Memory enhancing effects of saffron in aged mice are correlated with antioxidant protection

Multi-Targeting Phytochemicals for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a type of neurodegenerative illness in which β-amyloid (Aβ) and tau protein accumulate in neurons in the form of tangles. The pathophysiological pathway of AD consists of Aβ-amyloid peptides, tau proteins, and oxidative stress in neurons and increased neuro-inflammatory response. Food and Drug Administration in the United States has authorized various drugs for the effective treatment of AD, which include galantamine, rivastigmine, donepezil, memantine, sodium oligomannate, lecanemab, and aducanumab. The major disadvantage of these drugs is that they only provide "symptomatic" relief. They are most effective in the early stages or for mild to moderate cases of the disease, but are not suitable for long-term use. Besides conventional therapies, phytochemicals have the potential to stop the progression of AD. According to research, the use of potential phytochemicals against AD has gained attention due to their potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein, metal chelation, and anti-amyloid properties. This study seeks to provide an up-to-date compilation of the most current and promising breakthroughs in AD therapy using phytochemicals. It could be concluded that phytochemicals light serve as an effective therapy for AD. However, more mechanistic investigations are needed to determine the clinical implications of phytochemicals in AD treatment.

Saffron and its major constituents against neurodegenerative diseases: A mechanistic review

BACKGROUND

Neurodegeneration has been recognized as the main pathophysiological alteration in the majority of brain-related diseases. Despite contemporary attempts to provide acceptable medicinal therapies, the conclusion has not been much beneficial. Besides, the complex pathophysiological mechanisms behind neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) urge the needs for finding novel multi-target agents. Accordingly, saffron with major active constituents and as multi-targeting agents have shown beneficial effects in modulating NDDs with higher efficacy and lower side effects.

PURPOSE

The present study provides a systematic and comprehensive review of the existing in vitro, in vivo, and clinical data on the effectiveness, and signaling pathways of saffron and its key phytochemical components in the management of NDDs. The need to develop novel saffron delivery systems is also considered.

METHODS

Studies were identified through a systematic and comprehensive search in Science Direct, PubMed, and Scopus databases through April 30, 2024. The whole saffron major constituents (e.g., saffron, crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal) and NDDs (e.g., neuro*, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington*, Parkinson*, Alzheimer*, and brain) were selected as keywords to find related studies. In the systematic analysis, 64 articles were directly included in the current study. Additional reports were added within the comprehensive studies in the review.

RESULTS

Saffron and its active metabolites crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin have shown acceptable efficacy in managing NDDs like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, and other NDDs via modulating apoptotic (e.g., caspases, Bax/Bcl-2, cytochrome c, and death receptors), inflammatory (e.g., NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2), and oxidative strass (e.g., Nrf2, GSH, GPx, CAT, SOD, MDA, ROS, and nitrite) signaling pathways. The presented in vitro, in vivo, and clinical evidences showed us a better future of controlling NDDs with higher efficacy, while decreasing associated side effects with no significant toxicity. Additionally, employing novel delivery systems could increase the efficacy of saffron phytoconstituents to resolve the issues pharmacokinetic limitations.

CONCLUSION

Saffron and its major constituents employ anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and antioxidant mechanisms in modulating several dysregulated-signaling pathways in NDDs. However, further research is necessary to elucidate the precise underlying mechanisms in exploring the feasibility of using saffron active compounds against NDDs. More studies should focus on dose-response relationships, long-term effects, highlighting key mechanisms, and designing more well-controlled clinical trials. Additionally, developing stable and cost-benefit novel delivery systems in future works helps to remove the pharmacokinetic limitations of saffron major constituents.

The brain and systemic oxidative stress and memory changes induced by inhaled paraquat in rat improved by Crocus sativus

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Crocus sativus (Cs) on paraquat (PQ)-induced learning and memory deficits as well as brain and lung oxidative stress and systemic inflammation, and oxidative stress in rats. Rats were exposed to saline (Ctrl) or PQ (PQ groups) aerosols. PQ groups were treated with 0.03 mg/kg/day dexamethasone (Dexa), 20 and 80 mg/kg/day Cs-L and Cs-H, 5 mg/kg/day pioglitazone (Pio), and Cs-L+Pio for 16 days during PQ exposure period. Learning and memory abilities were assessed by Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance tests. PQ group showed increased numbers of total and differential WBCs in blood, and increased malondialdehyde (MDA), in the serum, brain, and lung but reduced thiol, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels compared to the control group (for all, p < 0.001). The escape latency and traveled distance were increased in the PQ group. However, the time spent in the target quadrant in the MWM test and the latency to enter the dark room were reduced after receiving an electrical shock (p < 0.05 to P<0.001). In all treated groups, measured values were improved compared to PQ group (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). The combination of Cs-L+Pio showed more pronounced effects compared to either treatment alone (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). These findings suggest that Cs has neuroprotective properties and may be beneficial in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases induced by noxious agents such as PQ.

Protective effect of saffron carotenoids against amyloid beta-induced neurotoxicity in differentiated PC12 cells via the unfolded protein response and autophagy

The preventive effect of saffron against Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been reported. Herein, we studied the effect of Cro and Crt, saffron carotenoids, on the cellular model of AD. The MTT assay, flow cytometry, and elevated p-JNK, p-Bcl-2, and c-PARP indicated the AβOs-induced apoptosis in differentiated PC12 cells. Then, the protective effects of Cro/Crt on dPC12 cells against AβOs were investigated in preventive and therapeutic modalities. Starvation was used as a positive control. RT-PCR and Western blot results revealed the reduced eIF2α phosphorylation and increased spliced-XBP1, Beclin1, LC3II, and p62, which indicate the AβOs-induced autophagic flux defect, autophagosome accumulation, and apoptosis. Cro and Crt inhibited the JNK-Bcl-2-Beclin1 pathway. They altered Beclin1 and LC3II and decreased p62 expressions, leading cells to survival. Cro and Crt altered the autophagic flux by different mechanisms. So, Cro increased the rate of autophagosome degradation more than Crt, while Crt increased the rate of autophagosome formation more than Cro. The application of 4μ8C and chloroquine as the inhibitors of XBP1 and autophagy, respectively, confirmed these results. So, augmentation of the survival branches of UPR and autophagy is involved and may serve as an effective strategy to prevent the progression of AβOs toxicity.

Potential therapeutic effects of crocin

Crocin, a natural bioactive compound derived from saffron (Crocus sativus) and other Crocus genera, has gained significant attention recently due to its potential therapeutic properties. The multifaceted nature of crocin's biological effects has piqued the interest of researchers and health enthusiasts, prompting further investigations into its mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications. This review article comprehensively explores the emerging evidence supporting crocin's role as a promising ally in protecting against metabolic disorders. The review covers the molecular mechanisms underlying crocin's beneficial effects and highlights its potential applications in preventing and treating diverse pathological conditions. Understanding the mechanisms through which crocin exerts its protective effects could advance scientific knowledge and offer potential avenues for developing novel therapeutic interventions. As we uncover the potential of crocin as a valuable ally in the fight against disorders, it becomes evident that nature's palette holds remarkable solutions for enhancing our health.

