Ginsenoside CK induces apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer cells by targeting glutamine metabolism

Sources, metabolism, health benefits and future development of saponins from plants

Saponins are a class of glycoside compounds whose aglycones are triterpenoids or spirostanes, widely exist in a variety of Chinese herbs. Saponins are one of the important active components of medicinal plants and have a wide range of bioactivities. In order to promote the better development and utilization of saponins, the process of digestion, absorption and metabolism of saponins in vivo was reviewed in this paper. At the same time, the main bioactivities of common saponins and their potential mechanisms for alleviating diseases were summarized. Finally, the potential of saponins as functional food has been pointed out, and microbial transformation can make saponins better play this potential in the future.

Treatment of ulcerative colitis via the in situ restoration of local immune and microbial homeostasis by oral administration of Tremella polysaccharide drug-carrying hydrogel

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a prevalent inflammatory bowel disease, and conventional treatments, such as anti-inflammatory medications and surgery, often prove inadequate due to frequent recurrences and various complications. To alleviate patient suffering, there is an urgent need for a therapeutic system that specifically delivers drugs to the colon for wound healing, inflammation relief, and restoration of microbial homeostasis. In this paper, we developed a Tremella polysaccharide drug-carrying hydrogel that adheres to the inflamed colonic mucosa, forming an effective artificial barrier and releasing the drug in situ to restore local immune and microbial balance. The hydrogel backbone was synthesized through the chemical cross-linking of Tremella polysaccharide with 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether in an alkaline environment. During this process, Soluplus® and TPGS-encapsulated ginsenoside compound K adhered to the hydrogel backbone due to electrostatic attraction. The enhanced adhesion following cross-linking enables the hydrogel to stably attach to the inflamed colonic mucosa, releasing mixed micelles that improve drug penetration and absorption by inhibiting the cellular efflux protein P-glycoprotein. This mechanism promotes local immune recovery and eliminates harmful intestinal flora, providing significant relief from UC symptoms. This natural polysaccharide-based hydrogel represents a highly effective oral treatment for UC.

Broadening horizons: the multifaceted role of ferroptosis in breast cancer

Breast cancer poses a serious threat to women's health globally. Current radiotherapy and chemotherapy regimens can induce drug-resistance effects in cancer tissues, such as anti-apoptosis, anti-pyroptosis, and anti-necroptosis, leading to poor clinical outcomes in the treatment of breast cancer. Ferroptosis is a novel programmed cell death modality characterized by iron overload, excessive generation of reactive oxygen species, and membrane lipid peroxidation. The occurrence of ferroptosis results from the imbalance between intracellular peroxidation mechanisms (executive system) and antioxidant mechanisms (defensive system), specifically involving iron metabolism pathways, amino acid metabolism pathways, and lipid metabolism pathways. In recent years, it has been found that ferroptosis is associated with the progression of various diseases, including tumors, hypertension, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. Studies have confirmed that triggering ferroptosis in breast cancer cells can significantly inhibit cancer cell proliferation and invasion, and improve cancer cell sensitivity to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, making induction of ferroptosis a potential strategy for the treatment of breast cancer. This paper reviews the development of the concept of ferroptosis, the mechanisms of ferroptosis (including signaling pathways such as GSH-GPX4, FSP1-CoQ1, DHODH-CoQ10, and GCH1-BH4) in breast cancer disease, the latest research progress, and summarizes the research on ferroptosis in breast cancer disease within the framework of metabolism, reactive oxygen biology, and iron biology. The key regulatory factors and mechanisms of ferroptosis in breast cancer disease, as well as important concepts and significant open questions in the field of ferroptosis and related natural compounds, are introduced. It is hoped that future research will make further breakthroughs in the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis and the use of ferroptosis in treating breast cancer cells. Meanwhile, natural compounds may also become a new direction for potential drug development targeting ferroptosis in breast cancer treatment. This provides a theoretical basis and opens up a new pathway for research and the development of drugs for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.

