Hyaluronic acid nanoparticles for active targeting atherosclerosis

Enhanced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell and Extracellular Matrix Repair Using a Metal-Organic Framework-Based Co-Delivery System for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Therapy

The abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a severe and complex condition characterized by the pathological dilation of the abdominal aorta. Current therapeutic strategies are limited, with surgical repair being the most effective intervention due to the lack of medications that can slow aneurysmal expansion or prevent adverse events. In this study, an innovative nanoplatform, Mn-UiO-66-NH2@HA, designed to repair vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and the extracellular matrix (ECM) is developed, thereby enhancing arterial wall integrity. This nanoplatform utilizes the classic metal-organic framework (MOF) UiO-66-NH2, doped with manganese ions (Mn2+) and coated with hyaluronate tetrasaccharide (4-mer HA). The Mn-UiO-66-NH2@HA nanoparticles demonstrates excellent drug-loading efficiency, sustained release properties, and biocompatibility. In vitro, these nanoparticles significantly increases VSMC contractility and up-regulated elastin and lysyl oxidase expressions, crucial for ECM repair, while inhibiting matrix metalloproteinases. In vivo studies on an Ang II-induced AAA mouse model reveals that Mn-UiO-66-NH2@HA effectively reduces aneurysmal expansion and improves aortic structural integrity. This study presents a promising co-delivery system leveraging MOF carriers coated with 4-mer HA and Mn2+, offering a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment and management of AAA.

Recent Advances in Micro/Nanomotor for the Therapy and Diagnosis of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease poses a significant global public health threat with a high incidence that can result in severe mortality and disability. The lack of targeted effects from traditional therapeutic drugs on atherosclerosis may cause damage to other organs and tissues, necessitating the need for a more focused approach to address this dilemma. Micro/nanomotors are self-propelled micro/nanoscale devices capable of converting external energy into autonomous movement, which offers advantages in enhancing penetration depth and retention while increasing contact area with abnormal sites, such as atherosclerotic plaque, inflammation, and thrombosis, within blood vessel walls. Recent studies have demonstrated the crucial role micro/nanomotors play in treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Hence, this review highlights the recent progress of micro/nanomotor technology in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, including the effective promotion of micro/nanomotors in the circulatory system, overcoming hemorheological barriers, targeting the atherosclerotic plaque microenvironment, and targeting intracellular drug delivery, to facilitate atherosclerotic plaque localization and therapy. Furthermore, we also describe the potential application of micro/nanomotors in the imaging of vulnerable plaque. Finally, we discuss key challenges and prospects for treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease while emphasizing the importance of designing individualized management strategies specific to its causes and microenvironmental factors.

Nano Delivery System for Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, a pathological process propelled by inflammatory mediators and lipids, is a principal contributor to cardiovascular disease incidents. Currently, drug therapy, the primary therapeutic strategy for atherosclerosis, faces challenges such as poor stability and significant side effects. The advent of nanomaterials has garnered considerable attention from scientific researchers. Nanoparticles, such as liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles, have been developed for drug delivery in atherosclerosis treatment. This review will focus on how nanoparticles effectively improve drug safety and efficacy, as well as the continuous development and optimization of nanoparticles of the same material and further explore current challenges and future opportunities in this field.

Emerging nanoprobes for the features visualization of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a major cause of cardiovascular disease. In particular, the unpredictable rupture of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques (VASPs) can cause serious cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and even sudden death. Therefore, early evaluation of the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaques is of great importance. However, clinical imaging techniques are only marginally useful in the presence of severe anatomical structural changes, making it difficult to evaluate plaque vulnerability at an early stage. With the development of molecular imaging and nanotechnology, specific nanoprobes constructed for the pathological features of VASPs have attracted much attention for their ability to visualize VASPs early and noninvasively at the cellular and molecular levels. Here, we outline the pathological features of VASPs, analyze the superiority and limitations of current clinical imaging techniques, introduce the rational design principles of nanoprobes, and systematically summarize the application of nanoprobes to visualize the features of VASPs at the cellular and molecular levels. In addition, we discussed the prospects and urgent challenges in this field, and we believe it will provide new ideas for the early and accurate diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases.

Biomaterials Mimicking Mechanobiology: A Specific Design for a Specific Biological Application

Mechanosensing and mechanotransduction pathways between the Extracellular Matrix (ECM) and cells form the essential crosstalk that regulates cell homeostasis, tissue development, morphology, maintenance, and function. Understanding these mechanisms involves creating an appropriate cell support that elicits signals to guide cellular functions. In this context, polymers can serve as ideal molecules for producing biomaterials designed to mimic the characteristics of the ECM, thereby triggering responsive mechanisms that closely resemble those induced by a natural physiological system. The generated specific stimuli depend on the different natural or synthetic origins of the polymers, the chemical composition, the assembly structure, and the physical and surface properties of biomaterials. This review discusses the most widely used polymers and their customization to develop biomaterials with tailored properties. It examines how the characteristics of biomaterials-based polymers can be harnessed to replicate the functions of biological cells, making them suitable for biomedical and biotechnological applications.

Targeting inflammation with hyaluronic acid-based micro- and nanotechnology: A disease-oriented review

Inflammation is a pivotal immune response in numerous diseases and presents therapeutic challenges. Traditional anti-inflammatory drugs and emerging cytokine inhibitors encounter obstacles such as limited bioavailability, poor tissue distribution, and adverse effects. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a versatile biopolymer, is widely employed to deliver therapeutic agents, including anti-inflammatory drugs, genes, and cell therapies owing to its unique properties, such as hydrophilicity, biodegradability, and safety. HA interacts with cell receptors to initiate processes such as angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and immune regulation. HA-based drug delivery systems offer dual strategies for effective inflammation management, capitalizing on passive and active mechanisms. This synergy permits the mitigation of inflammation by lowering the doses of anti-inflammatory drugs and their off-target adverse effects. A diverse array of micro- and nanotechnology techniques enable the fabrication of tailored HA-engineered systems, including hydrogels, microgels, nanogels, microneedles, nanofibers, and 3D-printed scaffolds, for diverse formulations and administration routes. This review explores recent insights into HA pharmacology in inflammatory conditions, material design, and fabrication methods, as well as its applications across a spectrum of inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis, psoriasis, dermatitis, wound healing, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and colitis, highlighting its potential for clinical translation.

A ROS-responsive multifunctional targeted prodrug micelle for atherosclerosis treatment

Atherosclerosis is a chronic multifactorial cardiovascular disease. To combat atherosclerosis effectively, it is necessary to develop precision and targeted therapy in the early stages of plaque formation. In this study, a simvastatin (SV)-containing prodrug micelle SPCPV was developed by incorporating a peroxalate ester bond (PO). SPCPV could specifically target VCAM-1 overexpressed at atherosclerotic lesions. SPCPV contains a carrier (CP) composed of cyclodextrin (CD) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). At the lesions, CP and SV exerted multifaceted anti-atherosclerotic effects. In vitro studies demonstrated that intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) could induce the release of SV from SPCPV. The uptake of SPCPV was higher in inflammatory cells than in normal cells. Furthermore, in vitro experiments showed that SPCPV effectively reduced ROS levels, possessed anti-inflammatory properties, inhibited foam cell formation, and promoted cholesterol efflux. In vivo studies using atherosclerotic rats showed that SPCPV reduced the thickness of the vascular wall and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). This study developed a drug delivery strategy that could target atherosclerotic plaques and treat atherosclerosis by integrating the carrier with SV. The findings demonstrated that SPCPV possessed high stability and safety and had great therapeutic potential for treating early-stage atherosclerosis.

