. The TGF-β receptor is activated by its ligands and undergoes transduction of signals via canonical (SMAD dependent) or non-canonical (SMAD independent) signaling pathways regulating several cellular functions. Furthermore, the cross talk of the TGF-β signaling pathway cross with other signaling pathways has shown the controlled regulation of cellular functions. This review highlights the cross talk between various major signaling pathways and TGF-β. These signaling pathways include Wnt, NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and Hedgehog (Hh). TGF-β signaling pathway has a dual role at different stages. It can suppress tumor formation at early stages and promote progression at advanced stages. This complex behaviour of TGF-β has made it a promising target for therapeutic interventions. Moreover, many strategies have been designed to control TGF-β signaling pathways at different levels, inhibiting tumor-promoting while enhancing tumor-suppressive effects, each with unique molecular mechanisms and clinical implications. This review also discusses various therapeutic inhibitors including ligand traps, small molecule inhibitors (SMIs), monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), and antisense oligonucleotides which target specific components of TGF-β signaling pathway to inhibit TGF-β signaling and are studied in both preclinical and clinical trials for different types of cancer. The review also highlights the prospect of TGF-β signaling in normal physiology and in the case of dysregulation, TGF-β inhibitors, and different therapeutic effects in cancer therapy along with the perspective of combinational therapies to treat cancer.

Bcl‑xL‑specific BH3 mimetic A‑1331852 suppresses proliferation of fluorouracil‑resistant colorectal cancer cells by inducing apoptosis

BH3 mimetics are small‑molecule inhibitors of the antiapoptotic Bcl‑2 family and have therapeutic efficacy against hematological malignancies. BH3 mimetic A‑1331852 suppresses colorectal cancer cell proliferation. Progressive resistance to the widely used anticancer agent fluorouracil (5‑FU) is a key reason for colorectal cancer recurrence; therefore, the present study tested if A‑1331852 can suppress the proliferation of 5‑FU‑resistant colorectal cancer cells. A 5‑FU‑resistant colorectal cancer cell line was derived from HCT116 cells and compared with the parental line. Expression levels of the antiapoptotic Bcl‑2 proteins Bcl‑xL and myeloid cell leukemia 1 (Mcl‑1) were determined via western blotting, proliferation in the presence of 5‑FU and following small interfering (si)RNA‑mediated Bcl‑xL or Mcl‑1 knockdown was assessed by WST‑1 assay and sensitivity to A‑1331852‑induced apoptosis was assessed via western blotting and DNA fragmentation assay. In addition, a xenograft mouse model of 5‑FU‑resistant colorectal cancer was established via subcutaneous inoculation of 5‑FU‑resistant HCT116 cells to examine the in vivo antitumor efficacy of A‑1331852. Compared with the parental line, 5‑FU‑resistant cells overexpressed Bcl‑xL. Knockdown of Bcl‑xL by siRNA and treatment with A‑1331852 suppressed proliferation and induced the apoptosis of both 5‑FU‑resistant and parental HCT116 cells, but the potency of both effects was stronger in 5‑FU‑resistant than parental HCT116 cells. Furthermore, A‑1331852 suppressed the growth of xenograft tumors derived from 5‑FU‑resistant cells by inducing apoptosis. Overall, the present findings suggested that Bcl‑xL upregulation contributes to 5‑FU resistance of colorectal cancer and targeted inhibition by A‑1331852 may be an effective treatment strategy.

Bakuchiol from Cullen corylifolium and its efficacy on apoptosis and autophagy in HepG2 cells

Bakuchiol (4), a component of Cullen corylifolium, has been reported to have estrogenic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Nonetheless, its anticancer mechanisms and effectiveness against hepatocellular carcinoma remain unexplored. This study sought to elucidate the mechanism of apoptosis, autophagy, and cell cycle arrest caused by bakuchiol (4) and three flavonoids (1-3) with similar structures to compound 4 in hepatocellular carcinoma. Among the evaluated components (1-4), bakuchiol (4) exhibited a significant potential to induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells. This compound facilitates apoptotic processes by engaging both intrinsic and extrinsic signaling cascades, as evidenced by the enhanced ratios of Bax to Bcl-2 and tBid to Bid. In addition, bakuchiol (4) induced a dose-dependent cell cycle arrest, as assessed using a TaliⓇ image-based cytometer. Since bakuchiol decreased CDK2 and CDK4, while increasing p53, p21, and p27, these data suggest that bakuchiol regulated early cell cycle progression. It also promotes the activity of AMPK and the LC3Ⅱ/LC3Ⅰ ratio, while suppressing Akt and mTOR. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that bakuchiol (4), a major component of C. corylifolium, has an anticancer effect in hepatocarcinoma cells by inducing both apoptosis and autophagy. This significant finding enlightens us about the potential of bakuchiol in cancer research, particularly in liver cancer treatment.

Efficacy and safety of hypomethylating agents in the treatment of AML/MDS patients relapsed post allogenetic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Introduction

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) constitute myeloid malignancies, and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is considered as a potentially optimal approach for achieving a long term cure. However, post-allo-HSCT relapse remains a leading cause of mortality and therapeutic failure.

Methods

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of combining hypomethylating agents (HMAs) with Bcl-2 inhibitors in the treatment of AML/MDS relapse following allo-HSCT, we retrospectively collected data from 42 patients who experienced relapse between April 2012 and March 2022 at Peking University First Hospital. Among these patients, 21 underwent intensive chemotherapy (IC) alone, while the other 21 received treatment with HMAs after IC treatment, either alone or in combination with the Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax (VEN).

Results

The median overall survival (OS) was 9 ± 2.153 months, and the one-year OS rate was 41.5%. The overall response rate (ORR) in the chemotherapy group and the IC+HMAs ± VEN group was 52.38% (11/21) and 76.19% (16/21), respectively, with no significant difference found (P=0.107). Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed a significant difference in OS between the chemotherapy group and the IC+HMAs ± VEN group in our retrospective cohort study (P=0.041, χ2= 4.016). Additionally, a significant difference in overall survival (OS) rates was observed between the two groups for patients categorized as intermediate/high risk (P=0.008). The secondary relapse rate was 45.45% (5/11) in the IC cohort and 25% (4/16) in the IC+HMAs ± VEN group, respectively, with no significant difference identified between the two cohorts (P=0.268). Furthermore, upon assessing the risk of graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), infection, and agranulocytosis, no notable differences were observed with the use of HMAs, suggesting that HMAs did not increase the risk. In the IC+HMAs ± VEN group, 7 patients received VEN in addition to HMAs, and no significant statistical difference was found in OS when comparing patients who received HMAs alone and those who received HMA+VEN (P=0.183), also, a statistically significant difference in OS was noted between the two groups whenaccounting for competing risks (P=0.028).

Conclusions

This retrospective study highlights the efficacy of IC+HMAs ± VEN in treating AML/MDS patients experiencing relapse post allo-HSCT, improving survival rates, especially for those classified as intermediate/high risk, with favorable tolerability.

Novel hydrazide‐hydrazone containing 1,2,4‐triazole as potent inhibitors of antiapoptotic protein Bcl‐xL: Synthesis, biological evaluation, and docking studies

This study describes the synthesis and characterization of a series of novel hydrazide‐hydrazone derivatives containing a 1,2,4‐triazole ring. The compounds were characterized using various spectroscopic techniques, such as FT‐IR, 1H‐NMR, 13C‐NMR, HRMS, and elemental analysis. The antiproliferative activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated against a panel of human cancer cell lines (HCT‐116, HepG‐2, KLN205, LTPA, U138, and SW620) and healthy cell lines (HSkMC and iPSCs). Among the compounds tested, compounds 4, 5p, 5r, and 5s showed the highest effectiveness in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells with Bcl‐xL inhibitory concentration (IC50) values. These compounds further demonstrated selective cytotoxicity against the Bcl‐xL‐dependent lymphoma cell line (DBs). Molecular docking studies were also performed to investigate the potential binding interactions of compounds 4, 5p, 5r, and 5s with the active site of Bcl‐xL (PDB ID: 7LH7, 1.4 Å). Mechanistic studies revealed that compounds 4, 5r, and 5s induced apoptosis predominantly through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway, while compound 5p exhibited a distinct cell cycle arrest profile, impacting both the S and G2/M phases. Western blot analysis suggested that these compounds may downregulate cyclin expression, thereby blocking its association with Bcl‐xL. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of these novel hydrazide‐hydrazone derivatives as anticancer agents with activity comparable or superior to doxorubicin and 5‐fluorouracil.