Ginsenoside compound K alleviates D-galactose-induced mild cognitive impairment by modulating gut microbiota-mediated short-chain fatty acid metabolism

The occurrence and progression of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are closely related to dysbiosis of the gut microbiota. Ginsenoside compound K (CK), a bioactive component of ginseng, has been shown to alleviate gut microbiota dysbiosis and neural damage. However, the mechanisms by which CK regulates the gut microbiota to improve MCI remain unexplored. In this study, an MCI mouse model induced by D-galactose was used, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing, metabolomics, transcriptomics, and integrative multi-omics analyses were employed to investigate the potential mechanisms by which CK alleviates MCI through modulation of the gut microbiota. The results demonstrated that CK repaired intestinal barrier dysfunction caused by MCI, improved blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, inhibited activation of microglial cells and astrocytes, and significantly ameliorated MCI. Furthermore, CK enhanced gut microbiota diversity, notably enriched beneficial bacteria such as Akkermansia, and modulated the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly increasing propionate, thereby alleviating gut microbiota dysbiosis caused by MCI. Germ-free experiments confirmed that gut microbiota is a key factor for ginsenoside CK in relieving MCI. Further investigation revealed that CK regulated the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway through modulation of gut microbiota-mediated propionate metabolism, significantly reducing systemic inflammation and alleviating MCI. Our findings provide a new theoretical basis for using CK as a potential means of modulating the gut microbiota for the treatment of MCI.

Advancements in enzymatic biotransformation and bioactivities of rare ginsenosides: A review

Ginsenoside, the principal active constituent of ginseng, exhibits enhanced bioavailability and medicinal efficacy in rare ginsenosides compared to major ginsenosides. Current research is focused on efficiently and selectively removing sugar groups attached to the major ginsenoside sugar chains to convert them into rare ginsenosides that meet the demands of medical industry and functional foods. The methods for preparing rare ginsenosides encompass chemical, microbial, and enzymatic approaches. Among these, the enzyme conversion method is highly favored by researchers due to its exceptional specificity and robust efficiency. This review summarizes the biological activities of different rare ginsenosides, explores the various glycosidases used in the biotransformation of different major ginsenosides as substrates, and elucidates their respective corresponding biotransformation pathways. These findings will provide valuable references for the development, utilization, and industrial production of ginsenosides.

Ginsenoside CK Alleviates DSS-Induced IBD in Mice by Regulating Tryptophan Metabolism and Activating Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor via Gut Microbiota Modulation

Dysbiosis of gut microbiota is believed to be associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Ginsenoside compound K (CK), the main metabolite of Panax ginseng ginsenoside, has proven effective as an anti-inflammatory agent in IBD. However, the mechanisms by which CK modulates gut microbiota to ameliorate IBD remain poorly understood. Herein, CK demonstrated the potential to suppress the release of proinflammatory cytokines by gut microbiota modulation. Notably, supplementation with CK promoted the restoration of a harmonious balance in gut microbiota, primarily by enhancing the populations of Lactobacillus and Akkermansia. Furthermore, CK considerably elevated the concentrations of tryptophan metabolites derived from Lactobacillus that could activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Overall, the promising alleviative efficacy of CK primarily stemmed from the promotion of Lactobacillus growth and production of tryptophan metabolites, suggesting that CK should be regarded as a prospective prebiotic agent for IBD in the future.

Synergistic anticancer effects of ginsenoside CK and gefitinib against gefitinib-resistant NSCLC by regulating the balance of angiogenic factors through HIF-1α/VEGF

Drug resistance is a serious problem for gefitinib in the treatment of lung cancer. Ginsenoside CK, a metabolite of diol ginsenosides, have many excellent pharmacological activities, but whether ginsenoside CK can overcome gefitinib resistance remains unclear. In our study, the sensitizing activity of ginsenoside CK on gefitinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in vitro and in vivo was investigated. Ginsenoside CK was confirmed to enhance the anti-proliferation, pro-apoptotic and anti-migration effects of gefitinib in primary and acquired resistant NSCLC. Furthermore, the combined administration of CK and gefitinib effectively promoted the sensitivity of lung cancer xenograft to gefitinib in vivo, and the tumor inhibition rate reached 70.97% (vs. gefitinib monotherapy 32.65%). Subsequently, tubule formation experiment and western blot results showed that co-treatment of ginsenoside CK inhibited the angiogenesis ability of HUVEC cells, and inhibited the expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, FGF and MMP2/9. More interestingly, ginsenoside CK co-treatment enhanced the expression of anti-angiogenic factor PF4, increased pericellular envelope, and promoted the normalization of vascular structure. In conclusion, ginsenoside CK improved the resistance of gefitinib by regulating the balance of angiogenic factors through down-regulating the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway, providing a theoretical basis for improving the clinical efficacy of gefitinib and applying combined strategies to overcome drug resistance.