Advances in Atherosclerosis Theranostics Harnessing Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a multifaceted chronic inflammatory disease, has a profound impact on cardiovascular health. However, the critical limitations of atherosclerosis management include the delayed detection of advanced stages, the intricate assessment of plaque stability, and the absence of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Nanotheranostic based on nanotechnology offers a novel paradigm for addressing these challenges by amalgamating advanced imaging capabilities with targeted therapeutic interventions. Meanwhile, iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as compelling candidates for theranostic applications in atherosclerosis due to their magnetic resonance imaging capability and biosafety. This review delineates the current state and prospects of iron oxide nanoparticle-based nanotheranostics in the realm of atherosclerosis, including pivotal aspects of atherosclerosis development, the pertinent targeting strategies involved in disease pathogenesis, and the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of theranostic nanomedicine approaches employing iron oxide nanoparticles, encompassing chemical therapy, physical stimulation therapy, and biological therapy. Finally, this review proposes and discusses the challenges and prospects associated with translating these innovative strategies into clinically viable anti-atherosclerosis interventions. In conclusion, this review offers new insights into the future of atherosclerosis theranostic, showcasing the remarkable potential of iron oxide-based nanoparticles as versatile tools in the battle against atherosclerosis.

Cluster of Differentiation-44-Targeting Prussian Blue Nanoparticles Onloaded with Colchicine for Atherosclerotic Plaque Regression in a Mice Model

Atherosclerosis management heavily relies on the suppression of the inflammatory response of macrophages. Colchicine's potent anti-inflammatory properties make it a promising candidate for secondary prevention against cardiovascular disease. However, its high toxicity and numerous adverse effects limit its clinical use. To address this, there is an urgent need for specific drug delivery systems to boost the level of accumulation of colchicine within atherosclerotic plaques. In this study, the cluster of differentiation-44 receptor was verified to be overexpressed in inflammatory macrophages within plaques both in vitro and in vivo. Subsequently, a Prussian blue-based nanomedical loading system with hyaluronic acid (HA) coating was constructed, and its effects were observed on the atherosclerosis regression. Colchicine and Cy5.5 were encapsulated within Prussian blue nanoparticles through self-assembly, followed by conjugation with hyaluronic acid to create col@PBNP@HA. The formulated col@PBNP@HA displayed a cubic shape and scattered distribution. Importantly, col@PBNP@HA demonstrated specific cellular uptake into lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. In vitro experiments showed that col@PBNP@HA more effectively inhibited expression of inflammatory factors and scavenged reactive oxygen species compared with the control group, which were treated with colchicine. Furthermore, col@PBNP@HA exhibited its specific and higher accumulation in aortic plaque analysis via fluorescence imaging of aortas. After 4 weeks, administration of col@PBNP@HA resulted in significant atherosclerosis regression in the mice model, with therapeutic effects superior to those of free colchicine. Similar to colchicine, col@PBNP@HA inhibited the secretion of inflammation factors and scavenged ROS through the regulation of the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) signaling pathway. In summary, col@PBNP@HA demonstrated specific targeting ability to inflammatory plaques and exerted beneficial effects on atherosclerosis regression through TLR4/Myd88/NF-κB and PGC-1α modulation.

Visualization of the Ferroptosis in Atherosclerotic Plaques with Nanoprobe Engineered by Macrophage Cell Membranes

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the root cause of cardiovascular diseases. Ferroptosis is characterized by highly iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and has been reported to play an important role in the pathogenesis of AS. Visualization of the ferroptosis process in atherosclerotic plaques is of great importance for diagnosing and treating AS. In this work, the rationally designed fluorescent probe FAS1 exhibited excellent advantages including large Stokes shift, sensitivity to environmental viscosity, good photostability, and improved water solubility. It also could co-locate with commercial lipid droplets (LDs) probes (BODIPY 493/503) well in RAW264.7 cells treated by the ferroptosis inducer. After self-assembly into nanoparticles and then encapsulation with macrophage membranes, the engineered FAS1@MM NPs could successfully target the atherosclerotic plaques in Western diet-induced apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE-/-) mice and reveal the association of ferroptosis with AS through fluorescence imaging in vivo. This study may provide additional insights into the roles of ferroptosis in the diagnosis and treatment of AS.

Advancements in Macrophage-Targeted Drug Delivery for Effective Disease Management

Macrophages play a crucial role in tissue homeostasis and the innate immune system. They perform essential functions such as presenting antigens, regulating cytokines, and responding to inflammation. However, in diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and autoimmune conditions, macrophages undergo aberrant polarization, which disrupts tissue regulation and impairs their normal behavior. To address these challenges, there has been growing interest in developing customized targeted drug delivery systems specifically designed for macrophage-related functions in different anatomical locations. Nanomedicine, utilizing nanoscale drug systems, offers numerous advantages including improved stability, enhanced pharmacokinetics, controlled release kinetics, and precise temporal drug delivery. These advantages hold significant promise in achieving heightened therapeutic efficacy, specificity, and reduced side effects in drug delivery and treatment approaches. This review aims to explore the roles of macrophages in major diseases and present an overview of current strategies employed in targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Additionally, this article critically evaluates the design of macrophage-targeted delivery systems, highlighting limitations and discussing prospects in this rapidly evolving field. By assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing approaches, we can identify areas for improvement and refinement in macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

Biomimetic nanomedicines for precise atherosclerosis theranostics

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics.

Development and Bioactivity of Zinc Sulfate Cross-Linked Polysaccharide Delivery System of Dexamethasone Phosphate

Improving the biopharmaceutical properties of glucocorticoids (increasing local bioavailability and reducing systemic toxicity) is an important challenge. The aim of this study was to develop a dexamethasone phosphate (DexP) delivery system based on hyaluronic acid (HA) and a water-soluble cationic chitosan derivative, diethylaminoethyl chitosan (DEAECS). The DexP delivery system was a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) resulting from interpolymer interactions between the HA polyanion and the DEAECS polycation with simultaneous incorporation of zinc ions as a cross-linking agent into the complex. The developed PECs had a hydrodynamic diameter of 244 nm and a ζ-potential of +24.4 mV; the encapsulation efficiency and DexP content were 75.6% and 45.4 μg/mg, respectively. The designed DexP delivery systems were characterized by both excellent mucoadhesion and prolonged drug release (approximately 70% of DexP was released within 10 h). In vitro experiments showed that encapsulation of DexP in polysaccharide nanocarriers did not reduce its anti-inflammatory activity compared to free DexP.