Novel hydrazide-hydrazone containing 1,2,4-triazole as potent inhibitors of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL: Synthesis, biological evaluation, and docking studies

This study describes the synthesis and characterization of a series of novel hydrazide-hydrazone derivatives containing a 1,2,4-triazole ring. The compounds were characterized using various spectroscopic techniques, such as FT-IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, HRMS, and elemental analysis. The antiproliferative activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated against a panel of human cancer cell lines (HCT-116, HepG-2, KLN205, LTPA, U138, and SW620) and healthy cell lines (HSkMC and iPSCs). Among the compounds tested, compounds 4, 5p, 5r, and 5s showed the highest effectiveness in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells with Bcl-xL inhibitory concentration (IC50) values. These compounds further demonstrated selective cytotoxicity against the Bcl-xL-dependent lymphoma cell line (DBs). Molecular docking studies were also performed to investigate the potential binding interactions of compounds 4, 5p, 5r, and 5s with the active site of Bcl-xL (PDB ID: 7LH7, 1.4 Å). Mechanistic studies revealed that compounds 4, 5r, and 5s induced apoptosis predominantly through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway, while compound 5p exhibited a distinct cell cycle arrest profile, impacting both the S and G2/M phases. Western blot analysis suggested that these compounds may downregulate cyclin expression, thereby blocking its association with Bcl-xL. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of these novel hydrazide-hydrazone derivatives as anticancer agents with activity comparable or superior to doxorubicin and 5-fluorouracil.

The Effects of Severe Symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 Infections on the Anti/Proapoptotic Molecules: A 6-Month Cohort Study

The plausible effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the expression of anti/proapoptotic molecules have been suspected. This cohort study examined the expression of p53, Bcl-2, Bid, Bak, and Bax molecules, the genes associated with induction or inhibition of apoptosis, in the SARS-CoV-2-infected patients with severe and mild symptoms in an Iranian population. In this 6-month cohort study, the expression of p53, Bcl-2, Bid, Bak, and Bax molecules was evaluated at onset of diagnosis, 24 h after symptom onset, and 6 months later in the nasopharyngeal cells of SARS-CoV-2-infected hospitalized patients and outpatients in comparison with healthy controls using the real-time PCR technique. At the onset of the study, the relative expression of p53, Bcl-2, Bid, Bak, and Bax significantly increased in the SARS-CoV-2-infected hospitalized patients and decreased after 6 months. The healthy controls showed potential positive correlations among the molecules, but the patients did not show these correlations. Since SARS-CoV-2 needs host cell survival, it appears that the virus induces the expression of Bcl-2 as an antiapoptotic molecule, and the host cells upregulate the proapoptotic molecules to neutralize the effects. Dysregulation of correlation expression of the molecules among the patients proved that SARS-CoV-2 affects the expression of the molecules involved in apoptosis. SARS-CoV-2 could be considered an important factor that regulates the expression of several molecules participating in cancer pathogenesis.

Ajania pacifica (Nakai) K. Bremer and Humphries Extract Limits MYC Expression to Induce Apoptosis in Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma

The proto-oncogene MYC is frequently dysregulated in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and plays a critical role in disease progression. To improve the clinical outcomes of patients with DLBCL, the development of strategies to target MYC is crucial. The use of medicinal plants for developing anticancer drugs has garnered considerable attention owing to their diverse mechanisms of action. In this study, 100 plant extracts of flora from the Republic of Korea were screened to search for novel agents with anti-DLBCL effects. Among them, Ajania pacifica (Nakai) K. Bremer and Humphries extract (APKH) efficiently suppressed the survival of DLBCL cells, while showing minimal toxicity toward normal murine bone marrow cells. APKH suppressed the expression of anti-apoptotic BCL2 family members, causing an imbalance between the pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic BCL2 members. This disrupted mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and pro-caspase-3 activation and eventually led to DLBCL cell death. Importantly, MYC expression was markedly downregulated by APKH and ectopic expression of MYC in DLBCL cells abolished the pro-apoptotic effects of APKH. These results demonstrate that APKH exerts anti-DLBCL effects by inhibiting MYC expression. Moreover, when combined with doxorubicin, an essential component of the CHOP regimen (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone), APKH synergistically enhanced the therapeutic effect of doxorubicin. This indicates that APKH may overcome drug resistance, which is common in patients with refractory/relapsed DLBCL. To identify compounds with anti-DLBCL activities in APKH, the chemical profile analysis of APKH was performed using UPLC-QTOF/MSe analysis and assessed for its anticancer activity. Based on the UPLC-QTOF/MSe chemical profiling, it is conceivable that APKH may serve as a novel agent targeting MYC and sensitizing drug-resistant DLBCL cells to CHOP chemotherapy. Further studies to elucidate how the compounds in APKH exert tumor-suppressive role in DLBCL are warranted.

Platinum iodido drugs show potential anti-tumor activity, affecting cancer cell metabolism and inducing ROS and senescence in gastrointestinal cancer cells

Cisplatin-based chemotherapy has associated clinical disadvantages, such as high toxicity and resistance. Thus, the development of new antitumor metallodrugs able to overcome different clinical barriers is a public healthcare priority. Here, we studied the mechanism of action of the isomers trans and cis-[PtI2(isopropylamine)2] (I5 and I6, respectively) against gastrointestinal cancer cells. We demonstrate that I5 and I6 modulate mitochondrial metabolism, decreasing OXPHOS activity and negatively affecting ATP-linked oxygen consumption rate. Consequently, I5 and I6 generated Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), provoking oxidative damage and eventually the induction of senescence. Thus, herein we propose a loop with three interconnected processes modulated by these iodido agents: (i) mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic disruptions; (ii) ROS generation and oxidative damage; and (iii) cellular senescence. Functionally, I5 reduces cancer cell clonogenicity and tumor growth in a pancreatic xenograft model without systemic toxicity, highlighting a potential anticancer complex that warrants additional pre-clinical studies.

Identification and Characterization of a Small Molecule Bcl-2 Functional Converter

Cancer cells exploit the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 to evade apoptosis and develop resistance to therapeutics. High levels of Bcl-2 leads to sequestration of pro-apoptotic proteins causing the apoptotic machinery to halt. In this study, we report discovery of a small molecule, BFC1108 (5-chloro-N-(2-ethoxyphenyl)-2-[(4-methoxybenzyol)amino]benzamide), which targets Bcl-2 and converts it into a pro-apoptotic protein. The apoptotic effect of BFC1108 is not inhibited, but rather potentiated, by Bcl-2 overexpression. BFC1108 induces a conformational change in Bcl-2, resulting in the exposure of its BH3 domain both in vitro and in vivo. BFC1108 suppresses the growth of triple-negative breast cancer xenografts with high Bcl-2 expression and inhibits breast cancer lung metastasis. This study demonstrates a novel approach to targeting Bcl-2 using BFC1108, a small molecule Bcl-2 functional converter that effectively induces apoptosis in Bcl-2-expressing cancers.

SIGNIFICANCE

We report the identification of a small molecule that exposes the Bcl-2 killer conformation and induces death in Bcl-2-expressing cancer cells. Selective targeting of Bcl-2 and elimination of cancer cells expressing Bcl-2 opens up new therapeutic avenues.

Noncoding RNAs in hepatitis: Unraveling the apoptotic pathways

Hepatitis is a worldwide health issue that causes inflammation of the liver and is frequently brought on by viral infections, specifically those caused by the hepatitis B and C viruses. Although the pathophysiological causes of hepatitis are complex, recent research indicates that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating apoptosis, an essential process for maintaining liver homeostasis and advancing the illness. Noncoding RNAs have been linked to several biological processes, including apoptosis. These RNAs include microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Distinct expression patterns characterising different stages of the disease have been discovered, indicating dysregulation of these non-coding RNAs in liver tissues infected with hepatitis. The complex interplay that exists between these noncoding RNAs and apoptotic effectors, including caspases and members of the Bcl-2 family, plays a role in the precarious equilibrium that regulates cell survival and death during hepatitis. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of ncRNA-mediated apoptosis in hepatitis, as well as insights into possible therapeutic targets and diagnostic indicators.