ADME/PK Insights of Crocetin: A Molecule Having an Unusual Chemical Structure with Druglike Features

Crocetin is a promising phyto-based molecule to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). The chemical structure of crocetin is incongruent with various standard structural features of CNS drugs. As poor pharmacokinetic behavior is the major hurdle for any candidate to become a drug, we elucidated its druggable characteristics by implementing in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches, as limited ADME/PK information is available. Results demonstrate several attributes of crocetin based on rules of drug-likeness, lipophilicity, pKa, P-gp inhibitory activity, plasma stability, RBC partitioning, metabolic stability, CYP inhibitory action, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, oral bioavailability, and pharmacokinetic interaction with marketed anti-Alzheimer's drugs (memantine, donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine). However, aqueous solubility, chemical stability, plasma protein binding, and P-gp induction are some concerns associated with this molecule that should be taken into consideration during its further development. Overall results indicate favorable ADME/PK behavior and potential druggable candidature of crocetin.

Therapeutic potential of saffron in brain disorders: From bench to bedside

Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., which has been used for centuries as a coloring and flavoring agent, as well as a source of medicinal compounds. Saffron contains various bioactive constituents, such as crocin, crocetin, safranal, picrocrocin, and kaempferol, that have shown potential benefits for human health. Among them, crocin is the most abundant and characteristic constituent of saffron, responsible for its bright red color and antioxidant properties. One of the most promising applications of saffron and its constituents is in the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other brain disorders. Saffron and its constituents have been reported to exert neuroprotective effects through various mechanisms, such as modulating neurotransmitters, enhancing neurogenesis, reducing neuroinflammation, regulating oxidative stress, activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway, and modulating epigenetic factors. Several clinical and preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy and safety of saffron and its constituents in improving cognitive function, mood, and other neurological outcomes. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the therapeutic potential of saffron and its constituents in neurological disorders, from bench to bedside. We also discuss the challenges and future directions for the development of saffron-based therapies for brain health.

Improvement of inhaled paraquat induced lung and systemic inflammation, oxidative stress and memory changes by safranal

The effects of safranal and pioglitazone alone and their combination on inhaled paraquat (PQ)-induced systemic oxidative stress and inflammation as well as behavioral changes were examined in rats. In this study, animals were exposed to saline (Ctrl) or PQ (PQ groups) aerosols. PQ exposed animals were treated with dexamethasone, 0.8 and 3.2 mg/kg/day safranal (Saf-L and Saf-H), 5 mg/kg/day pioglitazone (Pio), and Saf-L + Pio for 16 days during PQ exposure period. PQ group showed increased numbers of total and differential WBCs in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), increased malondialdehyde (MDA), in the serum BALF and brain reduced thiol, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels compared to the control group (for all, p < 0.001). The escape latency and traveled distance were enhanced, but the time spent in the target quadrant in the probe day and the latency to enter the dark room 3, 24, 48, and 72 h after receiving an electrical shock, (in the shuttle box test) were decreased in the PQ group (p < 0.05 to P < 0.001). In all treated groups, all measure values were improved compared to PQ group (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). In combination treated group of Saf-L + Pio, most measured values were more improved than the Saf-L and Pio groups (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). Saf and Pio improved PQ-induced changes similar to dexamethasone but the effects produced by combination treatments of Saf-L + Pio were more prominent than Pio and Saf-L alone, suggesting a potentiating effect for the combination of the two agents.

Therapeutic effects of saffron and its components on neurodegenerative diseases

Due to an increase in the number of older people in recent years, neurodegenerative diseases as the most important age-related neurological disorders are considered as a great threat to human health. The treatment strategies for these disorders are symptomatic and there is no known definitive treatment; however, recently, several studies have investigated the effectiveness of some herbs and their components in limiting the progression and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we searched Medline (via PubMed), Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar databases. The keywords used in the search were: saffron [title/abstract] or (saffron compound [title/abstract]) and (neurological disorders [title/abstract]), publication date range (2010-2023), and language (English). After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 30 articles remained. Of the 30 articles included in the study, six studies on the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders by saffron and its components were in the clinical trial phase, and 24 studies were in the preclinical phase. Saffron and its compounds can play an important role in inhibiting neuroinflammation and excitotoxic pathways, modulating autophagy and apoptosis, attenuating oxidative damage, and activating defensive antioxidant enzymes, resulting in neuroprotection against neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, this study aimed to review the studies on the effects of saffron and its compounds on the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Echinacoside: A promising active natural products and pharmacological agents

Echinacoside, a natural phenylethanoid glycoside, was discovered and isolated from the garden plant Echinacea angustifolia DC., belonging to the Compositae family, approximately sixty years ago. Extensive investigations have revealed that it possesses a wide array of pharmacologically beneficial activities for human health, particularly notable for its neuroprotective and anticancer activity. Several crucial concerns surfaced, encompassing the recognition of active metabolites that exhibited inadequate bioavailability in their prototype form, the establishment of precise molecular signal pathways or targets associated with the aforementioned effects of echinacoside, and the scarcity of dependable clinical trials. Hence, the question remains unanswered as to whether scientific research can effectively utilize this natural compound. To support future studies on this natural product, it is imperative to provide a systematic overview and insights into potential future prospects. The current review provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing knowledge on echinacoside, encompassing its wide distribution, structural diversity and metabolism, diverse therapeutic applications, and improvement of echinacoside bioavailability for its potential utilization.

Effect of safranal or candesartan on 3-nitropropionicacid-induced biochemical, behavioral and histological alterations in a rat model of Huntington's disease

3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) is a potent mitochondrial inhibitor mycotoxin. Systemic administration of 3-NP can induce Huntington's disease (HD)-like symptoms in experimental animals. Safranal (Safr) that is found in saffron essential oil has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic actions. Candesartan (Cands) is an angiotensin receptor blocker that has the potential to prevent cognitive deficits. The present study aims to investigate the potential neuroprotective efficacy of Safr or Cands in 3-NP-induced rat model of HD. The experiments continued for nine consecutive days. Rats were randomly assigned into seven groups. The first group (Safr-control) was daily intraperitoneally injected with paraffin oil. The second group (Cands- and 3-NP-control) daily received an oral dose of 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose followed by an intraperitoneal injection of 0.9% saline. The third and fourth groups received a single daily dose of 50 mg/kg Safr (intraperitoneal) and 1 mg/kg Cands (oral), respectively. The sixth group was daily treated with 50 mg Safr kg/day (intraperitoneal) and was intraperitoneally injected with 20 mg 3-NP/ kg, from the 3rd till the 9th day. The seventh group was daily treated with 1 mg Cands /kg/day (oral) and was intraperitoneally injected with 20 mg 3-NP/ kg, from the 3rd till the 9th day. The present results revealed that 3-NP injection induced a considerable body weight loss, impaired memory and locomotor activity, reduced striatal monoamine levels. Furthermore, 3-NP administration remarkably increased striatal malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels, whereas markedly decreased the total antioxidant capacity. Moreover, 3-NP significantly upregulated the activities of inducible nitric oxide synthase and caspase-3 as well as the Fas ligand, in striatum. On the contrary, Safr and Cands remarkably alleviated the above-mentioned 3-NP-induced alterations. In conclusion, Safr and Cands may prevent or delay the progression of HD and its associated impairments through their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and neuromodulator effects.

Feeding crocin ameliorate cognitive dysfunction, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress in rats

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the current study was to investigate the probable mechanism and effect of crocin on brain oxidative damage and memory deficits induced by unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups consisting of one vehicle group (received normal saline), four groups included rats who received UCMS 4 weeks out of which three groups were pretreated with different doses of crocin (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg/day) concomitantly. To assess the pure effect of crocin, the last experimental group received a high dose of crocin (30 mg/kg/day) without exposure to the UCMS procedure. The behavioral tests including Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) were performed and eventually they were sacrificed for the estimation of biochemical parameters.