Optically active organic and inorganic nanomaterials for biological imaging applications: A review

Recent advancements in the field of nanotechnology have enabled targeted delivery of drug agents in vivo with minimal side effects. The use of nanoparticles for bio-imaging has revolutionized the field of nanomedicine by enabling non-invasive targeting and selective delivery of active drug moieties in vivo. Various inorganic nanomaterials like mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, magnetite nanoparticles graphene-based nanomaterials etc., have been created for multimodal therapies with varied multi-imaging modalities. These nanomaterials enable us to overcome the disadvantages of conventional imaging contrast agents (organic dyes) such as lack of stability in vitro and in vivo, high reactivity, low-quantum yield and poor photo stability. Inorganic nanomaterials can be easily fabricated, functionalised and modified as per requirements. Recently, advancements in synthesis techniques, such as the ability to generate molecules and construct supramolecular structures for specific functionalities, have boosted the usage of engineered nanomaterials. Their intrinsic physicochemical properties are unique and they possess excellent biocompatibility. Inorganic nanomaterial research has developed as the most actively booming research fields in biotechnology and biomedicine. Inorganic nanomaterials like gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, graphene-based nanomaterials and quantum dots have shown excellent use in bioimaging, targeted drug delivery and cancer therapies. Biocompatibility of nanomaterials is an important aspect for the evolution of nanomaterials in the bench to bedside transition. The conduction of thorough and meticulous study for safety and efficacy in well-designed clinical trials is absolutely necessary to determine the functional and structural relationship between the engineered nanomaterial and its toxicity. In this article an attempt is made to throw some light on the current scenario and developments made in the field of nanomaterials in bioimaging.

Hyaluronic acid-graphene oxide quantum dots nanoconjugate as dual purpose drug delivery and therapeutic agent in meta-inflammation

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) predominantly considered a metabolic disease is now being considered an inflammatory disease as well due to the involvement of meta-inflammation. Obesity-induced adipose tissue inflammation (ATI) is one of the earliest phenomena in the case of meta-inflammation, leading to the advent of insulin resistance (IR) and T2DM. The key events of ATI are orchestrated by macrophages, which aggravate the inflammatory state in the tissue upon activation, ultimately leading to systemic chronic low-grade inflammation and Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH) through the involvement of proinflammatory cytokines. The CD44 receptor on macrophages is overexpressed in ATI, NASH, and IR. Therefore, we developed a CD44 targeted Hyaluronic Acid functionalized Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots (GOQD-HA) nanocomposite for tissue-specific delivery of metformin. Metformin-loaded GOQD-HA (GOQD-HA-Met) successfully downregulated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and restored antioxidant status at lower doses than free metformin in both palmitic acid-induced RAW264.7 cells and diet induced obese mice. Our study revealed that the GOQD-HA nanocarrier enhanced the efficacy of Metformin primarily by acting as a therapeutic agent apart from being a drug delivery platform. The therapeutic properties of GOQD-HA stem from both HA and GOQD having anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties respectively. This study unravels the function of GOQD-HA as a targeted drug delivery option for metformin in meta-inflammation where the nanocarrier itself acts as a therapeutic agent.

Microfluidic fabrication of X-ray-visible sodium hyaluronate microspheres for embolization

Catheter embolization is a minimally invasive technique that relies on embolic agents and is now widely used to treat various high-prevalence medical diseases. Embolic agents usually need to be combined with exogenous contrasts to visualize the embolotherapy process. However, the exogenous contrasts are quite simply washed away by blood flow, making it impossible to monitor the embolized location. To solve this problem, a series of sodium hyaluronate (SH) loaded with bismuth sulfide (Bi₂S₃) nanorods (NRs) microspheres (Bi₂S₃@SH) were prepared in this study by using 1,4-butaneglycol diglycidyl ether (BDDE) as a crosslinker through single-step microfluidics. Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres showed the best performance among other prepared microspheres. The fabricated microspheres had uniform size and good dispersibility. Furthermore, the introduction of Bi₂S₃ NRs synthesized by a hydrothermal method as Computed Tomography (CT) contrast agents improved the mechanical properties of Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres and endowed the microspheres with excellent X-ray impermeability. The blood compatibility and cytotoxicity test showed that the Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres had good biocompatibility. In particular, the in vitro simulated embolization experiment results indicate that the Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres had excellent embolization effect, especially for the small-sized blood vessels of 500-300 and 300 μm. The results showed the prepared Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres have good biocompatibility and mechanical properties, as well as certain X-ray visibility and excellent embolization effects. We believe that the design and combination of this material has good guiding significance in the field of embolotherapy.

Hyaluronic Acid: A Powerful Biomolecule with Wide-Ranging Applications-A Comprehensive Review

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a glycosaminoglycan widely distributed in the human body, especially in body fluids and the extracellular matrix of tissues. It plays a crucial role not only in maintaining tissue hydration but also in cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and the inflammatory response. HA has demonstrated its efficacy as a powerful bioactive molecule not only for skin antiaging but also in atherosclerosis, cancer, and other pathological conditions. Due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and non-immunogenicity, several HA-based biomedical products have been developed. There is an increasing focus on optimizing HA production processes to achieve high-quality, efficient, and cost-effective products. This review discusses HA's structure, properties, and production through microbial fermentation. Furthermore, it highlights the bioactive applications of HA in emerging sectors of biomedicine.

Duplex Responsive Nanoplatform with Cascade Targeting for Atherosclerosis Photoacoustic Diagnosis and Multichannel Combination Therapy

The culprits of atherosclerosis are endothelial damage, local disorders of lipid metabolism, and progressive inflammation. Early atherosclerosis is typically difficult to diagnose in time due to the lack of obvious symptoms, thus missing the best period of treatment. In this work, a π-conjugated polymer (PMeTPP-MBT) based on 3,6-bis(4-methylthiophen-2-yl)-2,5-bis(2-octyldodecyl)pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4(2H,5H)-dione is designed as a novel photoacoustic contrast agent. On this basis, an intelligent responsive theranostic nanoplatform (PA/ASePSD) combining astaxanthin and SS-31 peptide and loading with PMeTPP-MBT is developed. The high affinity between the dextran shell with the broken endothelial surface VCAM-1 and CD44 confers active targeting of PA/ASePSD to atherosclerotic lesions. High levels of ROS in the acidic plaque microenvironment act as an intelligent cascade switch to achieve controlled release of astaxanthin, SS-31 peptide, and PMeTPP-MBT for non-invasive photoacoustic diagnosis, as well as plaque inhibition mediated by anti-inflammation and multichannel regulation (including ABCA1, ABCG1, CD36, and LOX-1) of lipid metabolism. Both in vitro and in vivo evaluations confirm the impressive anti-atherosclerotic capability and the accurate photoacoustic diagnosis of PA/ASePSD nanoparticles, thus promising a candidate for early-stage atherosclerosis theranostics.