Synergistic inhibitory actions of resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and diallyl trisulfide against skin cancer cell line A431 through mitochondrial caspase dependent pathway: a combinational drug approach

The harmful effect of chemotherapeutic side effects has paid a way to discover a novel with curative way for skin cancer treatment. Skin cancer prevention is more viable with the use of combination of bioactive agents than using of single bioactive compounds. Present work was demonstrated to evaluate the interaction of Resveratrol (Res), Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) with each other as a binary combination on A431 cells. Nuclear fragmentation analysis of combination of bioactive agents using DAPI analysis, detection of apoptosis, analysis of cell cycle, ROS assay, antimigration assays, and western blotting were implemented to study the combination of bioactive compounds on A431 cell line. Among the selected combination EGCG + DATS had a synergetic effect reducing cellular migration, increased intercellular reactive oxygen species generation, condensation, cell phagocytosis induced by phosphatidylserine externalization, rise in sub-G1 DNA content, and S-phase were cell cycle arrest. The combinations EGCG + DATS induced apoptotic proteins in A431 cells by upregulation of proapoptotic Bax and Bad proteins, a downmodulation of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl2 and caspases (caspase-3, and -9) activity got triggered by intrinsic pathway. The combination of EGCG + DATS showed good anticancer potential against A431 skin cancer cell line via the mitochondrial caspase dependent pathway with very strong synergism. This finding will help to produce a novel combination/chemoprevention using dietary bioactive agents (EGCG + DATS) for the treatment of skin cancer after clinical trial.

Characterization and biological applications of gonadal extract of Paracentrotus lividus collected along the Mediterranean coast of Alexandria, Egypt

Marine invertebrates represent a valuable reservoir of pharmaceutical bioactive compounds with potential relevance to various medical applications. These compounds exhibit notable advantages when compared to their terrestrial counterparts, in terms of their potency, activity, and mechanism of action. Within this context, the present work aimed to extract, chemically characterize, and investigate the bioactivity of the gonadal extract of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (P. lividus) collected along the Mediterranean coast of Alexandria, Egypt. Fractions of the gonadal extract were characterized by Spectrophotometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and their bioactivities were investigated in vitro. The analysis supported the extract richness of carotenoids and bioactive compounds. The extract showed promising anticancer activity against three different breast cancer cell lines with different levels of aggressiveness and causative factors, namely MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-453, and HCC-1954. Gene expression analysis using RT-qPCR showed that P. lividus extract inhibited the expression of crucial factors involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. In addition, the extract significantly inhibited the lipo-polysaccharides (LPS) induced inflammation in the RAW264.7 macrophage cell line and exerted anti-bacterial activity against the Gram-negative bacteria Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Collectively, these results demonstrated the chemical richness and the wide-scale applicability of P. lividus gonadal extract as an anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory natural extract.

Withaferin A-Encapsulated PEGylated Nanoliposomes Induce Apoptosis in B16F10 Melanoma Cells by Regulating Bcl2 and Bcl xl Genes and Mitigates Murine Solid Tumor Development

Withaferin A (WA) is a natural steroidal lactone with promising pharmacological activities, but its poor solubility and bioavailability hinder its clinical application. The liposomal drug delivery system has attracted considerable attention to overcome the delivery limitations of pharmacological agents. The present study investigated the effect of WA-loaded pegylated nanoliposomes (LWA) on in vitro and in vivo B16F10 melanoma tumor models. In vitro results showed that LWA had significantly (P < 0.01) higher cytotoxicity than free WA and induced ROS-mediated apoptosis in B16F10 cells. Transwell cell migration and invasion studies demonstrated that LWA treatment significantly (P < 0.01) decreased the migratory and invasive capacities of melanoma cells compared with WA. In vivo study revealed that treatment significantly (P < 0.01) reduced tumor growth in experimental animals compared with WA or tumor control. Also, LWA administration remarkably inhibited tumor cell proliferation by downregulating the expression of Ki-67 and Cyclin D1 and induced apoptosis by regulating the expression of Bax, Bcl2, and Bcl xl levels. Our results strongly suggest that LWA could be a promising therapeutic formulation for treating malignant melanoma.

The anti-tumoral role of Hesperidin and Aprepitant on prostate cancer cells through redox modifications

Prostate cancer is the second prevalent cancer in men. While the anti-cancer effect of Hesperidin and (Aprepitant) AP on prostate cancer cells is well documented, their combined effect and their mechanism of action are not fully investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the anti-cancer effects of Hesperidin and AP alone and in combination on prostate cancer cells. PC3 and LNCaP cell lines were treated with Hesperidin and AP alone and in combination. The Resazurin test was used for assessing cell viability. The ROS (reactive oxygen Species) level, P53, P21, Bcl-2, and Survivin gene expression were assessed. Also, a trypan blue assay was done. Hesperidin and AP reduced cell viability and increased apoptosis in PC3 and LNCaP cells. The ROS level reduced after treating the PC3 and LNCaP cells with AP with or without Hesperidin. P53 and P21 gene expression increased after treatment with Hesperidin with or without AP compared to the untreated group in the PC3 cell line. Bcl-2 and Survivin gene expression decreased with AP with or without Hesperidin in the PC3 and LNCaP cells. The current study showed the synergic anti-cancer effect of Hesperidin and AP in both PC3 and LNCaP cell lines.

In silico design and cell-based evaluation of two dual anti breast cancer compounds targeting Bcl-2 and GPER

According to WHO statistics, breast cancer (BC) disease represents about 2.3 million diagnosed and 685,000 deaths globally. Regarding histological classification of BC, the Estrogen (ER) and Progesterone (PR) receptors negative-expression cancer, named Triple-Negative BC (TNBC), represents the most aggressive type of this disease, making it a challenge for drug discovery. In this context, our research group, applying a well-established Virtual Screening (VS) protocol, in addition to docking and molecular dynamics simulations studies, yielded two ligands identified as 6 and 37 which were chemically synthesized and evaluated on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines. Strikingly, 37 assayed on MDA-MB-231 (a TNBC cell model) depicted an outstanding value of 18.66 μM much lower than 65.67 μM yielded by Gossypol Bcl-2 inhibitor whose main disadvantage is to produce multiple toxic effects. Highlighted above, enforce the premise of the computational tools to find new therapeutic options against the most aggressive forms of breast cancer, as the results herein showed.

PLCL1 suppresses tumour progression by regulating AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagy in renal cell carcinoma

Autophagy has been increasingly recognized as a critical regulatory mechanism in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. A previous study showed that phospholipase C-like protein 1 (PLCL1) is associated with lipid metabolism in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). However, it is unclear whether PLCL1 regulates autophagy, thereby influencing the progression of RCC. Bioinformatics analysis of five microarray datasets revealed that expression of PLCL1 is decreased in tumours and is positively correlated with prognosis in RCC patients. Three independent public datasets, clinical RCC tissues and RCC cell lines, were validated using real-time qPCR, western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Using wound healing and transwell assays, we observed that elevated PLCL1 levels decreased the migratory distance and the invasive number of 786-O and ACHN cells, but PLCL1 knockdown reversed these changes in 769P cell lines compared to those in controls. The results of flow cytometry analysis indicated that PLCL1 promotes apoptosis. Moreover, transcriptional analysis based on stable overexpression of PLCL1 in 786-O cells revealed that PLCL1 is related to autophagy, and western blotting and autophagic experimental results further verified these findings. Mechanistic investigations confirmed that PLCL1 activates the AMPK/mTOR pathway and interacts with decidual protein induced by progesterone (DEPP). Collectively, our data suggest that PLCL1 functions as a suppressor of RCC progression by activating the AMPK/mTOR pathway, interacting with DEPP, initiating autophagy and inducing apoptosis. PLCL1 may be a promising therapeutic target for the diagnosis and treatment of ccRCC patients.