RESULTS

The increase in Malondialdehyde (MDA) as an oxidative stress indicator and nitrite levels in the hippocampus were observed in UCMS rats, along with memory deficits in behavioral tests including passive avoidance and Morris water maze (MWM) test. Moreover, treatment with crocin decreased MDA, nitrite, pro-inflammatory cytokine such as TNF-α, and pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease including amyloid-β (Aβ), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the hippocampus, whereas antioxidant agents including total thiol content, SOD, and catalase activity were increased. Also behavioral test demonstrated a positive effect of crocin on memory deficit induced by UCMS. Interlukin-10 as an important anti-inflammatory agent was increased as well. Interestingly, in some behavioral and biochemical findings, treatment with 30 mg/kg of crocin has given better results compared to vehicle group, which means the administration of crocin could have preventive effects on learning and memory impairment.

CONCLUSION

The present study strongly confirmed the positive effect of crocin and has the potential as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent that could improve memory impairment induced by UCMS.

Saffron and Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Sleep quality is defined as an individual's consent to sleep experience. Poor sleep quality has important adverse health outcomes. There are drugs to treat sleep disorders but consumption of these drugs is accompanied by adverse effects whereas herbal treatments have fewer side effects. Saffron is spice obtained from Crocus sativus flower. Several articles have been done on its effects on the quality of sleep and its safety. This review for the first time critically evaluates effect of saffron on sleep quality improvement.

Method

The search technique aims to get all related published data-based up to 2022 articles. PubMed, Central, Google Scholar, and Scopus were examined. Only full reports were evaluated (abstracts were excluded). The first screening was done by title and abstract. Then full text of articles was read and irrelevant articles were removed. Duplicate articles were also removed by Endnote. By using Cochrane risk of bias tool assessment, a quality score based on probability of bias was given. Methodological characteristics were also evaluated using the criteria of Stevinson and Ernst.

Result

In the systematic review, 5 randomized clinical trials with 379 participants from 3 countries were identified. In placebo-comparison trials, saffron contains a large treatment.

Conclusion

It seems that saffron has a beneficial influence on duration and quality of sleep. Saffron, crocin, and safranal induce hypnotic effects by increasing the duration of sleep. Research conducted so far provides initial support and safety for use of saffron to improve sleep quality.

Therapeutic implications of crocin in Parkinson's disease: A review of preclinical research

Parkinson's disease is among the most common forms of neurodegenerative illness, with present treatment being primarily symptomatic and frequently coming with substantial adverse effects. Neuronal degeneration may arise due to a variety of pathological events, like inflammatory responses, neurotransmitter dysregulation, oxidative damage, mitochondrial malfunction, apoptosis, and genetic factors. The health issue and financial burden brought on by Parkinson's disease can worsen as the population ages. In the search for new and secure therapeutic agents for Parkinson's disease, several natural compounds have been shown to exert considerable neuroprotective benefits. Crocin, a naturally occurring carotenoid molecule, was found to have neuroprotective potential in the therapy of this disorder. Taking into account, the outcomes of various studies and the restorative actions of crocin, the present study emphasized the protective ability of crocin in this disease. Given the strong evidence supporting the neuroprotective ability of crocin, it is inferred that crocin inhibits inflammatory, apoptotic, and antioxidant processes through multiple mechanisms. Therefore, this compound is considered a safe and effective therapeutic choice for neurodegenerative illnesses like Parkinson's disease. However, more research on its efficacy as a treatment of Parkinson's disease is needed, specifically examining its mechanisms and the results obtained in clinical trials.

The effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on glycemia, lipid profile, and antioxidant status in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized placebo-controlled trial

In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of saffron supplementation on glycemic status, lipid profile, atherogenic indices, and oxidative status in patients with type-2 diabetes (T2DM). In a randomized, double-blind controlled trial, 70 patients were randomly allocated into two groups (n = 35, each) and received 100 mg/day of saffron or placebo for eight weeks. Dietary intake, weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumferences (WC and HC), waist to hip ratio (WHR), fasting blood sugar (FBS), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), insulin, and Homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), lipid profile, atherogenic indices, oxidative status, and liver enzymes were determined before and after the intervention. At the end of the eighth week, saffron intervention could significantly reduce FBS (7.57%), lipid profile (except high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C]), atherogenic indices, and liver enzymes (p < .05). Moreover, saffron could improve oxidative status (nitric oxide [NO] and malondialdehyde [MDA] reduced by 26.29% and 16.35%, respectively). Catalase (CAT) concentration remained unchanged. Saffron supplementation may alleviate T2DM by improving glycemic status, lipid profile, liver enzymes, and oxidative status. Further investigation is necessary to assess possible side effects and confirm the positive effect of saffron as a complementary therapy in clinical recommendations for T2DM.

Crocin: Functional characteristics, extraction, food applications and efficacy against brain related disorders

Crocin is a bioactive compound that naturally occurs in some medicinal plants, especially saffron and gardenia fruit. Different conventional and novel methods are used for its extraction. Due to some control conditions, recent methods such as ultrasonic extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, enzyme-associated extraction, microwave extraction, and pulsed electric field extraction are widely used because these methods give more yield and efficiency. Crocin is incorporated into different food products to make functional foods. However, it can also aid in the stability of food products. Due to its ability to protect against brain diseases, the demand for crocin has been rising in the pharmaceutical industry. It also contain antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antidepressant qualities. This review aims to describe crocin and its role in developing functional food, extraction, and bioavailability in various brain-related diseases. The results of the literature strongly support the importance of crocin against various diseases and its use in making different functional foods.

Sexual dimorphism in spatial learning and brain metabolism after exposure to a western diet and early life stress in rats

Prolonged daily intake of Western-type diet rich in saturated fats and sugars, and exposure to early life stress have been independently linked to impaired neurodevelopment and behaviour in animal models. However, sex-specific effects of both environmental factors combined on spatial learning and memory, behavioural flexibility, and brain oxidative capacity have still not been addressed. The current study aimed to evaluate the impact of maternal and postnatal exposure to a high-fat and high-sugar diet (HFS), and exposure to early life stress by maternal separation in adult male and female Wistar rats. For this purpose, spatial learning and memory and behavioural flexibility were evaluated in the Morris water maze, and regional brain oxidative capacity and oxidative stress levels were measured in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. Spatial memory, regional brain oxidative metabolism, and levels of oxidative stress differed between females and males, suggesting sexual dimorphism in the effects of a HFS diet and early life stress. Males fed the HFS diet performed better than all other experimental groups independently of early life stress exposure. However, behavioural flexibility evaluated in the spatial reversal leaning task was impaired in males fed the HFS diet. In addition, exposure to maternal separation or the HFS diet increased the metabolic capacity of the prefrontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus in males and females. Levels of oxidative stress measured in the latter brain regions were also increased in groups fed the HFS diet, but maternal separation seemed to dampen regional brain oxidative stress levels. Therefore, these results suggest a compensatory effect resulting from the interaction between prolonged exposure to a HFS diet and early life stress.