Use of acidic nanoparticles to rescue macrophage lysosomal dysfunction in atherosclerosis

Dysfunction in the macrophage lysosomal system including reduced acidity and diminished degradative capacity is a hallmark of atherosclerosis, leading to blunted clearance of excess cellular debris and lipids in plaques and contributing to lesion progression. Devising strategies to rescue this macrophage lysosomal dysfunction is a novel therapeutic measure. Nanoparticles have emerged as an effective platform to both target specific tissues and serve as drug delivery vehicles. In most cases, administered nanoparticles are taken up non-selectively by the mononuclear phagocyte system including monocytes/macrophages leading to the undesirable degradation of cargo in lysosomes. We took advantage of this default route to target macrophage lysosomes to rectify their acidity in disease states such as atherosclerosis. Herein, we develop and test two commonly used acidic nanoparticles, poly-lactide-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and polylactic acid (PLA), both in vitro and in vivo. Our results in cultured macrophages indicate that the PLGA-based nanoparticles are the most effective at trafficking to and enhancing acidification of lysosomes. PLGA nanoparticles also provide functional benefits including enhanced lysosomal degradation, promotion of macroautophagy/autophagy and protein aggregate removal, and reduced apoptosis and inflammasome activation. We demonstrate the utility of this system in vivo, showing nanoparticle accumulation in, and lysosomal acidification of, macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques. Long-term administration of PLGA nanoparticles results in significant reductions in surrogates of plaque complexity with reduced apoptosis, necrotic core formation, and cytotoxic protein aggregates and increased fibrous cap formation. Taken together, our data support the use of acidic nanoparticles to rescue macrophage lysosomal dysfunction in the treatment of atherosclerosis.Abbreviations: BCA: brachiocephalic arteries; FACS: fluorescence activated cell sorting; FITC: fluorescein-5-isothiocyanatel; IL1B: interleukin 1 beta; LAMP: lysosomal associated membrane protein; LIPA/LAL: lipase A, lysosomal acid type; LSDs: lysosomal storage disorders; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MFI: mean fluorescence intensity; MPS: mononuclear phagocyte system; PEGHDE: polyethylene glycol hexadecyl ether; PLA: polylactic acid; PLGA: poly-lactide-co-glycolic acid; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1.

Molecularly targeted nanomedicine enabled by inorganic nanoparticles for atherosclerosis diagnosis and treatment

Atherosclerosis, a chronic cardiovascular disease caused by plaque development in arteries, remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Atherosclerotic plaques are characterized by the expression and regulation of key molecules such as cell surface receptors, cytokines, and signaling pathway proteins, potentially facilitating precise diagnosis and treatment on a molecular level by specifically targeting the characteristic molecules. In this review, we highlight the recent progress in the past five years on developing molecularly targeted nanomedicine for imaging detection and treatment of atherosclerosis with the use of inorganic nanoparticles. Through targeted delivery of imaging contrast nanoparticles to specific molecules in atherogenesis, atherosclerotic plaque development at different stages could be identified and monitored via various molecular imaging modalities. We also review molecularly targeted therapeutic approaches that target and regulate molecules associated with lipid regulation, inflammation, and apoptosis. The review is concluded with discussion on current challenges and future development of nanomedicine for atherosclerotic diagnosis and treatment.

Extraction and characterization of hyaluronic acid from the eyeball of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a biopolymer of enormous value aggregation for in general industry. The vitreous humor of the eyeball from Nile tilapia contains appreciable amounts of hyaluronic acid. In this sense, the aim of this work was to extract and characterize hyaluronic acid from the eyeball of the Nile tilapia for biomedical applications, adding value to fish industry residues. The characterization by infra-red (FTIR), ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) confirmed that hyaluronic acid was obtained. The gel permeation chromatography (GPC) showed that the obtained material presents a low molecular mass (37 KDa). Thermogravimetry (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the materials present a thermal stability superior to the commercial hyaluronic acid from Streptococcus equi, with a partially crystalline character. The cytotoxicity assay (MTT method) with fibroblast cells (L929) demonstrated that the extracted biopolymer besides not being cytotoxic, was able to stimulate cell proliferation. Therefore, the hyaluronic acid extracted from this source of residue constitutes a product with biotechnological potential, which has adequate quality for wide biomedical applications.

Synthesis and characterization of a macromolecular magnetic resonance imaging and delivery system with hyaluronic acid as a carrier

Using hyaluronic acid (HA) as macromolecular drug carriers, a glutathione-responsive imaging drug delivery system HA-SS-a-Gd-DOTA was formed by conjugating gadolinium chelates and cytarabine. This system exhibited T₁-reflexivity (21.9 mmol^-1 L s^-1, 0.5 T) that was higher than that of gadoterate meglumine. In an acidic environment, in vitro drug release reached 63.4% in 24 h. Low cytotoxicity indicated that this system has good biocompatibility. In vivo mouse imaging studies showed that tumor signaling was significantly enhanced. About 58% of the signal enhancement was obtained 50 min after injection of the drug. The degradation of the hyaluronic acid macromolecular chains in vivo makes it an ideal tumor imaging diagnostic agent because it did not cause damage to important organs of the mice.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive size-reducible nanoassemblies for deeper atherosclerotic plaque penetration and enhanced macrophage-targeted drug delivery

Nanoparticle-based therapeutics represent potential strategies for treating atherosclerosis; however, the complex plaque microenvironment poses a barrier for nanoparticles to target the dysfunctional cells. Here, we report reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive and size-reducible nanoassemblies, formed by multivalent host-guest interactions between β-cyclodextrins (β-CD)-anchored discoidal recombinant high-density lipoprotein (NP³_ST) and hyaluronic acid-ferrocene (HA-Fc) conjugates. The HA-Fc/NP³_ST nanoassemblies have extended blood circulation time, specifically accumulate in atherosclerotic plaque mediated by the HA receptors CD44 highly expressed in injured endothelium, rapidly disassemble in response to excess ROS in the intimal and release smaller NP³_ST, allowing for further plaque penetration, macrophage-targeted cholesterol efflux and drug delivery. In vivo pharmacodynamicses in atherosclerotic mice shows that HA-Fc/NP³_ST reduces plaque size by 53%, plaque lipid deposition by 63%, plaque macrophage content by 62% and local inflammatory factor level by 64% compared to the saline group. Meanwhile, HA-Fc/NP³_ST alleviates systemic inflammation characterized by reduced serum inflammatory factor levels. Collectively, HA-Fc/NP³_ST nanoassemblies with ROS-responsive and size-reducible properties exhibit a deeper penetration in atherosclerotic plaque and enhanced macrophage targeting ability, thus exerting effective cholesterol efflux and drug delivery for atherosclerosis therapy.

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HA-Fc/NP³_ST is designed for long blood circulation and deep plaque penetration.

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Nanoassemblies are formed by multivalent host-guest interactions of β-CD/ferrocene.

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Release of NP³_ST triggered by excess ROS aims for macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

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FRET method is utilized to characterize the ROS-responsiveness of nanoassemblies.