Multifunctional Liposomes Co-Modified with Ginsenoside Compound K and Hyaluronic Acid for Tumor-Targeted Therapy

Liposomes show promise for anti-cancer drug delivery and tumor-targeted therapy. However, complex tumor microenvironments and the performance limitations of traditional liposomes restrict clinical translation. Hyaluronic acid (HA)-modified nanoliposomes effectively target CD44-overexpressing tumor cells. Combination therapy enhances treatment efficacy and delays drug resistance. Here, we developed paclitaxel (PTX) liposomes co-modified with ginsenoside compound K (CK) and HA using film dispersion. Compared to cholesterol (Ch), CK substantially improved encapsulation efficiency and stability. In vitro release studies revealed pH-responsive behavior, with slower release at pH 7.4 versus faster release at pH 5. In vitro cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that replacing Ch with CK in modified liposomes considerably decreased HCT-116 cell viability. Furthermore, flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy showed a higher cellular uptake of PTX-CK-Lip-HA in CD44-high cells, reflected in the lower half maximal inhibitory concentrations. Overall, CK/HA-modified liposomes represent an innovative, targeted delivery system for enhanced tumor therapy via pH-triggered drug release and CD44 binding.

Metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota

Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng are regarded to be functional ingredients for diverse pharmacological effects and orally administrated with very low absorption in the gastrointestinal tract to be metabolized by gut microbiota. However, in vivo metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides mediated by gut microbiota are not well-known. This study aimed to explore the metabolic profiles of ginsenosides in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota. Ginsenosides and metabolites were identified and relatively quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS). As a result, eighty-four metabolites were identified in the normal control rat feces, while only thirty intermediates were found with very low yields in the pseudo-germ-free (GF) group. Similarly, the main bioconversion pathways of ginsenosides in vivo were the same deglycosylation reaction mediated by gut microbiota in vitro. The findings demonstrated significant differences in metabolic profiles between the normal control and pseudo-GF rats, which implied gut microbiota played an important role in the metabolism of ginsenosides.

Protective Effect of Ginsenoside CK against Autoimmune Hepatitis Induced by Concanavalin A

Ginsenoside CK, a kind of rare ginsenoside transformed from protopanaxadiol saponins extracted from the genus Panax, has been proven to possess favorable bioactivities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, and hepatoprotective effects. The current study is targeted to determine the effect of ginsenoside CK on hepatitis induced by concanavalin A (Con A). Mice were treated with different dosages of ginsenoside CK for 7 days, and Con A (15 mg/kg) was intravenously injected to induce autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) after the last administration. The results demonstrated that pretreatment with ginsenoside CK (40 mg/kg) could obviously ameliorate the increase in serum indicators related to liver function such as AST, ALT, and ALP, and hepatic lesions induced by Con A. Meanwhile, ginsenoside CK suppressed hepatocyte apoptosis, which was observed in pathological data, and immunoblotting results showed that the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, and other proteins was regulated by CK. Furthermore, the release of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-6 in mice with AIH were lowered by the administration of 40 mg/kg of ginsenoside CK. Furthermore, ginsenoside CK elevated the gene expression of Nrf2 and Sirt1 and augmented downstream target genes such as HO-1. In addition, a significant inhibition effect of the TLR4/NF-κB signal was observed in 40 mg/kg CK-pretreated mice compared with the model group. To sum up, the results indicated that ginsenoside CK has a notable hepatoprotective effect against AIH by activating Sirt1/Nrf2 and suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Phytochemicals Target Multiple Metabolic Pathways in Cancer