Authentication of Iranian Saffron (Crocus sativus) Using Stable Isotopes δ13C and δ2H and Metabolites Quantification

Saffron is a very high value-added ingredient used in the food supplement market and contains a high level of safranal. Adding synthetic safranal to saffron, which is significantly cheaper, and falsifying the origin of saffron may represent recurrent fraud. Saffron from different countries was analyzed to determine the stable isotope ratios δ13C and δ2H from safranal by gas chromatography coupled with isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C/P-IRMS) and the concentration of saffron metabolites with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (UHPLC-DAD). The isotopic analysis highlighted a higher ratio of δ2H in synthetic safranal than in natural safranal; the mean values were 36‰ (+/− 40) and −210‰ (+/− 35), respectively. The δ13C between Iranian, Spanish and other saffron was significantly different and represents median values of −28.62‰, −30.12‰ and −30.70‰, respectively. Moreover, linear and quadratic discriminant analyses (LDA and QDA) were computed using the two isotope ratios of safranal and the saffron metabolites. A first QDA showed that trans-crocetin and the δ13C of safranal, picrocrocin, and crocin C3 concentrations clearly differentiated Iranian saffron from other origins. A second model identified δ13C, trans-crocetin, crocin C2, crocin C3, and picrocrocin as good predictors to discriminate saffron samples from Iran, Spain, or other origins, with a total ability score classification matrix of 100% and a prediction matrix of 82.5%. This combined approach may be a useful tool to authenticate the origin of unknown saffron.

An In Vitro Study of Saffron Carotenoids: The Effect of Crocin Extracts and Dimethylcrocetin on Cancer Cell Lines

Crocus sativus L. has various pharmacological properties, known for over 3600 years. These properties are attributed mainly to biologically active substances, which belong to the terpenoid group and include crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. The aim of the current work was to examine the effects of crocins (CRCs) and their methyl ester derivate dimethylcrocetin (DMCRT) on glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in terms of cytotoxicity and gene expression, implicated in proapoptotic and cell survival pathways. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed with Alamar Blue fluorescence assay after treatment with saffron carotenoids for 24, 48 and 72 h and concentrations ranging from 22.85 to 0.18 mg/mL for CRCs and 11.43 to 0.09 mg/mL for DMCRT. In addition, BAX, BID, BCL2, MYCN, SOD1, and GSTM1 gene expression was studied by qRT-PCR analysis. Both compounds demonstrated cytotoxic effects against glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. They induced apoptosis, via BAX and BID upregulation, MYCN and BCL-2, SOD1, GSTM1 downregulation. The current research denotes the possible anticancer properties of saffron carotenoids, which are considered safe phytochemicals, already tested in clinical trials for their health promoting properties.

Anti-Depressant Properties of Crocin Molecules in Saffron

Saffron is a valued herb, obtained from the stigmas of the C. sativus Linn (Iridaceae), with therapeutic effects. It has been described in pharmacopoeias to be variously acting, including as an anti-depressant, anti-carcinogen, and stimulant agent. The therapeutic effects of saffron are harbored in its bioactive molecules, notably crocins, the subject of this paper. Crocins have been demonstrated to act as a monoamine oxidase type A and B inhibitor. Furthermore, saffron petal extracts have experimentally been shown to impact contractile response in electrical field stimulation. Other research suggests that saffron also inhibits the reuptake of monoamines, exhibits N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonism, and improves brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling. A host of experimental studies found saffron/crocin to be similarly effective as fluoxetine and imipramine in the treatment of depression disorders. Saffron and crocins propose a natural solution to combat depressive disorders. However, some hurdles, such as stability and delivery, need to be overcome.

The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents

Crocus species are mainly distributed in North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Western Asia, used in gardens and parks as ornamental plants, while Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is the only species that is cultivated for edible purpose. The use of saffron is very ancient; besides the use as a spice, saffron has long been known also for its medical and coloring qualities. Due to its distinctive flavor and color, it is used as a spice, which imparts food preservative activity owing to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. This updated review discusses the biological properties of Crocus sativus L. and its phytoconstituents, their pharmacological activities, signaling pathways, and molecular targets, therefore highlighting it as a potential herbal medicine. Clinical studies regarding its pharmacologic potential in clinical therapeutics and toxicity studies were also reviewed. For this updated review, a search was performed in the PubMed, Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to Crocus sativus L. and the biological properties of its phytoconstituents. From this search, only the relevant works were selected. The phytochemistry of the most important bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. such as crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal and also dozens of other compounds was studied and identified by various physicochemical methods. Isolated compounds and various extracts have proven their pharmacological efficacy at the molecular level and signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, toxicity studies and clinical trials were analyzed. The research results highlighted the various pharmacological potentials such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, hypolipidemic, and antihyperglycemic properties and protector of retinal lesions. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, saffron has proven effective as a natural food preservative. Starting from the traditional uses for the treatment of several diseases, the bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus L. have proven their effectiveness in modern pharmacological research. However, pharmacological studies are needed in the future to identify new mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic studies, new pharmaceutical formulations for target transport, and possible interaction with allopathic drugs.

N-Acetylcysteine and Safranal prevented the brain damage induced by hyperthyroidism in adult male rats

Background: Hyperthyroidism is associated with impairment in the neurotransmission and severe tissue damage in the brain. The present study explored the potential deleterious effects of experimentally-induced hyperthyroidism on the neurotransmitters, oxidative homeostasis, apoptosis and DNA fragmentation in cerebral cortex, thalamus & hypothalamus, and hippocampus in rats.Methods and Results: The ameliorative effects of N-acetylcysteine (NAC; 50 mg/kg, oral) and safranal (50 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) against hyperthyroidism (L-T4 500 µg/kg, subcutaneous) were investigated. All treatments continued daily over three weeks. Hyperthyroidism was manifested by significant elevations in serum fT3 and fT4 levels and a decline in serum TSH level and body weight. It was also characterized by significant elevations in the levels of dopamine, serotonin, and 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid, and monoamine oxidase activity to varying degrees in the brain regions examined and a significant reduction in norepinephrine in hippocampus only. Hyperthyroidism resulted in a significant oxidative stress in brain typified by elevations in malondialdehyde and nitric oxide content and reductions in glutathione level and SOD and catalase activities. This led to elevations in Caspases 9 and 3 and a reduction in Bcl2 resulting in DNA damage and confirmed by the histopathology of brain tissue. The administration of NAC or safranal with L-T4 prevented these deleterious effects by reducing the oxidative load and improving the brain antioxidant status.Conclusions: Hyperthyroidism disrupted the neurotransmitters in the brain which aggravated the oxidative stress and resulted in apoptosis. N-Acetylcysteine and safranal prevented these deleterious effects by enhancing the poor antioxidant milieu of the brain.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Source of Nutrients for Health and for the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric and Age-Related Diseases

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a medicinal plant, originally cultivated in the East and Middle East, and later in some Mediterranean countries. Saffron is obtained from the stigmas of the plant. Currently, the use of saffron is undergoing a revival. The medicinal virtues of saffron, its culinary use and its high added value have led to the clarification of its phytochemical profile and its biological and therapeutic characteristics. Saffron is rich in carotenoids and terpenes. The major products of saffron are crocins and crocetin (carotenoids) deriving from zeaxanthin, pirocrocin and safranal, which give it its taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron and its major compounds have powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Anti-tumor properties have also been described. The goal of this review is to present the beneficial effects of saffron and its main constituent molecules on neuropsychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety and schizophrenia) as well as on the most frequent age-related diseases (cardiovascular, ocular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as sarcopenia). Overall, the phytochemical profile of saffron confers many beneficial virtues on human health and, in particular, on the prevention of age-related diseases, which is a major asset reinforcing the interest for this medicinal plant.