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Biomimic cell coculture model is constructed to simulate the atherosclerotic plaque.

Hyaluronic Acid Nanoparticles as a Topical Agent for Treating Psoriasis

Although conventional topical approaches for treating psoriasis have been offered as an alternative, there are still unmet medical needs such as low skin-penetrating efficacy and off-target adverse effects. A hyaluronic acid nanoparticle (HA-NP) formed by self-assembly of HA-hydrophobic moiety conjugates has been broadly studied as a nanocarrier for long-term and target-specific delivery of drugs, owing to their excellent physicochemical and biological characteristics. Here, we identify HA-NPs as topical therapeutics for treating psoriasis using in vivo skin penetration studies and psoriasis animal models. Transcutaneously administered HA-NPs were found to be accumulated and associated with pro-inflammatory macrophages in the inflamed dermis of a psoriasis mouse model. Importantly, HA-NP exerted potent therapeutic efficacy against psoriasis-like skin dermatitis in a size-dependent manner by suppressing innate immune responses and restoring skin barrier function without overt toxicity signs. The therapeutic efficacy of HA-NPs on psoriasis-like skin dermatitis was due to the outermost hydrophilic HA shell layer of HA-NPs, independent of the molecular weight of HA and hydrophobic moiety, and comparable with that of other conventional psoriasis therapeutics widely used in the clinical settings. Overall, HA-NPs have the potential as a topical nanomedicine for treating psoriasis effectively and safely.

Advances in imaging and treatment of atherosclerosis based on organic nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a systemic chronic inflammatory disease, can lead to thrombosis and vascular occlusion, thereby inducing a series of serious vascular diseases. Currently, distinguishing unstable plaques early and achieving more effective treatment are the two main clinical concerns in atherosclerosis. Organic nanoparticles have great potential in atherosclerotic imaging and treatment, showing superior biocompatibility, drug-loading capacity, and synthesis. This article illustrates the process of atherosclerosis onset and the key targeted cells, then systematically summarizes recent progress made in organic nanoparticle-based imaging of different types of targeted cells and therapeutic methods for atherosclerosis, including optical and acoustic-induced therapy, drug delivery, gene therapy, and immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the major impediments that need to be addressed in future clinical practice. We believe this article will help readers to develop a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of organic nanoparticle-based atherosclerotic imaging and treatment, thus advancing further development of anti-atherosclerosis therapies.

Small molecule-assisted assembly of multifunctional ceria nanozymes for synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis

Considering that intravascular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammation are two characteristic features of the atherosclerotic microenvironment, developing an appropriate strategy to treat atherosclerosis by synergistically regulating ROS and inflammation has attracted widespread attention. Herein, a special molecule, zoledronic acid, containing imidazole and bisphosphonate groups, was selected for the first time to assist the assembly of cerium ions and produce functionalized ceria-zoledronic acid nanocomposites (CZ NCs). It not only serves as a new carrier for different kinds of drugs (e.g. probucol, PB) but also exerts an efficient multienzyme activity to achieve collaborative therapy. More importantly, platelet membrane-coated biomimetic nanoplatform (PCZ@PB NCs) specifically accumulate at inflammatory atherosclerotic lesions, synergistically regulate ROS levels and inflammation, and efficiently inhibit foam cell formation. This novel assembly method can also be applied in the treatment of many other diseases associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease is the most common health problem worldwide and remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Despite recent advances in the management of cardiovascular diseases, pharmaceutical treatment remains suboptimal because of poor pharmacokinetics and high toxicity. However, since being harnessed in the cancer field for the delivery of safer and more effective chemotherapeutics, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have offered multiple significant therapeutic effects in treating cardiovascular diseases. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems alter the biodistribution of therapeutic agents through site-specific, target-oriented delivery and controlled drug release of precise medicines. Metal-, lipid-, and polymer-based nanoparticles represent ideal materials for use in cardiovascular therapeutics. New developments in the therapeutic potential of drug delivery using nanoparticles and the application of nanomedicine to cardiovascular diseases are described in this review. Furthermore, this review discusses our current understanding of the potential role of nanoparticles in metabolism and toxicity after therapeutic action, with a view to providing a safer and more effective strategy for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Tumor-targeted miRNA nanomedicine for overcoming challenges in immunity and therapeutic resistance

miRNA are critical messengers in the tumor microenvironment (TME) that influence various processes leading to immune suppression, tumor progression, metastasis and resistance. Strategies to modulate miRNAs in the TME have important implications in overcoming these challenges. However, miR delivery to specific cells in the TME has been challenging. This review discusses nanomedicine strategies to achieve cell-specific delivery of miRNAs. The key goal of delivery is to activate the tumor immune landscape as well as to prevent chemotherapy resistance. Specifically, the use of hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticle miRNA delivery to the TME is discussed. The discussion is focused on miRNA-125b for reprogramming tumor-associated macrophages to overcome immunosuppression and miRNA-let-7b to overcome resistance to anticancer chemotherapeutics because both these miRNAs have been extensively evaluated for delivery with hyaluronic acid-based delivery systems.

Targeted therapy of atherosclerosis by pH-sensitive hyaluronic acid nanoparticles co-delivering all-trans retinal and rapamycin

Atherosclerosis, the leading cause of death in the elderly worldwide, is typically characterized by elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and a chronic inflammatory state at the arterial plaques. Herein, pH-sensitive nanoparticles (HR_RAP NPs) co-delivering all-trans retinal (ATR), an antioxidant linked to hyaluronic acid (HA) through a pH-sensitive hydrazone bond, and rapamycin (RAP), an anti-atherosclerotic drug loaded into the nanoparticle core, are developed for targeted combination therapy of atherosclerosis. In this way, HR_RAP NPs might simultaneously reduce ROS levels via ATR antioxidant activity and reduce inflammation via the anti-inflammatory effect of RAP. In response to mildly acidic conditions mimicking the lesional inflammation in vitro, HR_RAP NPs dissociated and both ATR and RAP were effectively released. The developed HR_RAP NPs effectively inhibited pro-inflammatory macrophage proliferation, and displayed dose- and time-dependent specific internalization by different cellular models of atherosclerosis. Also, HR_RAP NP combination therapy showed an efficient synergetic anti-atherosclerotic effect in vitro by effectively inhibiting the inflammatory response and oxidative stress in inflammatory cells. More importantly, HR NPs specifically accumulated in the atherosclerotic plaques of apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE^-/-) mice, by active interaction with HA receptors overexpressed by different cells of the plaque. The treatment with HR_RAP NPs remarkably inhibited the progression of atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice which resulted in stable plaques with considerably smaller necrotic cores, lower matrix metalloproteinase-9, and decreased proliferation of macrophages and smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Furthermore, HR_RAP NPs attenuated RAP adverse effects and exhibited a good safety profile after long-term treatment in mice. Consequently, the developed pH-sensitive HR_RAP NP represent a promising nanoplatform for atherosclerosis combination therapy.