Transcriptome analysis reveals molecular mechanisms of lymphocystis formation caused by lymphocystis disease virus infection in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

Lymphocystis disease is frequently prevalent and transmissible in various teleost species worldwide due to lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) infection, causing unsightly growths of benign lymphocystis nodules in fish and resulting in huge economic losses to aquaculture industry. However, the molecular mechanism of lymphocystis formation is unclear. In this study, LCDV was firstly detected in naturally infected flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) by PCR, histopathological, and immunological techniques. To further understand lymphocystis formation, transcriptome sequencing of skin nodule tissue was performed by using healthy flounder skin as a control. In total, RNA-seq produced 99.36%-99.71% clean reads of raw reads, of which 91.11%-92.89% reads were successfully matched to the flounder genome. The transcriptome data showed good reproducibility between samples, with 3781 up-regulated and 2280 down-regulated differentially expressed genes. GSEA analysis revealed activation of Wnt signaling pathway, Hedgehog signaling pathway, Cell cycle, and Basal cell carcinoma associated with nodule formation. These pathways were analyzed to interact with multiple viral infection and tumor formation pathways. Heat map and protein interaction analysis revealed that these pathways regulated the expression of cell cycle-related genes such as ccnd1 and ccnd2 through key genes including ctnnb1, lef1, tcf3, gli2, and gli3 to promote cell proliferation. Additionally, cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, Calcium signaling pathway, ECM-receptor interaction, and Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction associated with nodule formation were significantly down-regulated. Among these pathways, tnfsf12, tnfrsf1a, and tnfrsf19, associated with pro-apoptosis, and vdac2, which promotes viral replication by inhibiting apoptosis, were significantly up-regulated. Visual analysis revealed significant down-regulation of cytc, which expresses the pro-apoptotic protein cytochrome C, as well as phb and phb2, which have anti-tumor activity, however, casp3 was significantly up-regulated. Moreover, bcl9, bcl11a, and bcl-xl, which promote cell proliferation and inhibit apoptosis, were significantly upregulated, as were fgfr1, fgfr2, and fgfr3, which are related to tumor formation. Furthermore, RNA-seq data were validated by qRT-PCR, and LCDV copy numbers and expression patterns of focused genes in various tissues were also investigated. These results clarified the pathways and differentially expressed genes associated with lymphocystis nodule development caused by LCDV infection in flounder for the first time, providing a new breakthrough in molecular mechanisms of lymphocystis formation in fish.

Riboflavin and Its Derivates as Potential Photosensitizers in the Photodynamic Treatment of Skin Cancers

Riboflavin, a water-soluble vitamin B2, possesses unique biological and physicochemical properties. Its photosensitizing properties make it suitable for various biological applications, such as pathogen inactivation and photodynamic therapy. However, the effectiveness of riboflavin as a photosensitizer is hindered by its degradation upon exposure to light. The review aims to highlight the significance of riboflavin and its derivatives as potential photosensitizers for use in photodynamic therapy. Additionally, a concise overview of photodynamic therapy and utilization of blue light in dermatology is provided, as well as the photochemistry and photobiophysics of riboflavin and its derivatives. Particular emphasis is given to the latest findings on the use of acetylated 3-methyltetraacetyl-riboflavin derivative (3MeTARF) in photodynamic therapy.

Combination of tamoxifen and D-limonene enhances therapeutic efficacy in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer one of the most common diseases in women, has a high death and morbidity rate. Tamoxifen being very much effective in the chemoprevention of breast cancer has been shown to develop resistance during the course of treatment making it difficult for patient's survival. By combining tamoxifen with naturally occurring substances having similar activities, might control the toxicity and increase the susceptibility towards the treatment. As a natural compound, D-limonene has been reported to inhibit the growth of certain malignancies significantly. The main goal of our work is to investigate the combinatorial antitumor effects of D-limonene and tamoxifen in MCF-7 cells, as well as understand the potential underlying anticancer mechanism. MTT assays, colony formation assays, DAPI and Annexin V-FITC labeling, flow cytometer analysis, and western blot analysis were used to explore the details of anticancer mechanism. The combined effects of tamoxifen with D-limonene have shown significant decrease in the cell viability of MCF 7 cells. According to flow cytometer analyses and Annexin V/PI staining, D-limonene has been found to increase tamoxifen-mediated apoptosis as compared to the treatment alone in these cells. Additionally, cell growth has been found to be arrested at G1 phase by regulating cyclin D1 and cyclin B1. Our research consequently provided the first evidence that combining D-limonene and tamoxifen might increase the anticancer efficacy by inducing apoptosis in MCF 7 breast cancer cells. This combinatorial treatment strategy demands more research which might fulfill the need for improved treatment efficacy in controlling breast cancer.

The comprehensive expression of BCL2 family genes determines the prognosis of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a prevalent and aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and 40% of patients succumb to death. Despite numerous clinical trials aimed at developing treatment strategies beyond the conventional R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) regimen, there have been no positive results thus far. Although the selective BCL2 inhibitor venetoclax has shown remarkable efficacy in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, its therapeutic effect in DLBCL was limited. We hypothesized that the limited therapeutic effect of venetoclax in DLBCL may be attributed to the complex expression and interactions of BCL2 family members, including BCL2. Therefore, we aimed to comprehensively analyze the expression patterns of BCL2 family members in DLBCL. We analyzed 157 patients with de novo DLBCL diagnosed at Asan Medical Center and Ajou University Hospital. The mRNA expression levels of BCL2 family members were quantified using the NanoString technology. BCL2 family members showed distinct heterogeneous expression patterns both intra- and inter-patient. Using unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis, we were able to classify patients with similar BCL2 family expression pattern and select groups with clear prognostic features, C1 and C6. In the group with the best prognosis, C1, the expression of pro-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic BH3-only group gene expressions were increased, while anti-apoptotic group expression was significantly increased in both C1 and C6. Based on this, we generated the BCL2 signature score using the expression of pro-apoptotic genes BOK and BCL2L15, and anti-apoptotic gene BCL2. The BCL2 signature score 0 had the best prognosis, score 1/2 had intermediate prognosis, and score 3 had the worst prognosis (EFS, p = 0.0054; OS, p = 0.0011). Multivariate analysis, including COO and IPI, showed that increase in the BCL2 signature score was significantly associated with poor prognosis for EFS, independent of COO and IPI. The BCL2 signature score we proposed in this study provides information on BCL2 family deregulation based on the equilibrium of pro-versus anti-apoptotic BCL2 family, which can aid in the development of new treatment strategies for DLBCL in the future.

Applications of synthetic biology in medical and pharmaceutical fields

Synthetic biology aims to design or assemble existing bioparts or bio-components for useful bioproperties. During the past decades, progresses have been made to build delicate biocircuits, standardized biological building blocks and to develop various genomic/metabolic engineering tools and approaches. Medical and pharmaceutical demands have also pushed the development of synthetic biology, including integration of heterologous pathways into designer cells to efficiently produce medical agents, enhanced yields of natural products in cell growth media to equal or higher than that of the extracts from plants or fungi, constructions of novel genetic circuits for tumor targeting, controllable releases of therapeutic agents in response to specific biomarkers to fight diseases such as diabetes and cancers. Besides, new strategies are developed to treat complex immune diseases, infectious diseases and metabolic disorders that are hard to cure via traditional approaches. In general, synthetic biology brings new capabilities to medical and pharmaceutical researches. This review summarizes the timeline of synthetic biology developments, the past and present of synthetic biology for microbial productions of pharmaceutics, engineered cells equipped with synthetic DNA circuits for diagnosis and therapies, live and auto-assemblied biomaterials for medical treatments, cell-free synthetic biology in medical and pharmaceutical fields, and DNA engineering approaches with potentials for biomedical applications.

Apolipoprotein E2 inhibits mitochondrial apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells through ERK1/2/CREB/BCL-2 signaling

BACKGROUND

Apolipoprotein E2 (ApoE2) is a pleiotropic protein that influences several aspects of cancer metabolism and development. Evading apoptosis is a vital factor for facilitating cancer cell growth. However, the role and mechanism of ApoE2 in regulating cell apoptosis of pancreatic cancer remain unclear.

METHODS

In this study, we firstly detected the mRNA and protein expressions of ApoE2 in PANC-1 and Capan-2 cells by real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. We then performed TUNEL and flow cytometric analyses to explore the role of recombinant human ApoE2, pCMV6-ApoE2 and siApoE2 in the apoptosis of PANC-1 and Capan-2 cells. Furthermore, we investigated the molecular mechanism through which ApoE2 affected apoptosis in PANC-1 cells using immunofluorescence, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting and co-immunoprecipitation analysis.

RESULTS

ApoE2 phosphorylated ERK1/2 and inhibited pancreatic cancer cell apoptosis. In addition, our data showed that ApoE2/ERK1/2 altered the expression and mitochondrial localization of BCL-2 via activating CREB. ApoE2/ERK1/2/CREB also increased the total BCL-2/BAX ratio, inhibited the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and the depolarization of mitochondrial transmembrane potential, blocked the leakage of cytochrome-c and the formation of the apoptosome, and consequently, suppressed mitochondrial apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

ApoE2 regulates the mitochondrial localization and expression of BCL-2 through the activation of the ERK1/2/CREB signaling cascade to evade the mitochondrial apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells. ApoE2 may be a distinct prognostic marker and a potential therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer.