Cancer metabolic reprogramming is a complex process that provides malignant cells with selective advantages to grow and propagate in the hostile environment created by the immune surveillance of the human organism. This process underpins cancer proliferation, invasion, antioxidant defense, and resistance to anticancer immunity and therapeutics. Perhaps not surprisingly, metabolic rewiring is considered to be one of the "Hallmarks of cancer". Notably, this process often comprises various complementary and overlapping pathways. Today, it is well known that highly selective inhibition of only one of the pathways in a tumor cell often leads to a limited response and, subsequently, to the emergence of resistance. Therefore, to increase the overall effectiveness of antitumor drugs, it is advisable to use multitarget agents that can simultaneously suppress several key processes in the tumor cell. This review is focused on a group of plant-derived natural compounds that simultaneously target different pathways of cancer-associated metabolism, including aerobic glycolysis, respiration, glutaminolysis, one-carbon metabolism, de novo lipogenesis, and β-oxidation of fatty acids. We discuss only those compounds that display inhibitory activity against several metabolic pathways as well as a number of important signaling pathways in cancer. Information about their pharmacokinetics in animals and humans is also presented. Taken together, a number of known plant-derived compounds may target multiple metabolic and signaling pathways in various malignancies, something that bears great potential for the further improvement of antineoplastic therapy.

Metabolic characterisation of transglutaminase 2 inhibitor effects in breast cancer cell lines

Transglutaminase 2 (TG2), which mediates post-translational modifications of multiple intracellular enzymes, is involved in the pathogenesis and progression of cancer. We used 1 H-NMR metabolomics to study the effects of AA9, a novel TG2 inhibitor, on two breast cancer cell lines with distinct phenotypes, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. AA9 can promote apoptosis in both cell lines, but it is particularly effective in MD-MB-231, inhibiting transamidation reactions and decreasing cell migration and invasiveness. This metabolomics study provides evidence of a major effect of AA9 on MDA-MB-231 cells, impacting glutamate and aspartate metabolism, rather than on MCF-7 cells, characterised by choline and O-phosphocholine decrease. Interestingly, AA9 treatment induces myo-inositol alteration in both cell lines, indicating action on phosphatidylinositol metabolism, likely modulated by the G protein activity of TG2 on phospholipase C. Considering the metabolic deregulations that characterise various breast cancer subtypes, the existence of a metabolic pathway affected by AA9 further points to TG2 as a promising hot spot. The metabolomics approach provides a powerful tool to monitor the effectiveness of inhibitors and better understand the role of TG2 in cancer.

Ginsenosides: changing the basic hallmarks of cancer cells to achieve the purpose of treating breast cancer

In 2021, breast cancer accounted for a substantial proportion of cancer cases and represented the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women worldwide. Although tumor cells originate from normal cells in the human body, they possess distinct biological characteristics resulting from changes in gene structure and function of cancer cells in contrast with normal cells. These distinguishing features, known as hallmarks of cancer cells, differ from those of normal cells. The hallmarks primarily include high metabolic activity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and resistance to cell death. Current evidence suggests that the fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells affect the tissue structure, function, and metabolism of tumor cells and their internal and external environment. Therefore, these fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells enable tumor cells to proliferate, invade and avoid apoptosis. Modifying these hallmarks of tumor cells represents a new and potentially promising approach to tumor treatment. The key to breast cancer treatment lies in identifying the optimal therapeutic agent with minimal toxicity to normal cells, considering the specific types of tumor cells in patients. Some herbal medicines contain active ingredients which can precisely achieve this purpose. In this review, we introduce Ginsenoside's mechanism and research significance in achieving the therapeutic effect of breast cancer by changing the functional hallmarks of tumor cells, providing a new perspective for the potential application of Ginsenoside as a therapeutic drug for breast cancer.

The Role of Amino Acids in the Diagnosis, Risk Assessment, and Treatment of Breast Cancer: A Review

This review summarizes the role of amino acids in the diagnosis, risk assessment, imaging, and treatment of breast cancer. It was shown that the content of individual amino acids changes in breast cancer by an average of 10-15% compared with healthy controls. For some amino acids (Thr, Arg, Met, and Ser), an increase in concentration is more often observed in breast cancer, and for others, a decrease is observed (Asp, Pro, Trp, and His). The accuracy of diagnostics using individual amino acids is low and increases when a number of amino acids are combined with each other or with other metabolites. Gln/Glu, Asp, Arg, Leu/Ile, Lys, and Orn have the greatest significance in assessing the risk of breast cancer. The variability in the amino acid composition of biological fluids was shown to depend on the breast cancer phenotype, as well as the age, race, and menopausal status of patients. In general, the analysis of changes in the amino acid metabolism in breast cancer is a promising strategy not only for diagnosis, but also for developing new therapeutic agents, monitoring the treatment process, correcting complications after treatment, and evaluating survival rates.