Nanostructured particles assembled from natural building blocks for advanced therapies

Advanced treatments based on immune system manipulation, gene transcription and regulation, specific organ and cell targeting, and/or photon energy conversion have emerged as promising therapeutic strategies against a range of challenging diseases. Naturally derived macromolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and polyphenols) have increasingly found use as fundamental building blocks for nanostructured particles as their advantageous properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, inherent bioactivity, and diverse chemical properties make them suitable for advanced therapeutic applications. This review provides a timely and comprehensive summary of the use of a broad range of natural building blocks in the rapidly developing field of advanced therapeutics with insights specific to nanostructured particles. We focus on an up-to-date overview of the assembly of nanostructured particles using natural building blocks and summarize their key scientific and preclinical milestones for advanced therapies, including adoptive cell therapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, active targeted drug delivery, photoacoustic therapy and imaging, photothermal therapy, and combinational therapy. A cross-comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of different natural building blocks are highlighted to elucidate the key design principles for such bio-derived nanoparticles toward improving their performance and adoption. Current challenges and future research directions are also discussed, which will accelerate our understanding of designing, engineering, and applying nanostructured particles for advanced therapies.

Recent Progress in in vitro Models for Atherosclerosis Studies

Atherosclerosis is the primary cause of hardening and narrowing arteries, leading to cardiovascular disease accounting for the high mortality in the United States. For developing effective treatments for atherosclerosis, considerable efforts have been devoted to developing in vitro models. Compared to animal models, in vitro models can provide great opportunities to obtain data more efficiently, economically. Therefore, this review discusses the recent progress in in vitro models for atherosclerosis studies, including traditional two-dimensional (2D) systems cultured on the tissue culture plate, 2D cell sheets, and recently emerged microfluidic chip models with 2D culture. In addition, advanced in vitro three-dimensional models such as spheroids, cell-laden hydrogel constructs, tissue-engineered blood vessels, and vessel-on-a-chip will also be covered. Moreover, the functions of these models are also summarized along with model discussion. Lastly, the future perspectives of this field are discussed.

Hyaluronic acid targeted and pH-responsive multifunctional nanoparticles for chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a global disease with an extremely high morbidity and fatality rate, so it is necessary to develop effective treatments to reduce its impact. In this work, we successfully prepared a multifunctional drug-loaded nano-delivery system with pH-responsive, CD44-targeted, and chemical-photothermal synergistic treatment. Dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles capped with copper sulfide (CuS) were synthesized via an oil-water biphase stratification reaction system; these served as the carrier material and encapsulated the anticoagulant drug heparin (Hep). The pH-sensitive Schiff base bond was used as a gatekeeper and targeting agent to modify hyaluronic acid (HA) on the surface of the nanocarrier. HA coating endowed the nanocomposite with the ability to respond to pH and target CD44-positive inflammatory macrophages. Based on this multifunctional nanocomposite, we achieved precise drug delivery, controlled drug release, and chemical-photothermal synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis. The in vitro drug release results showed that the nanocarriers exhibited excellent drug-controlled release properties, and could release drugs in the weakly acidic microenvironment of atherosclerotic inflammation. Cytotoxicity and cell uptake experiments indicated that nanocarriers had low cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells. Modification of HA to nanocarriers can be effectively internalized by RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Combining CuS photothermal treatment with anti-atherosclerosis chemotherapy showed better effects than single treatment in vitro and in vivo. In summary, our research proved that H-CuS@DMSN-NC-HA has broad application prospects in anti-atherosclerosis.

Arsenic trioxide activates yes-associated protein by lysophosphatidic acid metabolism to selectively induce apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells

Inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) proliferation without dysregulating endothelial cells (ECs) may provide an ideal therapy for in-stent restenosis. Due to its anti-proliferation effect on VSMCs and pro-endothelium effect, arsenic trioxide (ATO) has been used in a drug-eluting stent in a recent clinical trial. However, the underlying mechanism by which ATO achieves this effect has not been determined. In the present work, we showed that ATO induced apoptosis in VSMCs but not in ECs. Mechanistically, ATO achieved this through modulation of cellular metabolism to increase lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in VSMCs, while LPA concentration was stable in ECs. The elevated LPA facilitated the nuclear accumulation and initiated the transcriptional function of Yes-associated protein (YAP) in VSMCs. YAP regulated the transcription of N6-Methyladenosine (m⁶A) modulators (Mettl14 and Wtap) to increase the m⁶A methylation levels of apoptosis-related genes to induce their high expression and exacerbate VSMCs apoptosis. On the other hand, YAP nuclear accumulation in ECs was not observed. Collectively, our data exhibited the molecular process involved in selective apoptosis of VSMCs induced by ATO.

H2O2-responsive prodrug-nanosystem based on auto-fluorescent perylenetetracarboxylic diimide hinders foaming progress in RAW264.7 cells

Oxidative stress can lead to a variety of diseases, and oxalate bond can consume excess reactive oxygen species（ROS）in cells. In this study, the H2O2 responsive prodrug-nanosystem was synthesized by oxalate...

Artemisinin and Procyanidins loaded multifunctional nanocomplexes alleviate atherosclerosis via simultaneously modulating lipid influx and cholesterol efflux

The development of new reagents combining with nanotechnology has become an efficient strategy for improving the immune escaping ability and increasing local drug concentration for natural compounds with low therapy efficiency. In this study, we prepared biomimetic membrane-coated Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) for the treatment of atherosclerosis, using the function of Artemisinin (ART) and Procyanidins (PC) on the lipid influx and cholesterol efflux of macrophages, two logical steps involved in the plaque progression. In vitro results indicated that the prepared nanocomplexes have significant scavenging effect on ROS and NO, followed by inhibiting NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, leading to the suppression of lipid influx. Meanwhile, they can notably reduce the uptake and internalization of oxLDL through significantly enhancing AMPK/mTOR/autophagy pathway, accompanied by promoting cholesterol efflux. In vivo study showed that the improved biocompatibility and immune-escape ability of nanocomplexes allowed less drug clearance during the circulation and high drug accumulation in the atherosclerotic plaque of ApoE^-/- mice model. More importantly, the ART and PC co-loaded nanocomplexes showed the high efficacy against atherosclerosis of ApoE^-/- mice model with both 8-week low dosage treatment or 1-week high dosage treatment. These findings indicated that ART and PC co-loaded nanocomplexes was promising for the targeted treatment of atherosclerosis.

Nanotechnology for Targeted Therapy of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the major cause of heart attack and stroke that are the leading causes of death in the world. Nanomedicine is a powerful tool that can be engineered to target atherosclerotic plaques for therapeutic and diagnosis purposes. In this review, advances in designing nanoparticles with therapeutic effects on atherosclerotic plaques known as atheroprotective nanomedicine have been summarized to stimulate further development and future translation.