D-galactose induced dysfunction in mice hippocampus and the possible antioxidant and neuromodulatory effects of selenium

Aging is an ultimate reality that everyone has to face. D-galactose (D-gal) has been used extensively to develop aging model. Trace elements such as selenium (Se) have been used as a potential antioxidant for neuro-protection. The present work aims to develop therapeutic agents such as Se for the treatment of aging-induced neurological ailments such as anxiety, depression, and memory impairment. For this purpose, mice were treated with D-gal at a dose of 300 mg/ml/kg and various doses of Se (0.175 and 0.35mg/ml/kg) for 28 days. Behavioral tests were monitored after treatment days. After the behavioral assessment, mice were decapitated and their brains were collected. Hippocampi were removed from the brain for biochemical, neurochemical, and histopathological analysis. The present findings of behavioral analysis showed that D-gal-induced anxiety- and depression-like symptoms were inhibited by both doses of Se. D-gal-induced memory alteration was also prevented by repeated doses of Se (0.175 and 0.35mg/ml/kg). Biochemical analysis showed that D-gal-induced increase of oxidative stress and inflammatory markers and decrease of antioxidant enzymes and total protein contents in the hippocampus were prevented by Se administration. An increase in the activity of acetylcholinesterase was also diminished by Se. The neurochemical assessment showed that D-gal-induced increased serotonin metabolism and decreased acetylcholine levels in the hippocampus were restored by repeated treatment of Se. Histopathological estimations also exhibited; normalization of D-gal induced neurodegenerative changes. It is concluded that D-gal-induced dysfunction in mice hippocampus caused anxiety, depression, memory impairment, oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation, and histological alterations that were mitigated by Se via its antioxidant potential, anti-inflammatory property, and modulating capability of serotonergic and cholinergic functions.

The Novel Role of Crocus sativus L. in Enhancing Skin Flap Survival by Affecting Apoptosis Independent of mTOR: A Data-Virtualized Study

BACKGROUND

Despite the improvements to enhance skin flap viability, the effects of ischemia-reperfusion (IR), oxidative stress, necrosis, and apoptosis are still challenging. Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) is highly noticeable due to its tissue-protective and antioxidant properties. So, we aimed to investigate its effects on skin flap viability, oxidative stress, apoptosis markers, histopathological changes, and mTOR/p-mTOR expression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

40 Sprauge-Dawley rats, weighting 200-240 g, were divided into four groups including: (1) Sham (8 × 3 cm skin cut, without elevation); (2) Flap Surgery (8 × 3 cm skin flap with elevation from its bed); (3) Saffron 40 mg/kg + Flap Surgery; and (4) Saffron 80 mg/kg + Flap Surgery. Saffron was administrated orally for 7 days. At day 7, flap necrosis percentage, histopathological changes, malondialdehyde level, Myeloperoxidase and superoxide dismutase activity, Bax, Bcl-2, mTOR, and p-mTOR expression were measured. Protein expressions were controlled by β-Actin.

RESULTS

Saffron administration decreased flap necrosis percentage (p < 0.01), which was not dose-dependent. Treatment groups showed significant histological healing signs (Neovascularization, Fibroblast migration, Epithelialization, and Epithelialization thickness), decreased MDA content (p < 0.01), increased SOD (p < 0.01) and decreased MPO activity (p < 0.01). Bax and Bcl-2 expression, decreased and increased respectively in treated groups (p < 0.0001). mTOR and p-mTOR expression were not changed significantly in Saffron treated groups.

CONCLUSION

Saffron could increase skin flap viability, alleviate necrosis, decrease oxidative stress and decrease apoptotic cell death, after skin flap surgery, but it acts independent of the mTOR pathway. So, Saffron could potentially be used clinically to enhance skin flap viability.

NO LEVEL ASSIGNED

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Dunalialla salina microalgea and its isolated zeaxanthin mitigate age-related dementia in rats: Modulation of neurotransmission and amyloid-β protein

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D. salina as well as its isolated zeaxanthin showed marked recovery of the D-gal-induced effect on the escape latency time.

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D. salina exerted an amelioration in the brain Aβ contents and an increase in the brain 5-HT, NE and DOP levels.

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These effects were confirmed by histopathological increase in number of viable neurons in both cerebral cortex and hippocampus.

Age-related deterioration of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities suggests that the brain undergoes regressive alterations with aging that compromise its function. Thus, the present study was designed to assess the efficacy of Dunaliella salina in counteracting D-galactose (D-gal)-induced dementia brain aging and its modulatory role in attenuating amyloid β (Aβ) protein and neurotransmitters. Aging associated dementia was generated by injection of D-gal (200 mg/kg; i.p) of rats for 8 weeks. D. salina biomass (250 mg/kg), polar (30 mg/kg), its carotenoid (30 mg/kg) fractions as well as the isolated zeaxanthin (250 μg/kg) were given orally simultaneously with D-gal for additional two weeks. Twenty-four hours after the last treatment dose; behavioral, biochemical and histopathological assessment were performed. Results showed that oral treatment of motor deficit rats with D. salina biomass and its isolated polar and carotenoid fractions showed amelioration in the motor coordination assessed by the rotarod test and in the memory and learning capabilities evaluated by Morris water maze test. D. salina also showed a reduction in brain levels of inflammatory indicators viz. interlekin-1β and inducible nitric oxide synthetase as well as brain contents of Aβ protein and myelin base protein. Likewise, oral treatment with D. salina biomass and its isolated polar and carotenoid fractions exhibited an increase in the rats’ brain neurotransmitters and their metabolites. Furthermore, histopathological investigations have confirmed all of these results. Our findings suggest that D. salina overcomes brain aging and thereby repairs age-related dementia, both for its modulating function in attenuating the Aβ protein and neurotransmitters.

Phytochemistry, pharmacology, and potential clinical applications of saffron: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Saffron, the dried red stigma of the perennial herb Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), is one of the most important and expensive spices in the world. It is used as a traditional Chinese medicine with demonstrated effects in promoting blood circulation and suppressing blood stasis, cooling blood detoxification, and relieving depression. It is mainly used for the treatment of depression, irregular menstruation, postpartum thrombosis, and bruises.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide a systematic and up-to-date overview of the phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical applications of saffron. We hope it could provide useful references and guidance for the future directions of research on saffron.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The online database, such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, SciFinder and Chemical book, and CNKI were used to collect relevant literature. And the classic books about Chinese herbal medicine were also being referenced.

RESULTS

More than 150 chemical compounds, including carotenoids, flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, monoterpenes and monoterpenoid derivatives, monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, amino acids, alkaloids and others, were revealed. The pharmacological activities study of saffron were focused on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidepressant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, memory-enhancing, and so on. Currently, saffron is mainly used for the treatment of diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, depression, anxiety disorders, cardiovascular diseases, learning and memory disorders, cancer, and other conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemical and pharmacological analyses of saffron have been revealed in recent studies. However, clinical studies have focused mainly on AD, depression and anxiety disorders. Therefore, a large number of clinical trials are needed to study the efficacy of saffron and its major chemical components against other diseases including hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and cancer. Further studies of the mechanism of action and toxicological properties of saffron are also required, especially research to establish an effective dose of saffron and its long-term toxicity in vivo.

A Novel Pharmacological Protective Role for Safranal in an Animal Model of Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative and inherited disease and recent years have witnessed the understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms related to HD. Safranal, an organic compound isolated from saffron, has been reported to have anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity and has studied in chronic and neurodegenerative disease. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the effect of safranal on 3-NP induced locomotor activity and biochemical alterations in rats. To this aim, 40 male Wistar rats weighting 250-300 g were divided into 5 groups (n = 8) including sham, 3-NP group (10 mg/kg) as control and treatment groups (3-NP + safranal 0.75, 1.5 and 3 mg/kg) in two weeks duration of treatment. Behavioral/movement assessments in addition to oxidant/antioxidant markers in rat cortex and striatum were evaluated in control and treatment groups. Here, we found that safranal significantly alleviated 3-NP-induced changes of body weight, rotarod activity, number of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs), and locomotor activity. In addition, brain tissue assessments in cortex and striatum revealed that safranal could prevent the elevation of nitrite and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels as well as decrease of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase activity and glutathione (GSH) induced by 3-NP. In conclusion our results showed that safranal prevented the motor dysfunction induced by 3-NP in animal model of Huntington's disease. This effect might be due to its modulating effect on oxidants-antioxidant balance.