Enhanced apoptosis of HCT116 colon cancer cells treated with extracts from Calotropis gigantea stem bark by starvation

Calotropis gigantea stem bark extract, particularly the dichloromethane fraction (CGDCM), demonstrated the most potent antiproliferative effects on hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 and colorectal HCT116 cells. The current study focused on enhancing the effectiveness of cancer treatment with CGDCM at concentrations close to the IC50 in HCT116 cells by reducing their nutrient supply. CGDCM (2, 4, and 8 μg/mL) treatment for 24 h under glucose conditions of 4.5 g/L without fetal bovine serum (FBS) supplementation or serum starvation (G+/F-), glucose 0 g/L with 10% FBS or glucose starvation (G-/F+), and glucose 0 g/L with 0% FBS or complete starvation (G-/F-) induced a greater antiproliferative effect in HCT116 cells than therapy in complete medium with glucose 4.5 g/L and 10% FBS (G+/F+). Nonetheless, the anticancer effect of CGDCM at 4 μg/mL under (G-/F-) showed the highest activity compared to other starvation conditions. The three starvation conditions showed a significant reduction in cell viability compared to the control (G+/F+) medium group, while the inhibitory effect on cell viability did not differ significantly among the three starvation conditions. CGDCM at 4 μg/mL in (G-/F-) medium triggered apoptosis by dissipating the mitochondrial membrane potential and arresting cells in the G2/M phase. This investigation demonstrated that a decrease in intracellular ATP and fatty acid levels was associated with enhanced apoptosis by treatment with CGDCM at 4 μg/mL under (G-/F-) conditions. In addition, under (G-/F-), CGDCM at 4 μg/mL increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and was suggested to primarily trigger apoptosis in HCT116 cells. Thus, C. gigantea extracts may be useful for the future development of alternative, effective cancer treatment regimens.

Advances in the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides

Rare ginsenosides are the deglycosylated secondary metabolic derivatives of major ginsenosides, and they are more readily absorbed into the bloodstream and function as active substances. The traditional preparation methods hindered the potential application of these effective components. The continuous elucidation of ginsenoside biosynthesis pathways has rendered the production of rare ginsenosides using synthetic biology techniques effective for their large-scale production. Previously, only the progress in the biosynthesis and biotechnological production of major ginsenosides was highlighted. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in the identification of key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides, especially the glycosyltransferases (GTs). Then the construction of microbial chassis for the production of rare ginsenosides, mainly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was presented. In the future, discovery of more GTs and improving their catalytic efficiencies are essential for the metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. This review will give more clues and be helpful for the characterization of the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. KEY POINTS: • The key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides are summarized. • The recent progress in metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides is presented. • The discovery of glycosyltransferases is essential for the microbial production of rare ginsenosides in the future.

Ginsenoside Rh4 inhibits breast cancer growth through targeting histone deacetylase 2 to regulate immune microenvironment and apoptosis

High expression of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) is recognized as a marker of invasive breast cancer (BC). HDAC2 is not only responsible for enhancing tumor cell growth, development, and anti-apoptosis, but also plays a significant role in regulating PD-L1 on the surface of tumor cells. Continuous expression of PD-L1 allows tumor cells to escape immune surveillance. There is not much research on how HDAC2 affects the immune system in breast cancer. Ginsenoside Rh4 (Rh4) is a major rare saponin in heat-treated ginseng, which is widely applied in treating and preventing various diseases because of its potent medicinal value and stable safety. However, it is unclear how Rh4 affects the tumor immune microenvironment in breast cancer. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the effect of Rh4 on HDAC2 in breast cancer, specifically the effect of HDAC2 on apoptosis and the immune microenvironment to inhibit breast cancer growth. According to our study, ginsenoside Rh4 has been shown to significantly suppress breast cancer cell proliferation without any adverse effects. The molecular docking results of Rh4 and HDAC2 indicate a binding energy of -6.06 kcal/mol, suggesting the potential of Rh4 as a targeting modulator of HDAC2. Mechanistically, Rh4 induces apoptosis of breast cancer cells by the HDAC2-mediated caspase pathway and inhibits the HDAC2-mediated JAK/STAT pathway to regulate the immune microenvironment, which inhibits breast cancer growth. Specifically, Rh4 was shown for the first time to blockade immune checkpoints (PD-1/PD-L1) and increase levels of T-lymphocytes in the tumor. In a word, our study establishes a theoretical framework for applying Rh4 as an immune checkpoint inhibitor as part of breast cancer treatment.