Polymer-Based Nanosystems-A Versatile Delivery Approach

Polymer-based nanoparticles of tailored size, morphology, and surface properties have attracted increasing attention as carriers for drugs, biomolecules, and genes. By protecting the payload from degradation and maintaining sustained and controlled release of the drug, polymeric nanoparticles can reduce drug clearance, increase their cargo's stability and solubility, prolong its half-life, and ensure optimal concentration at the target site. The inherent immunomodulatory properties of specific polymer nanoparticles, coupled with their drug encapsulation ability, have raised particular interest in vaccine delivery. This paper aims to review current and emerging drug delivery applications of both branched and linear, natural, and synthetic polymer nanostructures, focusing on their role in vaccine development.

Advances in Nanomaterials for Injured Heart Repair

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Because of the limited regenerative capacity of adult myocardium to compensate for the loss of heart tissue after ischemic infarction, scientists have been exploring the possible mechanisms involved in the pathological process of ASCVD and searching for alternative means to regenerate infarcted cardiac tissue. Although numerous studies have pursued innovative solutions for reversing the pathological process of ASCVD and improving the effectiveness of delivering therapeutics, the translation of those advances into downstream clinical applications remains unsatisfactory because of poor safety and low efficacy. Recently, nanomaterials (NMs) have emerged as a promising new strategy to strengthen both the efficacy and safety of ASCVD therapy. Thus, a comprehensive review of NMs used in ASCVD treatment will be useful. This paper presents an overview of the pathophysiological mechanisms of ASCVD and the multifunctional mechanisms of NM-based therapy, including antioxidative, anti-inflammation and antiapoptosis mechanisms. The technological improvements of NM delivery are summarized and the clinical transformations concerning the use of NMs to treat ASCVD are examined. Finally, this paper discusses the challenges and future perspectives of NMs in cardiac regeneration to provide insightful information for health professionals on the latest advancements in nanotechnologies for ASCVD treatment.

Hyaluronan/Diethylaminoethyl Chitosan Polyelectrolyte Complexes as Carriers for Improved Colistin Delivery

Improving the therapeutic characteristics of antibiotics is an effective strategy for controlling the growth of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative microorganisms. The purpose of this study was to develop a colistin (CT) delivery system based on hyaluronic acid (HA) and the water-soluble cationic chitosan derivative, diethylaminoethyl chitosan (DEAECS). The CT delivery system was a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) obtained by interpolymeric interactions between the HA polyanion and the DEAECS polycation, with simultaneous inclusion of positively charged CT molecules into the resulting complex. The developed PEC had a hydrodynamic diameter of 210-250 nm and a negative surface charge (ζ-potential = -19 mV); the encapsulation and loading efficiencies were 100 and 16.7%, respectively. The developed CT delivery systems were characterized by modified release (30-40% and 85-90% of CT released in 15 and 60 min, respectively) compared to pure CT (100% CT released in 15 min). In vitro experiments showed that the encapsulation of CT in polysaccharide carriers did not reduce its antimicrobial activity, as the minimum inhibitory concentrations against Pseudomonas aeruginosa of both encapsulated CT and pure CT were 1 μg/mL.

Immunomodulatory Nanomedicine for the Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which remain the number one contributor to mortality worldwide. Although current therapies can slow down disease progression, no treatment is available that can fully cure or reverse atherosclerosis. Nanomedicine, which is the application of nanotechnology in medicine, is an emerging field in the treatment of many pathologies, including CVDs. It enables the production of drugs that interact with cellular receptors, and allows for controlling cellular processes after entering these cells. Nanomedicine aims to repair, control and monitor biological and physiological systems via nanoparticles (NPs), which have been shown to be efficient drug carriers. In this review we will, after a general introduction, highlight the advantages and limitations of the use of such nano-based medicine, the potential applications and targeting strategies via NPs. For example, we will provide a detailed discussion on NPs that can target relevant cellular receptors, such as integrins, or cellular processes related to atherogenesis, such as vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Furthermore, we will underline the (ongoing) clinical trials focusing on NPs in CVDs, which might bring new insights into this research field.

Hyaluronan/colistin polyelectrolyte complexes: Promising antiinfective drug delivery systems

Nanotechnology-based modification of known antimicrobial agents is a rational and straightforward way to improve their safety and effectiveness. The aim of this study was to develop colistin (CT)-loaded polymeric carriers based on hyaluronic acid (HA) for potential application as antimicrobial agents against multi-resistant gram-negative microorganisms (including ESKAPE pathogens). CT-containing particles were obtained via a polyelectrolyte interaction between protonated CT amino groups and HA carboxyl groups (the CT-HA complex formation constant [logK_CT-HA] was about 5.0). The resulting polyelectrolyte complexes had a size of 210-250 nm and a negative charge (ζ-potential -19 mV), with encapsulation and loading efficiencies of 100% and 20%, respectively. The developed CT delivery systems were characterized by modified release (45% and 85% of CT released in 15 and 60 min, respectively) compared to pure CT (100% CT released in 15 min). In vitro tests showed that the encapsulation of CT in polymer particles did not reduce its pharmacological activity; the minimum inhibitory concentrations of both encapsulated CT and pure CT were 1 μg/mL (against Pseudomonas aeruginosa).

SR-A-Targeted Nanoplatform for Sequential Photothermal/Photodynamic Ablation of Activated Macrophages to Alleviate Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases induced by atherosclerosis (AS) have become the dominant cause of disability and mortality throughout the world. The typical early pathological process of AS involves the activation of inflammatory macrophages in the vulnerable plaque. In this work, we first employed chitosan-coated carbon nanocages (CS-CNCs) as nanocarriers to load Chlorin e6 (Ce6) and then linked dextran sulfate (DS) to the outermost layer by electrostatic adsorption to create a multifunctional therapeutic nanoplatform, CS-CNCs@Ce6/DS. The DS of the nanoplatform can recognize and bind to the type A scavenger receptor (SR-A), which is expressed only on the activated macrophages of the arterial plaque, so the proposed nanoplatform selectively targets these macrophages and accumulates there. Furthermore, DS can competitively inhibit cellular endocytosis of oxidized low-density lipoproteins via blocking of SR-A. The rapid photothermal conversion capability of CS-CNCs enables efficient therapeutic delivery during photothermal therapy (PTT). Interestingly, near-infrared-accelerated drug release induced by initial 808-nm laser irradiation was observed, thus enhancing the Ce6 concentration in the atherosclerotic plaque area and the efficiency of photodynamic therapy (PDT). Sequential photothermal/photodynamic ablation of the activated macrophages reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and alleviated the proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells. These finally resulted in the stabilization and shrinkage of atherosclerotic plaques, further inhibiting the development and exacerbation of AS. Therefore, this work achieved a "1 + 1 greater than 2" effect by providing a novel approach to the treatment of atherosclerotic plaques, which is promising for the prevention of AS-related diseases.