Anti-oncogenic effects of dutasteride, a dual 5-alpha reductase inhibitor and a drug for benign prostate hyperplasia, in bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

The incidence of bladder cancer (BCa) is approximately four times higher in men than in women. To develop effective BCa treatments, there is an urgent need to understand the differences in the BCa control mechanisms based on gender. Our recent clinical study showed that androgen suppression therapy using 5α-reductase inhibitors and androgen deprivation therapy affects BCa progression, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown.

METHODS

mRNA expression levels of the androgen receptor (AR) and SLC39A9 (membrane AR) in T24 and J82 BCa cells were evaluated by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). The effect of dutasteride, a 5α-reductase inhibitor, in BCa progression was determined in cells transfected with control and AR-overexpressing plasmids. In addition, cell viability and migration assays, RT-PCR, and western blot analysis were performed to analyze the effect of dutasteride on BCa in the presence of testosterone. Finally, steroidal 5α-reductase 1 (SRD5A1), one of the dutasteride target genes, was silenced in T24 and J82 BCa cells using control and shRNA-containing plasmids, and the oncogenic role of SRD5A1 was evaluated.

RESULTS

Dutasteride treatment led to significant inhibition of the testosterone-induced increase dependent on AR and SLC39A9 in cell viability and migration of T24 and J82 BCa cells and induced alterations in the expression level of cancer progression proteins, such as metalloproteases, p21, BCL-2, NF-KB, and WNT in AR-negative BCa. Furthermore, the bioinformatic analysis showed that mRNA expression levels of SRD5A1 were significantly higher in BCa tissues than in normal paired tissues. A positive correlation between SRD5A1 expression and poor patient survival was observed in patients with BCa. Also, Dutasteride treatment reduced cell proliferation and migration via blocking the SRD5A1 in BCa.

CONCLUSIONS

Dutasteride inhibited testosterone-induced BCa progression dependent on SLC39A9 in AR-negative BCa and repressed oncogenic signaling pathways, including those of metalloproteases, p21, BCL-2, NF-KB, and WNT. Our results also suggest that SRD5A1 plays a pro-oncogenic role in BCa. This work provides potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of BCa.

Does the Expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and Bcl-2 Have a Prognostic Significance in Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer?

Lung cancer is the most common cause of mortality from malignant tumors worldwide. The five-year survival rate for people with advanced stages varies considerably, from 35.4% to 6.9%. The angiogenic potential of bcl2 is not well known, nor is the way in which tumor cells with excessive bcl2 expression affect VEGF production. Hypothetically, given that tumor growth, progression and metastasis are dependent on angiogenesis, the antiapoptotic effect is expected to form a link between these two molecules. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between bcl-2 and VEGF expression, clinicopathological features and survival in 216 patients with advanced NSCLC. Archival tumor tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry for the expression of bcl-2 and VEGF. Immunoreactivity for bcl-2 was observed in 41.4% of NSCLCs, 51% of squamous and 34.8% of adenocarcinomas-expressed Bcl-2. There was an inverse correlation of mononuclear stromal reaction and bcl-2 expression in adenocarcinoma (p < 0.0005). A total of 71.8% NSCLCs were VEGF positive, 56% of squamous and 82.2% of adenocarcinomas. High level of VEGF expression was significantly associated with histology type (p = 0.043), low histology grade (p = 0.014), clinical stage IV (p = 0.018), smoking history (p = 0.008) and EGFR mutations (p = 0.026). There was an inverse correlation in the expression of Bcl-2 and VEGF in NSCLC patients (p = 0.039, r = -0.163). Two-year survival of patients with unresectable NSCLC was 39.3%, and 50% of patients were alive at 17 months. Our results demonstrated no difference in survival for patients in advanced NSCLC grouped by bcl-2 and VEGF status. Additionally, we observed an inverse correlation in the expression of Bcl-2 and VEGF in NSCLC and mononuclear reaction and bcl-2 expression in adenocarcinomas.

Alkaloid from Alstonia yunnanensis diels root against gastrointestinal cancer: Acetoxytabernosine inhibits apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Liver cancer belongs to Gastrointestinal (GI) malignancies which is a common clinical disease, a thorny public health problem, and one of the major diseases that endanger human health. Molecules from natural products (NPs) or their derivatives play an increasingly important role in various chronic diseases such as GI cancers. The chemical composition of the Alstonia yunnanensis Diels roots was studied using silica column chromatography, gel chromatography, recrystallization, and HPLC, and the compounds were structurally identified by modern spectral analysis using mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-, 13C-, HMQC-, HMBC-, and 1H-1HCOSY-NMR), ultraviolet and visible spectrum (UV), and electronic Circular Dichroism (ECD). Acetoxytabernosine (AC), an indole alkaloid with antitumor activity, was isolated from Alstonia yunnanensis Diels root. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of AC on the cell proliferation of BEL-7402 and SMMC7721 and to elucidate the underlying mechanism. The absolute configuration of AC was calculated by ECD (electronic circular dichroism). The effects of AC on the viability of different tumor cell lines were studied by the SRB method. The death mode of human hepatoma cells caused by AC was studied by TUNEL cell apoptosis detection and AnnexinV-FITC/PI double staining image. Mitochondrial membrane potential was detected by JC-1. The effects of AC on the expression of apoptosis-related proteins (Caspase9, Caspase3, and Parp-1) in SMMC7721 and BEL-7402 cells were detected by western blot. It was found that the absolute configuration of AC is 19(s), 20(s)-Acetoxytabernosine. AC could induce apoptosis of SMMC7721 and BEL-7402, and block the replication of DNA in the G1 phase. Under the treatment of AC, the total protein expression of apoptosis-related proteins (Caspase9, Caspase3, and Parp-1) significantly decreased in SMMC7721 and BEL-7402. The results suggested that AC induced apoptosis through a caspase-dependent intrinsic pathway in SMMC7721 and BEL-7402, and natural product-based drug development is an important direction in antitumor drug discovery and research.

Folic acid-Chitosan Coated Stylosin Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Fabrication, In Vitro-In Vivo Assessment in Breast Malignant Cells

Synthesis of targeted nanostructure lipid carriers for stylosin (STY-CFN-NPs) delivery to MCF-7 cells. STY-CFN-NPs were formulated via the homogenization and ultra-sonication technique. After evaluating the amount of drug encapsulation and FA binding, the toxicity effect of the STY and STY-CFN-NPs on MCF-7 cells was measured by the MTT method. Cell cycle analysis, AO/PI staining and qPCR to assess the inducing of apoptosis as well as Tubo cancer cell inoculated mouse model for antitumor properties of STY-CFN-NPs were used. Significant increases in nanoparticle size and changes in zeta potential were observed after FA-CS coating on nanoparticles. Slow release of the STY within 144 h as well as the acceptable rate for STY encapsulation efficiency (92.4% and FA binding (52.5%) to the STY-CFN-NPs (PS: 66.26 ± 3.02 nm, ZP: 29.54 ± 1.01 mV and PDI: 0.32 ± 0.01) was reported. STY-CFN-NPs exhibited higher toxicity compared to STY suspension and treatment with STY-CFN-NPs was lead to increased apoptotic cells, stopped cells in the SubG1 phase, and also increased caspase and BAX expression and decreased BCL-2 and BCL-XL expression in in vitro and decreased the size of murine tumors (54.57% in 16 days) in in vivo. The results showed STY-CFN-NPs have good potential for breast cancer management.

In Vivo and in vitro antitumor activity of tomatine in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background: There is abundant ethnopharmacological evidence the uses of regarding Solanum species as antitumor and anticancer agents. Glycoalkaloids are among the molecules with antiproliferative activity reported in these species.

Purpose: To evaluate the anticancer effect of the Solanum glycoalkaloid tomatine in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in vitro (HepG2 cells) and in vivo models.

Methods: The resazurin reduction assay was performed to detect the effect of tomatine on cell viability in human HepG2 cell lines. Programmed cell death was investigated by means of cellular apoptosis assays using Annexin V. The expression of cancer related proteins was detected by Western blotting (WB). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium were determined by 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate and Fluo-4, respectively. Intrahepatic HepG2 xenograft mouse model was used to elucidate the effect of tomatine on tumor growth in vivo.