Glutamine metabolism in breast cancer and possible therapeutic targets

Cancer is characterized by metabolic reprogramming, which is a hot topic in tumor treatment research. Cancer cells alter metabolic pathways to promote their growth, and the common purpose of these altered metabolic pathways is to adapt the metabolic state to the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. Most cancer cells in a state of nonhypoxia will increase the uptake of glucose and produce lactate, called the Warburg effect. Increased glucose consumption is used as a carbon source to support cell proliferation, including nucleotide, lipid and protein synthesis. In the Warburg effect, pyruvate dehydrogenase activity decreases, thereby disrupting the TCA cycle. In addition to glucose, glutamine is also an important nutrient for the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, an important carbon bank and nitrogen bank for the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, providing ribose, nonessential amino acids, citrate, and glycerin necessary for cancer cell growth and proliferation and compensating for the reduction in oxidative phosphorylation pathways in cancer cells caused by the Warburg effect. In human plasma, glutamine is the most abundant amino acid. Normal cells produce glutamine via glutamine synthase (GLS), but the glutamine synthesized by tumor cells is insufficient to meet their high growth needs, resulting in a "glutamine-dependent phenomenon." Most cancers have an increased glutamine demand, including breast cancer. Metabolic reprogramming not only enables tumor cells to maintain the reduction-oxidation (redox) balance and commit resources to biosynthesis but also establishes heterogeneous metabolic phenotypes of tumor cells that are distinct from those of nontumor cells. Thus, targeting the metabolic differences between tumor and nontumor cells may be a promising and novel anticancer strategy. Glutamine metabolic compartments have emerged as promising candidates, especially in TNBC and drug-resistant breast cancer. In this review, the latest discoveries of breast cancer and glutamine metabolism are discussed, novel treatment methods based on amino acid transporters and glutaminase are discussed, and the relationship between glutamine metabolism and breast cancer metastasis, drug resistance, tumor immunity and ferroptosis are explained, which provides new ideas for the clinical treatment of breast cancer.

A New Mechanism for Ginsenoside Rb1 to Promote Glucose Uptake, Regulating Riboflavin Metabolism and Redox Homeostasis

Glucose absorption promoters perform insulin mimic functions to enhance blood glucose transport to skeletal muscle cells and accelerate glucose consumption, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. In our screening exploration of food ingredients for improving glucose transportation and metabolism, we found that the saponins in American ginseng (Panaxquinquefolius L.) showed potential activity to promote glucose uptake, which can be used for stabilizing levels of postprandial blood glucose. The aim of this study was to identify key components of American ginseng with glucose uptake-promoting activity and to elucidate their metabolic regulatory mechanisms. Bio-guided isolation using zebrafish larvae and 2-NBDG indicator identified ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) as the most potential promotor of glucose uptake. Using UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS combined with RT-qPCR and phenotypic verification, we found that riboflavin metabolism is the hinge for GRb1-mediated facilitation of glucose transport. GRb1-induced restoration of redox homeostasis was mediated by targeting riboflavin transporters (SLC52A1 and SLC52A3) and riboflavin kinase (RFK).

Anti-cancer effect and potential microRNAs targets of ginsenosides against breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most common malignant tumor, the incidence of which has increased worldwide in recent years. Ginsenosides are the main active components of Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., in vitro and in vivo studies have confirmed that ginsenosides have significant anti-cancer activity, including BC. It is reported that ginsenosides can induce BC cells apoptosis, inhibit BC cells proliferation, migration, invasion, as well as autophagy and angiogenesis, thereby suppress the procession of BC. In this review, the therapeutic effects and the molecular mechanisms of ginsenosides on BC will be summarized. And the combination strategy of ginsenosides with other drugs on BC will also be discussed. In addition, epigenetic changes, especially microRNAs (miRNAs) targeted by ginsenosides in the treatment of BC are clarified.