Crocus sativus L. Extracts and Its Constituents Crocins and Safranal; Potential Candidates for Schizophrenia Treatment?

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental devastating disease. Current therapy suffers from various limitations including low efficacy and serious side effects. Thus, there is an urgent necessity to develop new antipsychotics with higher efficacy and safety. The dried stigma of the plant Crocus sativus L., (CS) commonly known as saffron, are used in traditional medicine for various purposes. It has been demonstrated that saffron and its bioactive components crocins and safranal exert a beneficial action in different pathologies of the central nervous system such as anxiety, depression, epilepsy and memory problems. Recently, their role as potential antipsychotic agents is under investigation. In the present review, I intended to critically assess advances in research of these molecules for the treatment of schizophrenia, comment on their advantages over currently used neuroleptics as well-remaining challenges. Up to our days, few preclinical studies have been conducted to this end. In spite of it, results are encouraging and strongly corroborate that additional research is mandatory aiming to definitively establish a role for saffron and its bioactive components for the treatment of schizophrenia.

PLGA Multiplex Membrane Platform for Disease Modelling and Testing of Therapeutic Compounds

A proper validation of an engineered brain microenvironment requires a trade of between the complexity of a cellular construct within the in vitro platform and the simple implementation of the investigational tool. The present work aims to accomplish this challenging balance by setting up an innovative membrane platform that represents a good compromise between a proper mimicked brain tissue analogue combined with an easily accessible and implemented membrane system. Another key aspect of the in vitro modelling disease is the identification of a precise phenotypic onset as a definite hallmark of the pathology that needs to be recapitulated within the implemented membrane system. On the basis of these assumptions, we propose a multiplex membrane system in which the recapitulation of specific neuro-pathological onsets related to Alzheimer’s disease pathologies, namely oxidative stress and β-amyloid_1–42 toxicity, allowed us to test the neuroprotective effects of trans-crocetin on damaged neurons. The proposed multiplex membrane platform is therefore quite a versatile tool that allows the integration of neuronal pathological events in combination with the testing of new molecules. The present paper explores the use of this alternative methodology, which, relying on membrane technology approach, allows us to study the basic physiological and pathological behaviour of differentiated neuronal cells, as well as their changing behaviour, in response to new potential therapeutic treatment.

Saffron bioactives crocin, crocetin and safranal: effect on oxidative stress and mechanisms of action

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is used as a spice for its organoleptic characteristics related to its coloring and flavoring properties, and it has been also used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. The main chemical components responsible for these properties are crocin, crocetin and safranal. These compounds have been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological activities, including several properties as antigenotoxic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antidegenerative and antidepressant, among others. This review article highlights the antioxidant effects of these bioactive compounds to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the mechanisms of action involved, since there are a multitude of diseases related to oxidative stress and the generation of free radicals (FRs). Recent studies have shown that the effects of crocin, crocetin and safranal against oxidative stress include the reduction in lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde [MDA] levels) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, and the increase in the levels of glutathione, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase [GPx]) and thiol content. Therefore, due to the great antioxidant effects of these saffron compounds, it makes saffron a potential source of bioactive extracts for the development of bioactive ingredients, which can be used to produce functional foods.

Natural products improve healthspan in aged mice and rats: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Over the last decades a decrease in mortality has paved the way for late onset pathologies such as cardiovascular, metabolic or neurodegenerative diseases. This evidence has led many researchers to shift their focus from researching ways to extend lifespan to finding ways to increase the number of years spent in good health; "healthspan" is indeed the emerging concept of such quest for ageing without chronic or disabling diseases and dysfunctions. Regular consumption of natural products might improve healthspan, although the mechanisms of action are still poorly understood. Since preclinical studies aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of these compounds are growing, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of natural products on healthspan in mouse and rat models of physiological ageing. Results indicate that natural compounds show robust effects improving stress resistance and cognitive abilities. These promising data call for further studies investigating the underlying mechanisms in more depth.

Safranal protects against ischemia-induced PC12 cell injury through inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis

Safranal, isolated from saffron (Crocus sativus L.), is known to possesses neuroprotective effects. In this study, the neuroprotective potential of safranal against PC12 cell injury triggered by ischemia/reperfusion was investigated. PC12 cells were pretreated with safranal at concentration ranges of 10-160 μM for 2 h and then deprived from oxygen-glucose-serum for 6 h, followed by reoxygenation for 24 h (OGD condition). 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), 2,7-dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCF-DA), and comet assays were used to measure the extent of cellular viability, reactive oxygen substances (ROS), and DNA damage, respectively. Also, propidium iodide (PI) flow cytometry assay and western blotting of bax, bcl-2, and cleaved caspase-3 were performed for assessment of apoptosis. OGD exposure reduced the cell viability and increased intracellular ROS production, oxidative DNA damage, and apoptosis, in comparison with untreated control cells. Pretreatment with safranal (40 and 160 μM) significantly attenuated OGD-induced PC12 cell death, oxidative damage, and apoptosis. Furthermore, safranal markedly reduced the overexpression of bax/bcl-2 ratio and active caspase-3 following OGD (p < 0.05). The present findings indicated that safranal protects against OGD-induced neurotoxicity via modulating of oxidative and apoptotic responses.Graphical abstract The schematic representation of the mode of action of safranal against PC12 cells death induced by oxygen-glucose-serum deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD-R).

Effect of short-term oral supplementation of crocin on age-related oxidative stress, cholinergic, and mitochondrial dysfunction in rat cerebral cortex

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Aging is associated with oxidative stress and altered cholinergic and mitochondrial function. Crocin is a carotenoid antioxidant that quenches free radicals and protects cells and tissues from oxidation in biological systems. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of oral supplementation of Crocin on age-associated oxidative stress, cholinergic, and mitochondrial function in rat cerebral cortex.

MAIN METHODS

The middle-aged (15 months old) rats were segregated into three groups (n = 6): Control (ad-libitum fed +0.9% saline as vehicle), Cro 50 (ad-libitum fed + crocin 50 mg/kg/day), Cro 150 (ad-libitum fed + crocin 150 mg/kg/day). The experiment was scheduled for 45 days. The serum and brain parameters were estimated after euthanasia.

KEY FINDINGS

Crocin supplementation of Cro 50 and Cro 150 displayed a relative decline in body weight gain during the experimental period and significantly reduced age-associated serum triglyceride level over control. In rat cerebral cortex, age-associated macromolecular damage, decline in endogenous antioxidants and an increase in intracellular calcium concentration were significantly reversed due to oral supplementation of Crocin. Cro 150 significantly improved acetylcholine content as a consequence of acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Further, remarkable mitochondrial function was observed in Cro 150 over the control group as determined by citrate synthase and cytochrome C oxidase enzyme activities.

SIGNIFICANCE

Oral supplementation of Crocin significantly reversed age-associated oxidative stress and neuroinflammatory markers. Meanwhile, Cro 150 remarkably improved cholinergic and mitochondrial function over the control group and facilitated further delay in the aging process due to enhanced cognitive effect.