Results and Discussion: Tomatine reduced HepG2 cell viability and induced the early apoptosis phase of cell death, consistently with caspase-3, -7, Bcl-2 family, and P53 proteins activation. Furthermore, tomatine increased intracellular ROS and cytosolic Ca⁺² levels. Moreover, the NSG mouse xenograft model showed that treating mice with tomatine inhibited HepG2 tumor growth.

Conclusion: Tomatine inhibits in vitro and in vivo HCC tumorigenesis in part via modulation of p53, Ca⁺², and ROS signalling. Thus, the results suggest the potential cancer therapeutic use of tomatine in HCC patients.

High efficacy of tamoxifen-loaded L-lysine coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in cell cycle arrest and anti-cancer activity for breast cancer therapy

Introduction: Due to the side effects of drugs, the development of nanoscale drug delivery systems has led to a significant improvement in medicinal therapies due to drug pharmacokinetics changes, decreased toxicity, and increased half-life of the drug. This study aimed to synthesize tamoxifen (TMX)-loaded L-lysine coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as a nano-carrier to investigate its cytotoxic effects and anti-cancer properties against MCF-7 cancer cells.

Methods: Magnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were synthesized and coated with L-lysine (F-Lys NPs). Then, TMX was loaded onto these NPs. The characteristics of synthesized nanoparticles (F-Lys-TMX NPs) were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The drug release was analyzed at pH 5.8 and pH 7.4. The MCF-7 cells were exposed to F-Lys-TMX NPs, F-Lys NPs, and TMX for 24, 48, and 72 hours. To evaluate the cytotoxic potential of designed nanoparticles, MTT and apoptosis assays, real-time PCR, and cell cycle analysis was carried out.

Results: The F-Lys-TMX NPs had spherical morphology with a size ranging from 9 to 30 nm. By increasing the nanoparticles concentration and treatment time, more cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction were observed in F-Lys-TMX NPs-treated cells compared to the TMX. The expression levels of ERBB2, cyclin D1, and cyclin E genes were down-regulated and expression levels of the caspase-3 and caspase-9 genes were up-regulated. Studies on the drug release revealed a slow and controlled pH-dependent release of the nanoparticles. Cell cycle analysis indicated that F-Lys-TMX NPs could arrest the cells at the G0/G1 phase.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that F-Lys-TMX NPs are more effective and have the potential for cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction compared to the TMX. Hence, F-Lys-TMX NPs can be considered as an anti-cancer agent against MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

Colorectal Cancer Chemoprevention by S-Allyl Cysteine–Caffeic Acid Hybrids: In Vitro Biological Activity and In Silico Studies

Conventional chemotherapy for colorectal cancer (CRC) gives only a small increase in patient survival, since it is often diagnosed at late stages, when the tumor has disseminated to other organs. Moreover, it is common to observe that malignant cells may acquire resistance to conventional chemotherapies through different mechanisms, including reducing drug activation or accumulation (by enhancing efflux), inducing alterations in molecular targets, and inhibiting the DNA damage response, among other strategies. Considering these facts, the discovery of new molecules with therapeutic potential has become an invaluable tool in chemoprevention. In this context, we previously evaluated two hybrids (SAC-CAFA-MET and SAC-CAFA-PENT) that exhibited selective cytotoxicity against SW480 cells, with better results than the conventional chemotherapeutic agent (5-fluorouracil; 5-FU). Here, we investigated the possible mechanisms of these molecules in greater depth, to identify whether they could be valuable therapeutic scaffolds in the search for new molecules with chemopreventive potential for the treatment of CRC. Both compounds reduced ROS formation, which could be related to antioxidant effects. Further evaluations showed that SAC-CAFA-MET induces cell death independent of caspases and the tumor-suppressor protein p53, but probably mediated by the negative regulation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2. In addition, the lack of activation of caspase-8 and the positive regulation of caspase-3 induced by SAC-CAFA-PENT suggest that this compound acts through an apoptotic mechanism, probably initiated by intrinsic pathways. Furthermore, the downregulation of IL-6 by SAC-CAFA-PENT suggests that it also induces a significant anti-inflammatory process. In addition, docking studies would suggest caspase-3 modulation as the primary mechanism by which SAC-CAFA-PENT elicits apoptosis in SW480human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Meanwhile, density functional theory (DFT) calculations suggest that both hybrids would produce effects in the modulation of ROS in SW480 cells via the hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) pathway. The present work notes that SAC-CAFA-MET and SAC-CAFA-PENT could be potential candidates for further investigations in the search for potential chemopreventive agents.

Anticancer Profile of Rhodanines: Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) and Molecular Targets-A Review

The rhodanine core is a well-known privileged heterocycle in medicinal chemistry. The rhodanines, as subtypes of thiazolidin-4-ones, show a broad spectrum of biological activity, including anticancer properties. This review aims to analyze the anticancer features of the rhodanines described over the last decade in the scientific literature. The structure–activity relationship of rhodanine derivatives, as well as some of the molecular targets, were discussed. The information contained in this review could be of benefit to the design of new, effective small molecules with anticancer potential among rhodanine derivatives or their related heterocycles.

Real-Time Monitoring the Cytotoxic Effect of Andrographolide on Human Oral Epidermoid Carcinoma Cells

Andrographolide is an active diterpenoid compound extracted from Andrographis paniculata. It exhibits antiinflammatory and anticancer effects. Previous studies show that it is non-toxic to experimental animals. The leading causes of cancer are chronic inflammation and high blood glucose. This study determines the cytotoxic effect of andrographolide on cellular morphology, viability, and migration for human oral epidermoid carcinoma cell Meng-1 (OEC-M1). We use electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) to measure the subsequent overall impedance changes of the cell monolayer in response to different concentrations of andrographolide for 24 h (10–100 µM). The results for exposure of OEC-M1 cells to andrographolide (10–100 µM) for 24 h show a concentration-dependent decrease in the overall measured resistance at 4 kHz. AlamarBlue cell viability assay and annexin V also show the apoptotic effect of andrographolide on OEC-M1 cells. A reduction in wound-healing recovery rate is observed for cells treated with 30 μM andrographolide. This study demonstrates that ECIS can be used for the in vitro screening of anticancer drugs. ECIS detects the cytotoxic effect of drugs earlier than traditional biochemical assays, and it is more sensitive and shows more detail.

The role of autophagy in cadmium-induced acute toxicity in glomerular mesangial cells and tracking polyubiquitination of cytoplasmic p53 as a biomarker

Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic environmental pollutant that can severely damage the kidneys. Here, we show that Cd-induced apoptosis is promoted by the cytoplasmic polyubiquitination of p53 (polyUb-p53), which is regulated by the polyubiquitination of SQSTM1/p62 (polyUb-p62) and autophagy in mouse kidney mesangial cells (MES13E cells). p53 was detected in monomeric and different high-molecular-weight (HMW) forms after Cd exposure. Monomeric p53 levels decreased in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. HMW-p53 transiently accumulated in the cytoplasm independent of proteasome inhibition. The expression patterns of p53 were similar to those of p62 upon Cd exposure, and the interactions between polyUb-p53 and polyUb-p62 were observed using immunoprecipitation. P62 knockdown reduced polyUb-p53 and upregulated nuclear monomeric p53, whereas p53 knockdown reduced polyUb-p62. Autophagy inhibition induced by ATG5 knockdown reduced Cd-induced polyUb-p62 and polyUb-p53 but upregulated the levels of nuclear p53. Pharmacological inhibition of autophagy by bafilomycin A1 increased polyUb-p62 and polyUb-p53 in the cytoplasm, indicating that p53 protein levels and subcellular localization were regulated by polyUb-p62 and autophagy. Immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence revealed an interaction between p53 and LC3B, indicating that p53 was taken up by autophagosomes. Cd-resistant RMES13E cells and kidney tissues from mice continuously injected with Cd had reduced polyUb-p53, polyUb-p62, and autophagy levels. Similar results were observed in renal cell carcinoma cell lines. These results indicate that cytoplasmic polyUb-p53 is a potential biomarker for Cd-induced acute toxicity in mesangial cells. In addition, upregulation of nuclear p53 may protect cells against Cd cytotoxicity, but abnormal p53 accumulation may contribute to tumor development.

The cellular localization and chemical modification of a protein that acts as a critical safeguard against cellular damage may directly contribute to the toxic effects of cadmium. P53 is an essential tumor suppressor that is also involved in numerous other important biological functions. Ki-Tae Jung and Seon-Hee Oh of Chosun University, Gwangju, South Korea have now demonstrated that this protein also undergoes rapid changes in response to the environmental pollutant cadmium. P53 normally manages gene expression in the nucleus, but the authors found that it is rapidly shuttled to the cytoplasm and subjected to extensive chemical modification in cadmium-treated cultured kidney cells. This relocation appears to contribute directly to subsequent cell death, and the authors suggest that this P53 response could be an important biomarker for diagnosing human cadmium exposure.