Role of the interactions of soft hyaluronan nanomaterials with CD44 and supported bilayer membranes in the cellular uptake

Increasing valence by acting on nanomaterial morphology can enhance the ability of a ligand to specifically bind to targeted cells. Herein, we investigated cell internalization of soft hyaluronic acid (HA) nanoplatelets (NPs) that exhibit a typical hexagonal shape, flat surfaces and high aspect ratio (Γ≈12 to 20), as characterized by atomic force microscopy in hydrated conditions. Fluorescence imaging revealed that internalization of HA-NPs by a T24 tumor cell line and by macrophages was higher than native polysaccharide in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manners. The ability of HA-NPs to efficiently compete with native HA assessed using Bio-layer interferometry showed that NPs had a stronger interaction with recombinant CD44 receptor compared to native HA. The results were discussed regarding physical properties of the NPs and the implication of multivalent interactions in HA binding to CD44. Experiments conducted on supported bilayer membranes with different compositions showed that non-specific interactions of NPs with lipid membranes were negligible. Our findings provide insights into intracellular drug delivery using soft HA-NPs through receptor-mediated multivalent interactions.

T cell membrane cloaking tumor microenvironment-responsive nanoparticles with a smart "membrane escape mechanism" for enhanced immune-chemotherapy of melanoma

The application of combination immune-chemotherapy makes up for the limitation of monotherapy and achieves superior antitumor activity against cancer. However, combinational therapy is always restricted by poor tumor targeted drug delivery efficacy. Herein, novel T cell membrane cloaking tumor microenvironment-responsive nanoparticles (PBA modified T cell membrane cloaking hyaluronic acid (HA)-disulfide bond-vitamin E succinate/curcumin, shortened as RCM@T) were developed. T cell membrane cloaking not only serves as a protection shell for sufficient drug delivery but also acts as a programmed cell death-1(PD-1) "antibody" to selectively bind the PD-L1 of tumor cells. When RCM@T is intravenously administrated into the blood stream, it accumulates at tumor sites and responds to an acidic pH to achieve a "membrane escape effect" and expose the HA residues of RCM for tumor targeted drug delivery. RCM accumulates in the cytoplasm via CD44 receptor mediated endocytosis and intracellularly releases antitumor drug in the intracellular redox microenvironment for tumor chemotherapy. T cell membrane debris targets the PD-L1of tumor cells for tumor immunotherapy, which not only directly kills tumor cells, but also improves the CD8+ T cell level and facilitates effector cytokine release. Taken together, the as-constructed RCM@T creates a new way for the rational design of a drug delivery system via the combination of stimuli-responsive drug release, chemotherapeutical agent delivery and cell membrane based immune checkpoint blockade immunotherapy.

Recent advances in nanomaterials for therapy and diagnosis for atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease driven by lipid accumulation in arteries, leading to narrowing and thrombosis. It affects the heart, brain, and peripheral vessels and is the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Researchers have strived to design nanomaterials of various functions, ranging from non-invasive imaging contrast agents, targeted therapeutic delivery systems to multifunctional nanoagents able to target, diagnose, and treat atherosclerosis. Therefore, this review aims to summarize recent progress (2017-now) in the development of nanomaterials and their applications to improve atherosclerosis diagnosis and therapy during the preclinical and clinical stages of the disease.

Flow topology and targeted drug delivery in cardiovascular disease

Targeted drug delivery is a promising technique to direct the drug to the specific diseased region. Nanoparticles have provided an attractive approach for this purpose. In practice, the major focus of targeted delivery has been on targeting cell receptors. However, the complex fluid mechanics in diseased biomedical flows questions if a sufficient number of nanoparticles can reach the desired region. In this paper, we propose that hidden topological structures in cardiovascular flows identified with Lagrangian coherent structures (LCS) control drug transport and provide valuable information for optimizing targeted drug delivery efficiency. We couple image-based computational fluid dynamics (CFD) with continuum transport models to study nanoparticle transport in coronary artery disease. We simulate nanoparticle transport as well as the recently proposed shear targeted drug delivery system that couples micro-carriers with nanoparticle drugs. The role of the LCS formed near the stenosed artery in controlling drug transport is discussed. Our results motivate the design of smart micro-needles guided by flow topology, which could achieve optimal drug delivery efficiency.

Low Dose Curcumin Administered in Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanocapsules Induces Hypotensive Effect in Hypertensive Rats

Background

Vascular drug delivery becomes a promising direction in the development of novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of cardiovascular pathologies, such as hypertension. However, targeted delivery of hydrophobic substances, with poor bioavailability, remains a challenge. Here, we described the hypotensive effects of a low dose of curcumin delivered to the vascular wall using hyaluronic acid-based nanocapsules.

Methods

The group of hypertensive TGR(m-Ren2)27 rats, was administrated respectively with the vehicle, curcumin solution or curcumin delivered using hyaluronic acid-based nanocapsules (HyC12-Cur), for 7 days each, maintaining the wash-out period between treatments. Arterial blood pressure (systolic - SBP, diastolic – DBP) and heart rate (HR) were monitored continuously using a telemetry system (Data Science International), and Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) was calculated from SBP and DBP.

Results

In hypertensive rats, a low dose of curcumin (4.5 mg/kg) administrated in HyC12-Cur for 7 days resulted in a gradual inhibition of SBP, DBP and MAP increase without an effect on HR. At the end of HyC12-Cur – based treatment changes in SBP, DBP and MAP amounted to −2.0±0.8 mmHg, −3.9±0.7 mmHg and −3.3±0.7 mmHg, respectively. In contrast, the administration of a curcumin solution (4.5 mg/kg) did not result in a significant hypotensive effect and the animals constantly developed hypertension. Vascular delivery of capsules with curcumin was confirmed using newly developed fluorine-rich nanocapsules (HyFC10-PFOB) with a shell based on a HA derivative and similar size as HyC12-Cur. HyFC10-PFOB gave fluorine signals in rat aortas analyzed ex vivo with a ¹⁹F NMR technique after a single intragastric administration.

Conclusion

These results suggest that nanocapsules based on hyaluronic acid, the ubiquitous glycosaminoglycan of the extracellular matrix and an integral part of endothelial glycocalyx, may represent a suitable approach to deliver hydrophobic, poorly bioavailable compounds, to the vascular wall.

Fibroblast activation protein-α-adaptive micelles deliver anti-cancer drugs and reprogram stroma fibrosis

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the majority cell population of tumor stroma, and they not only play important roles in tumor growth and metastasis, but they also form a protective physical barrier for cancer cells. Herein, we designed a fibroblast activation protein-α (FAP-α)-adaptive polymeric micelle based on hyaluronic acid and curcumin conjugates. The polymeric micelle is composed of a CD44-targeting shell and a FAP-α-cleavable polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating. When FAP-α is encountered on the surface of CAFs in the tumor microenvironment, the PEG layer is released, hyaluronic acid is recovered on the surface of nanoparticles, and the nanoparticles effectively inhibit the growth of tumor cells and CAFs through CD44-mediated endocytosis. The FAP-α-adaptive polymeric micelle exhibited potent anti-cancer efficacy by enhancing CAF apoptosis and reducing collagen in tumor tissues. Collectively, FAP-α-adaptive nanoparticles may be a promising method for antitumor anticancer treatments via reprogramming of stroma fibrosis.