Suppressor capacity of copper nanoparticles biosynthesized using Crocus sativus L. leaf aqueous extract on methadone-induced cell death in adrenal phaeochromocytoma (PC12) cell line

In this research, we prepared and formulated a neuroprotective supplement (copper nanoparticles in aqueous medium utilizing Crocus sativus L. Leaf aqueous extract) for determining its potential against methadone-induced cell death in PC12. The results of chemical characterization tests i.e., FE-SEM, FT-IR, XRD, EDX, TEM, and UV–Vis spectroscopy revealed that the study showed that copper nanoparticles were synthesized in the perfect way possible. In the TEM and FE-SEM images, the copper nanoparticles were in the mean size of 27.5 nm with the spherical shape. In the biological part of the present research, the Rat inflammatory cytokine assay kit was used to measure the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) test was used to show DNA fragmentation and apoptosis. Caspase-3 activity was assessed by the caspase activity colorimetric assay kit and mitochondrial membrane potential was studied by Rhodamine123 fluorescence dye. Also, the cell viability of PC12 was measured by trypan blue assay. Copper nanoparticles-treated cell cutlers significantly (p ≤ 0.01) decreased the inflammatory cytokines concentrations, caspase-3 activity, and DNA fragmentation and they raised the cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential in the high concentration of methadone-treated PC12 cells. The best result of neuroprotective properties was seen in the high dose of copper nanoparticles i.e., 4 µg. According to the above results, copper nanoparticles containing C. sativus leaf aqueous extract can be used in peripheral nervous system treatment as a neuroprotective promoter and central nervous system after approving in the clinical trial studies in humans.

Neuroprotective Function of a Novel Hexapeptide QMDDQ from Shrimp via Activation of the PKA/CREB/BNDF Signaling Pathway and Its Structure-Activity Relationship

This study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective function of shrimp-derived peptides QMDDQ and KMDDQ. Biochemical results revealed that both peptides exhibited neuroprotective effects by increasing acetylcholine (ACh) content and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in PC12 cells; QMDDQ was more active than KMDDQ. COSY-NOESY spectroscopic data showed that the superior neuroprotective function of QMDDQ might be attributed to its N-terminal glutamine as it exhibited an extended spatial conformation, facilitating its interactions with AChE. QMDDQ can promote the basic energy metabolism of cells more than KMDDQ. The peptides showed neuroprotective ability due to the activation of the antiapoptosis and PKA/CREB/BNDF signaling pathway. QMDDQ was selected to investigate its memory-enhancing activity in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice, revealing memory protection in mice, as it improved their performance in the Morris water maze experiment. In addition, QMDDQ increased ACh content (4.98 ± 0.51 μg/mg prot) and decreased AChE activity (4.72 ± 0.11 U/mg prot) in the mouse hippocampus. These data indicate the systemic mechanism through which naturally derived QMDDQ improved neuroprotection and memory ability.

GAPT regulates cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress in the brains of learning and memory impairment mice induced by scopolamine

BACKGROUND

Cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress are the crucial mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). GAPT, also called GEPT (a combination of several active components extracted from the Chinese herbs ginseng, epimedium, polygala and tuber curcumae) or Jinsiwei, is a patented Chinese herbal compound, has been clinically widely used to improve learning and memory impairment, but whether it can play a neuroprotective role by protecting cholinergic neurons and reducing oxidative stress injury remains unclear.

METHODS

Male ICR mice were intraperitoneally injected with scopolamine (3 mg/kg) to establish a learning and memory disordered model. An LC-MS method was established to study the chemical compounds and in vivo metabolites of GAPT. After scopolamine injection, a step-down passive-avoidance test (SDPA) and a Y maze test were used to estimate learning ability and cognitive function. In addition, ELISA detected the enzymatic activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acetylcholine (ACh), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD). The protein expressions of AChE, ChAT, SOD1, and GPX1 were observed by western blot, and the distribution of ChAT, SOD1, and GPX1 was observed by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

After one-half or 1 month of intragastric administration, GAPT can ameliorate scopolamine-induced behavioral changes in learning and memory impaired mice. It can also decrease the activity of MDA and protein expression level of AChE, increase the activity of Ach, and increase activity and protein expression level of ChAT, SOD, and GPX in scopolamine-treated mice. After one and a half month of intragastric administration of GAPT, echinacoside, salvianolic acid A, ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rg2, pachymic acid, and beta asarone could be absorbed into mice blood and pass through BBB.

CONCLUSIONS

GAPT can improve the learning and memory ability of scopolamine-induced mice, and its mechanism may be related to protecting cholinergic neurons and reducing oxidative stress injury.

Effect of Saffron Extract and Crocin in Serum Metabolites of Induced Obesity Rats

The effect of saffron extract (Crocus sativus L.) and its primary compound crocin was studied on an induced obesity rat model. Our study is aimed at investigating and comparing the metabolite changes in obese and obese treated with saffron extract and crocin and at improving the understanding of the therapeutic effect of saffron extract and crocin. Two different doses of saffron extracts and crocin (40 and 80 mg/kg) were incorporated in a high-fat diet (HFD) and were given for eight weeks to the obese rats. The changes in metabolite profiles of the serum were determined using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR). Pattern recognition by multivariate data analysis (MVDA) showed that saffron extract and crocin at 80 mg/kg was the best dosage compared to 40 mg/kg. It also showed that both treatments work in different pathways, especially concerning glucose, lipid, and creatinine metabolism. In conclusion, although the pure compound, crocin, is superior to the saffron crude extract, this finding suggested that the saffron extract can be considered as an alternative aside from crocin in treating obesity.

Protective Effects of Carvacrol on Brain Tissue Inflammation and Oxidative Stress as well as Learning and Memory in Lipopolysaccharide-Challenged Rats

Inflammation can cause memory impairment. In the present study, the effect of carvacrol on brain tissue inflammation and oxidative stress as well as learning and memory in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged rats was evaluated. The animals were grouped and treated: (1) control which received vehicle instead of LPS and carvacrol, (2) LPS (1 mg/kg; i.p. 120 min before behavioral tests), and (3-5) in these groups, 25, 50, or 100 mg/kg of carvacrol (i.p.) was administered 30 min prior to LPS. In a Morris water maze test, compared to LPS group, administration of all three doses of carvacrol shortened the elapsed time and the traveled distance to find the platform, while it prolonged the traveled time in the target area. In a passive avoidance test, administration of all 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg carvacrol significantly increased the latency at the 3 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after the shock compared to the LPS group. Interleukin (IL)-6, malondialdehyde (MDA), and NO (nitric oxide) metabolites were increased in the brain by LPS injection, while thiol, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were decreased. Pretreatment with carvacrol reduced IL-6, NO metabolites, and MDA, while it improved thiol content, CAT, and SOD. The results indicated that carvacrol protected from learning and memory impairment and the brain tissue inflammation and oxidative stress in LPS-challenged rats.

Natural Products Derived from the Mediterranean Diet with Antidiabetic Activity: from Insulin Mimetic Hypoglycemic to Nutriepigenetic Modulator Compounds

BACKGROUND

The Mediterranean diet is a healthy eating pattern that protects against the development of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a metabolic disease characterized by elevated blood sugar levels due to pancreatic beta-cell functional impairment and insulin resistance in various tissues. Inspired by the ancient communities, this diet emphasizes eating primarily plant-based foods, including vegetables, legumes, fruits, cereals, and nuts. Importantly, virgin olive oil is used as the principal source of fat. Red meat is consumed in low amounts while wine and fish are consumed moderately.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we review the most beneficial components of the Mediterranean Diet and tentative mechanisms of action for prevention and/or management of T2DM, based on research conducted within the last decade.