Physiological Roles of Monomeric Amyloid-β and Implications for Alzheimer's Disease Therapeutics

Alzheimer's disease (AD) progressively inflicts impairment of synaptic functions with notable deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) as senile plaques within the extracellular space of the brain. Accordingly, therapeutic directions for AD have focused on clearing Aβ plaques or preventing amyloidogenesis based on the amyloid cascade hypothesis. However, the emerging evidence suggests that Aβ serves biological roles, which include suppressing microbial infections, regulating synaptic plasticity, promoting recovery after brain injury, sealing leaks in the blood-brain barrier, and possibly inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells. More importantly, these functions were found in in vitro and in vivo investigations in a hormetic manner, that is to be neuroprotective at low concentrations and pathological at high concentrations. We herein summarize the physiological roles of monomeric Aβ and current Aβ-directed therapies in clinical trials. Based on the evidence, we propose that novel therapeutics targeting Aβ should selectively target Aβ in neurotoxic forms such as oligomers while retaining monomeric Aβ in order to preserve the physiological functions of Aβ monomers.

A natural selenium polysaccharide from Pleurotus ostreatus: Structural elucidation, anti-gastric cancer and anti-colon cancer activity in vitro

The development and application of new natural selenium polysaccharides with relatively clear structure and excellent activity have become hot and difficult issues. This study used GC-MS and 2D NMR to characterize the detailed chain structure information of selenium polysaccharide (Se-POP-3) from Selenium-enriched Pleurotus ostreatus, and then explored its anti-gastric cancer and anti-colon cancer effects in vitro. Results showed that the main chain of Se-POP-3 was →[3)-β-D-Glcp-(1]₂ → 6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, and the branch was α-D-Glcp-(1 → [4)-α-D-Glcp-(1]₄→, which was connected to the main chain through the O-3 bond of →3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → glycosidic bond. In addition, Se-POP-3 could reduce viability, induce apoptosis, inhibit migration and invasion, destroy the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and inhibit the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of MGC-803 and HCT-116 cells in vitro. Moreover, this study also showed that within the concentration range set in this study, Se-POP-3 had no significant effect on the growth of normal cells (NCM460 cells). This study can provide a theoretical basis for the potential application of Se-POP-3 as an anti-gastrointestinal cancer drug or functional food.

Molecular Mechanisms of Tumor Immunomodulation in the Microenvironment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer remains one of the most important health challenges in our society. The development of cancer immunotherapies has fostered the need to better understand the anti-tumor immune mechanisms at play in the tumor microenvironment and the strategies by which the tumor escapes them. In this review, we provide an overview of the molecular interactions that regulate tumor inflammation. We particularly discuss immunomodulatory cell-cell interactions, cell-soluble factor interactions, cell-extracellular matrix interactions and cell-microbiome interactions. While doing so, we highlight relevant examples of tumor immunomodulation in colorectal cancer.

RNA uridyl transferases TUT4/7 differentially regulate miRNA variants depending on the cancer cell type

The human terminal uridyl transferases TUT4 and TUT7 (TUT4/7) catalyze the additions of uridines at the 3' end of RNAs, including the precursors of the tumor suppressor miRNA let-7 upon recruitment by the oncoprotein LIN28A. As a consequence, let-7 family miRNAs are down-regulated. Disruption of this TUT4/7 activity inhibits tumorigenesis. Hence, targeting TUT4/7 could be a potential anticancer therapy. In this study, we investigate TUT4/7-mediated RNA regulation in two cancer cell lines by establishing catalytic knockout models. Upon TUT4/7 mutation, we observe a significant reduction in miRNA uridylation, which results in defects in cancer cell properties such as cell proliferation and migration. With the loss of TUT4/7-mediated miRNA uridylation, the uridylated miRNA variants are replaced by adenylated isomiRs. Changes in miRNA modification profiles are accompanied by deregulation of expression levels in specific cases. Unlike let-7s, most miRNAs do not depend on LIN28A for TUT4/7-mediated regulation. Additionally, we identify TUT4/7-regulated cell-type-specific miRNA clusters and deregulation in their corresponding mRNA targets. Expression levels of miR-200c-3p and miR-141-3p are regulated by TUT4/7 in a cancer cell-type-specific manner. Subsequently, BCL2, which is a well-established target of miR-200c is up-regulated. Therefore, TUT4/7 loss causes deregulation of miRNA-mRNA networks in a cell-type-specific manner. Understanding of the underlying biology of such cell-type-specific deregulation will be an important aspect of targeting TUT4/7 for potential cancer therapies.

Association of B-cell lymphoma 2/microRNA-497 gene expression ratio score with metastasis in patients with colorectal cancer: A propensity-matched cohort analysis

Background

Deregulated microRNAs (miRs) significantly impact cancer development and progression. Our in silico analysis revealed that miR‐497 and its target gene B‐cell lymphoma‐2 (BCL2) could be related to poor cancer outcomes.

Purpose

To investigate the BCL2/miRNA‐497 expression ratio in colorectal cancer (CRC) and explore its association with the clinicopathological characteristics and CRC prognosis.

Methods

Archived samples from 106 CRC patients were enrolled. MiR‐497 and BCL2 gene expressions were detected by Taq‐Man Real‐Time quantitative polymerase chain reaction in propensity‐matched metastatic and nonmetastatic cohorts after elimination of confounder bias.

Results

B‐cell lymphoma‐2 gene was upregulated in metastatic samples (median = 1.16, 95%CI = 1.09–1.60) compared to nonmetastatic (median = 1.02, 95%CI = 0.89–1.25, p < 0.001). In contrast, lower levels of miR‐495 were detected in specimens with distant metastasis (median = 0.05, 95%CI = 0.04–0.20) than nonmetastatic samples (median = 0.54, 95%CI = 0.47–0.58, p < 0.001). Estimated BCL2/miR‐497 ratio yielded a significant differential expression between the two cohort groups. Higher scores were observed in metastasis group (median = 1.39, 95%CI = 0.9–1.51) than nonmetastatic patients (median = 0.29, 95%CI = 0.19–0.39, p < 0.001). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed BCL2/miR‐497 ratio score to have the highest predictive accuracy for metastasis at presentation. The area under the curve was 0.90 (95%CI = 0.839–0.964, p < 0.001) at cut‐off of >0.525, with high sensitivity 81.1% (95%CI = 68.6%–89.4%) and specificity 92.5% (95%CI = 82.1%–97.0%). Also, the ratio score was negatively correlated with disease‐free survival (r = −0.676, p < 0.001) and overall survival times (r = −0.650, p < 0.001). Kaplan–Meier curves showed lower survival rates in cohorts with high‐score compared to low‐score patients.

Conclusion

The BCL2/miR497 expression ratio is associated with poor CRC prognosis in terms of metastasis and short survival.

Insights on preparation, structure and activities of Gracilaria lemaneiformis polysaccharide

Gracilaria lemaneiformis is a kind of edible economic red algae, which is rich in polysaccharide, phycobiliprotein, pigments, minerals and other nutrients and functional components. Polysaccharide is one of the main active components of Gracilaria lemaneiformis, which has been reported to present various physiological bioactivities, including regulation of glycolipid metabolism, immune, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory and other biological activities. This paper aims to provide a brief summary of extraction, purification, structural characteristics, and physiological activities of Gracilaria lemaneiformis polysaccharide (GLP). This article is able to provide theoretical basis for the future research and exploitation of GLP, and improve its potential development to promote the healthy and sustainable processing and high value utilization industry of Gracilaria lemaneiformis.

From Apoptosis to Necroptosis: The Death Wishes to Cancer

DNA mutation is a common event in the human body, but in most situations, it is fixed right away by the DNA damage response program. In case the damage is too severe to repair, the programmed cell death system will be activated to get rid of the cell. However, if the damage affects some critical components of this system, the genetic scars are kept and multiply through mitosis, possibly leading to cancer someday. There are many forms of programmed cell death, but apoptosis and necroptosis represent the default and backup strategy, respectively, in the maintenance of optimal cell population as well as in cancer prevention. For the same reason, the ideal approach for cancer treatment is to induce apoptosis in the cancer cells because it proceeds 20 times faster than tumor cell proliferation and leaves no mess behind. Induction of necroptosis can be the second choice in case apoptosis becomes hard to achieve, however, necroptosis finishes the job at a cost-inflammation.

Bcl-2 Modulation in p53 Signaling Pathway by Flavonoids: A Potential Strategy towards the Treatment of Cancer

Cancer is a major cause of death, affecting human life in both developed and developing countries. Numerous antitumor agents exist but their toxicity and low efficacy limits their utility. Furthermore, the complex pathophysiological mechanisms of cancer, serious side effects and poor prognosis restrict the administration of available cancer therapies. Thus, developing novel therapeutic agents are required towards a simultaneous targeting of major dysregulated signaling mediators in cancer etiology, while possessing lower side effects. In this line, the plant kingdom is introduced as a rich source of active phytochemicals. The secondary metabolites produced by plants could potentially regulate several dysregulated pathways in cancer. Among the secondary metabolites, flavonoids are hopeful phytochemicals with established biological activities and minimal side effects. Flavonoids inhibit B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) via the p53 signaling pathway, which is a significant apoptotic target in many cancer types, hence suppressing a major dysregulated pathway in cancer. To date, there have been no studies reported which extensively highlight the role of flavonoids and especially the different classes of flavonoids in the modulation of Bcl-2 in the P53 signaling pathway. Herein, we discuss the modulation of Bcl-2 in the p53 signaling pathway by different classes of flavonoids and highlight different mechanisms through which this modulation can occur. This study will provide a rationale for the use of flavonoids against different cancers paving a new mechanistic-based approach to cancer therapy.

Potential of Bioactive Food Components against Gastric Cancer: Insights into Molecular Mechanism and Therapeutic Targets

Gastric cancer, also known as stomach cancer, is a cancer that develops from the lining of the stomach. Accumulated evidence and epidemiological studies have indicated that bioactive food components from natural products play an important role in gastric cancer prevention and treatment, although its mechanism of action has not yet been elucidated. Particularly, experimental studies have shown that natural bioactive food products display a protective effect against gastric cancer via numerous molecular mechanisms, such as suppression of cell metastasis, anti-angiogenesis, inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and modulation of autophagy. Chemotherapy remains the standard treatment for advanced gastric cancer along with surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, as well as immunotherapy, and its adverse side effects including neutropenia, stomatitis, mucositis, diarrhea, nausea, and emesis are well documented. However, administration of naturally occurring bioactive phytochemical food components could increase the efficacy of gastric chemotherapy and other chemotherapeutic resistance. Additionally, several studies have suggested that bioactive food components with structural stability, potential bioavailability, and powerful bioactivity are important to develop novel treatment strategies for gastric cancer management, which may minimize the adverse effects. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize the potential therapeutic effects of natural bioactive food products on the prevention and treatment of gastric cancer with intensive molecular mechanisms of action, bioavailability, and safety efficacy.

Star polyester-based folate acid-targeting nanoparticles for doxorubicin and curcumin co-delivery to combat multidrug-resistant breast cancer

Chemotherapeutic treatments are indispensable in the treatment of breast cancer. However, the emergence of multidrug-resistance, strong cell toxicity, and poor targeting selection has inhibited their clinical application. In this study, two synergistic drugs, doxorubicin (DOX) and curcumin (CUR), were co-administered to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR). Based on the characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, we developed folic acid-modified nanoparticles ((DOX + CUR)-FA-NPs) based on a star-shaped polyester (FA-TRI-CL) to enhance the tumor targeting selectivity and drug loading (DL) capacity. The (DOX + CUR)-FA-NPs displayed a characteristic spheroid morphology with an ideal diameter (186.52 nm), polydispersity index (0.024), zeta potential (-18.87 mV), and good entrapment efficiency (97.64%/78.13%, DOX/CUR) and DL (20.27%/11.29%, DOX/CUR) values. In vitro pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic experiments demonstrated that the (DOX + CUR)-FA-NPs were gradually released, and they displayed the highest cell apoptosis and cellular uptake in MCF-7/ADR cells. Additionally, in vivo results illustrated that (DOX + CUR)-FA-NPs not only displayed significant tumor targeting and anticancer efficacy, but also induced less pathological damage to the normal tissue. In summary, co-administered DOX and CUR appeared to reverse MDR, and this targeted combinational nanoscale delivery system could thus be a promising carrier for tumor therapies in the future.

[Effect of DR5-mediated docetaxel-loaded lipid microbubble combined with ultrasoundtargeted microbubble destruction on HepG2 cell proliferation and apoptosis]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of DR5-mediated docetaxel-targeted lipid microbubbles (MBs) combined with ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction on apoptosis and expressions of Bcl-2, nuclear factor-κB(NF-κB), caspase-8, and DR5 in human HepG2 cells.

METHODS

HepG2 cells were treated with docetaxel at its 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 5 nmol/L, docetaxel combined with ultrasound, blank MBs, blank MBs combined with ultrasound (0.5 W/cm2 for 45 s), drugloaded lipid MBs (DLLM), DLLM combined with ultrasound, DR5-mediated DLLM (DR5-DLLM), or DR5-DLLM combined with ultrasound.After the treatments, the cells were further cultured for 24 h, and CCK-8 assay, TUNEL staining and flow cytometry were used to assess cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle changes; the changes in mRNA and protein expression levels of Bcl-2, NF-κB, caspase-8, and DR5 were detected with RT-qPCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

Among all the treatments, DR5-DLLM combined with ultrasound produced the strongest effects to inhibit the proliferation (P < 0.001), promote apoptosis (P < 0.001), and cause G2/M cell cycle arrest (P < 0.001) in HepG2 cells.The combined treatment with DR5-DLLM and ultrasound also significantly downregulated Bcl-2 and NF-κB (P < 0.001) and upregulated DR5 and caspase-8 expressions (P < 0.001) at both the mRNA and protein levels.

CONCLUSION

DR5-DLLM combined with ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction can induce G2/M cell cycle arrest, proliferation inhibition and apoptosis in HepG2 cells by downregulating Bcl-2 and NF-κB and upregulating DR5 and caspase-8 expressions, indicating its value as a novel ultrasoundtargeted therapy for liver cancer.

Self-assembled fluorescent hybrid nanoparticles-mediated collaborative lncRNA CCAT1 silencing and curcumin delivery for synchronous colorectal cancer theranostics

Background

Cancer synergistic therapy strategy in combination with therapeutic gene and small molecule drug offers the possibility to amplify anticancer efficiency. Colon cancer-associated transcript-1 (CCAT1) is a well identified oncogenic long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) exerting tumorigenic effects in a variety of cancers including colorectal cancer (CRC).

Results

In the present work, curcumin (Cur) and small interfering RNA targeting lncRNA CCAT1(siCCAT1) were co-incorporated into polymeric hybrid nanoparticles (CSNP), which was constructed by self-assembling method with two amphiphilic copolymers, polyethyleneimine-poly (d, l-lactide) (PEI-PDLLA) and 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy (polyethylene glycol) (DSPE-mPEG). Owing to the multicolor fluorescence characteristics of PEI-PDLLA, the constructed CSNP could be served as a theranostic nanomedicine for synchronous therapy and imaging both in vitro and in vivo. Resultantly, proliferation and migration of HT-29 cells were efficiently inhibited, and the highest apoptosis ratio was induced by CSNP with coordination patterns. Effective knockdown of lncRNA CCAT1 and concurrent regulation of relevant downstream genes could be observed. Furthermore, CSNP triggered conspicuous anti-tumor efficacy in the HT-29 subcutaneous xenografts model with good biosafety and biocompatibility during the treatment.

Conclusion

On the whole, our studies demonstrated that the collaborative lncRNA CCAT1 silencing and Cur delivery based on CSNP might emerge as a preferable and promising strategy for synergetic anti-CRC therapy.

Graphic abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00981-7.

Chemogenomics for drug discovery: clinical molecules from open access chemical probes

In recent years chemical probes have proved valuable tools for the validation of disease-modifying targets, facilitating investigation of target function, safety, and translation. Whilst probes and drugs often differ in their properties, there is a belief that chemical probes are useful for translational studies and can accelerate the drug discovery process by providing a starting point for small molecule drugs. This review seeks to describe clinical candidates that have been inspired by, or derived from, chemical probes, and the process behind their development. By focusing primarily on examples of probes developed by the Structural Genomics Consortium, we examine a variety of epigenetic modulators along with other classes of probe.