METHODS

The references over the last five years have been reviewed and they have been selected properly according to inclusion/ exclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Several bioactive diet components were evaluated to prevent inflammation and cytokine-induced oxidative damage, reduce glucose concentration, carbohydrate absorption and increase insulin sensitivity and related gene expression.

CONCLUSION

The adherence to a healthy lifestyle, including diet, exercise and habits remains the best approach for the prevention of diabetes as well as frequent check-ups and education. Though diabetes has a strong genetic component, in recent years many reports strongly point to the critical role of lifestyle specific epigenetic modifications in the development of T2DM. It remains to be established how different components of the Mediterranean Diet interact and influence the epigenetic landscape to prevent or treat the disease.

Delivering Crocetin across the Blood-Brain Barrier by Using γ-Cyclodextrin to Treat Alzheimer's Disease

Crocetin (CRT) has shown various neuroprotective effects such as antioxidant activities and the inhibition of amyloid β fibril formation, and thus is a potential therapeutic candidate for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, poor water solubility and bioavailability are the major obstacles in formulation development and pharmaceutical applications of CRT. In this study, a novel water-soluble CRT-γ-cyclodextrin inclusion complex suitable for intravenous injection was developed. The inclusion complex was nontoxic to normal neuroblastoma cells (N2a cells and SH-SY5Y cells) and AD model cells (7PA2 cells). Furthermore, it showed stronger ability to downregulate the expression of C-terminus fragments and level of amyloid β in 7PA2 cell line as compared to the CRT free drug. Both inclusion complex and CRT were able to prevent SH-SY5Y cell death from H2O2-induced toxicity. The pharmacokinetics and biodistribution studies showed that CRT-γ-cyclodextrin inclusion complex significantly increased the bioavailability of CRT and facilitated CRT crossing the blood-brain barrier to enter the brain. This data shows a water-soluble γ-cyclodextrin inclusion complex helped to deliver CRT across the blood-brain barrier. This success should fuel further pharmaceutical research on CRT in the treatment for AD, and it should engender research on γ-cyclodextrin with other drugs that have so far not been explored.

Safranal, an active ingredient of saffron, attenuates cognitive deficits in amyloid β-induced rat model of Alzheimer's disease: underlying mechanisms

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative amyloid disorder with progressive deterioration of cognitive and memory skills. Despite many efforts, no decisive therapy yet exists for AD. Safranal is the active constituent of saffron essential oil with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. In this study, the possible beneficial effect of safranal on cognitive deficits was evaluated in a rat model of AD induced by intrahippocampal amyloid beta (Aβ_1-40). Safranal was daily given p.o. (0.025, 0.1, and 0.2 ml/kg) post-surgery for 1 week and finally learning and memory were evaluated in addition to assessment of the involvement of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Findings showed that safranal treatment of amyloid β-microinjected rats dose-dependently improved cognition in Y-maze, novel-object discrimination, passive avoidance, and 8-arm radial arm maze tasks. Besides, safranal attenuated hippocampal level of malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), protein carbonyl, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), apoptotic biomarkers including caspase 3 and DNA fragmentation, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and improved superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) with no significant effect on nitrite, catalase activity, and glutathione (GSH). Furthermore, safranal prevented CA1 neuronal loss due to amyloid β_1-40. In summary, safranal treatment of intrahippocampal amyloid beta_1-40-microinjected rats could prevent learning and memory decline via neuronal protection and at a molecular level through amelioration of apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, cholinesterase activity, neutrophil infiltration, and also by preservation of mitochondrial integrity.

A Review of Potential Efficacy of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Cognitive Dysfunction and Seizures

Crocus sativus (saffron) is traditionally used to relieve several ailments. Experimental researches have also investigated applications of saffron and its active constituents for the treatment of a wide spectrum of disorders. This review discusses pharmacological/therapeutic properties of saffron and its main components on memory function, learning ability and seizures, to highlight their merit for alleviating these disorders. An extensive literature review was carried out using various databases including ISI Web of Knowledge, Medline/PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, Embase, Biological Abstracts, and Chemical Abstracts. The growing body of evidence showed the value of saffron and its' components, alone, or in combination with the other pharmaceuticals, for improving learning and memory abilities and controlling seizures. These findings may provide pharmacological basis for the use of saffron in cognitive disturbance and epilepsy. However, further preclinical and clinical studies are necessary.

Prophylactic neuroprotective propensity of Crocin, a carotenoid against rotenone induced neurotoxicity in mice: behavioural and biochemical evidence

Previously we have demonstrated the potential neuroprotective propensity of saffron and Crocin (CR) employing a Drosophila model of Parkinsonism. Rotenone (ROT) has been extensively used as a model neurotoxin to induce Parkinson's disease (PD) like symptoms in mice. In the present study, as a proof of concept we evaluated the efficacy of CR prophylaxis (25 mg/ kg bw/d, 7d) to attenuate ROT(0.5 mg/Kg bw/d,7d) -induced neurotoxic effects in male mice focussing on neurobehavioural assessments and biochemical determinants in the striatum. CR prophylaxis significantly alleviated ROT-induced behavioural alterations such as increased anxiety, diminished exploratory behaviour, decreased motor co-ordination, and grip strength. Concomitantly, we evidenced diminution of oxidative stress markers, enhanced levels of antioxidant enzyme and mitochondrial enzyme function in the striatal region. Further, varying degree of restoration of cholinergic function, dopamine and α-synuclein levels were discernible suggesting the possible mechanism/s of action of CR in this model. Based on our earlier data in flies and in worm model, we propose its use as an adjuvant therapeutic agent in oxidative stress-mediated neurodegenerative conditions such as PD.

Protective effect of gallic acid against arsenic-induced anxiety-/depression- like behaviors and memory impairment in male rats

The purpose of the present study is to determine the effects of gallic acid (GA) on sodium arsenite (iAS)-induced behavior deficits and memory alteration in male rats. Thirty six animals were divided in to 6 groups (six animals in each) (i) saline+saline; (ii) saline+GA (50 mg/kg); (iii) saline+ GA (100 mg/kg) (iv) iAS + saline; (v) iAS + GA(50 mg/kg); (vi) iAS + GA (100 mg/kg). Animals were treated with iAS (2.5 mg/kg/ml); GA (50 and 100 mg/kg/ml) and saline (0.9%; 1 ml/kg) for 4 weeks. Repeated administration of iAS increases immobility time in forced swim test and decreases time spent in open arm (elevated plus maze) and light box (light dark activity box test) suggests depression like and anxiety-like symptoms respectively. On the other hand, animals treated with iAS + GA decreases immobility time and increases time spent in open arm and light box than saline+iAS treated animals suggests anxiolytic and antidepressant-like behavior of GA. Repeated administration of iAS also involves in memory impairment as observed in the Morris water maze test that is reversed by co-administration of GA, indicates that GA also involves in the enhancement of memory. Brain malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, antioxidant enzymes and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities also observed in the present study. Results show that iAS produces oxidative stress by increasing lipid peroxidation and decreasing antioxidant enzyme activity. Conversely co-administration of GA produces antioxidant effects by normalization of oxidative stress induced by iAS. Alteration in iAS induced AChE activity is also reversed by GA. It is suggested that GA via its antioxidant potential, has protective effects on iAS induced behavioral deficits and memory alteration. The findings have a strong implication on iAS induced neurological diseases, such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease and dementia etc.