Effect of the alpha subunit subtype on the macroscopic kinetic properties of recombinant GABA(A) receptors

Region and layer-specific expression of GABAA receptor isoforms and KCC2 in developing cortex

Introduction

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptors (GABAARs) are ligand-gated Cl-channels that mediate the bulk of inhibitory neurotransmission in the mature CNS and are targets of many drugs. During cortical development, GABAAR-mediated signals are significantly modulated by changing subunit composition and expression of Cl-transporters as part of developmental processes and early network activity. To date, this developmental evolution has remained understudied, particularly at the level of cortical layer-specific changes. In this study, we characterized the expression of nine major GABAAR subunits and K-Cl transporter 2 (KCC2) in mouse somatosensory cortex from embryonic development to postweaning maturity.

Methods

We evaluated expression of α1-5, β2-3, γ2, and δ GABAAR subunits using immunohistochemistry and Western blot techniques, and expression of KCC2 using immunohistochemistry in cortices from E13.5 to P25 mice.

Results

We found that embryonic cortex expresses mainly α3, α5, β3, and γ2, while expression of α1, α2, α4, β2, δ, and KCC2 begins at later points in development; however, many patterns of nuanced expression can be found in specific lamina, cortical regions, and cells and structures.

Discussion

While the general pattern of expression of each subunit and KCC2 is similar to previous studies, we found a number of unique temporal, regional, and laminar patterns that were previously unknown. These findings provide much needed knowledge of the intricate developmental evolution in GABAAR composition and KCC2 expression to accommodate developmental signals that transition to mature neurotransmission.

Physiological Function of RDL1 and RDL2 Subunits of the Ionotropic GABA Receptor in the Spodoptera litura with the CRISPR/Cas9 System In Vivo

In insect ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (iGABAR) subunits, only resistance to dieldrin (RDL) can be individually and functionally expressed in vitro. In lepidopteran, two to three RDL subtypes are identified; however, their physiological roles have not been distinguished in vivo. In this study, SlRdl1 and SlRdl2 of S. litura were individually knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9, respectively. The mortality and larval and pupal duration of KOSlRdl1 and KOSlRdl2 were increased. The flight time and distance were increased by 43.30%-80.66% and 58.96%-198.22%, respectively, in KOSlRdl1. The GABA-induced current was significantly decreased by 53.57%-74.28% and 46.91%-63.34% in the ventral nerve cord, and the GABA titer was significantly reduced by 17.65%-28.05% and 19.85%-42.46% in KOSlRdl1 and KOSlRdl2, respectively. In conclusion, SlRdl1 and SlRdl2 are necessary for the transmission of GABA-induced neural signals; however, only SlRdl1 could regulate the flight capability of S. litura. Our results provided a new avenue to study lepidopteran iGABARs.

Shisa7-Dependent Regulation of GABAA Receptor Single-Channel Gating Kinetics

GABAA receptors (GABAARs) mediate the majority of fast inhibitory transmission throughout the brain. Although it is widely known that pore-forming subunits critically determine receptor function, it is unclear whether their single-channel properties are modulated by GABAAR-associated transmembrane proteins. We previously identified Shisa7 as a GABAAR auxiliary subunit that modulates the trafficking, pharmacology, and deactivation properties of these receptors. However, whether Shisa7 also regulates GABAAR single-channel properties has yet to be determined. Here, we performed single-channel recordings of α2β3γ2L GABAARs cotransfected with Shisa7 in HEK293T cells and found that while Shisa7 does not change channel slope conductance, it reduced the frequency of receptor openings. Importantly, Shisa7 modulates GABAAR gating by decreasing the duration and open probability within bursts. Through kinetic analysis of individual dwell time components, activation modeling, and macroscopic simulations, we demonstrate that Shisa7 accelerates GABAAR deactivation by governing the time spent between close and open states during gating. Together, our data provide a mechanistic basis for how Shisa7 controls GABAAR gating and reveal for the first time that GABAAR single-channel properties can be modulated by an auxiliary subunit. These findings shed light on processes that shape the temporal dynamics of GABAergic transmission.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Although GABAA receptor (GABAAR) single-channel properties are largely determined by pore-forming subunits, it remains unknown whether they are also controlled by GABAAR-associated transmembrane proteins. Here, we show that Shisa7, a recently identified GABAAR auxiliary subunit, modulates GABAAR activation by altering single-channel burst kinetics. These results reveal that Shisa7 primarily decreases the duration and open probability of receptor burst activity during gating, leading to accelerated GABAAR deactivation. These experiments are the first to assess the gating properties of GABAARs in the presence of an auxiliary subunit and provides a kinetic basis for how Shisa7 modifies temporal attributes of GABAergic transmission at the single-channel level.

Exercise Improved the Anti-Epileptic Effect of Carbamazepine through GABA Enhancement in Epileptic Rats

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an anticonvulsant drug that usually is used for the treatment of seizures. The anti-epileptic and the anti-epileptogenic effect of exercise has been reported, as well. This study was aimed to evaluate the synergic effect of combined therapy of exercise and CBZ in epileptic rats, as well as the alternation of the GABA pathway as a possible involved mechanism. The seizure was induced by pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) injection. Animals were divided into sham, seizure, exercise (EX), CBZ (25, 50 and 75), EX + CBZ (25, 50 and 75). Treadmill forced running for 30 min has been considered as the exercise 5 days per week for four weeks. CBZ was injected in doses of 25, 50 and 75 mg/kg, half an hour before seizure induction and 5 h after doing exercise in the animals forced to exercise. Seizure severity reduced and latency increased in the EX + CBZ (25) and EX + CBZ (50) groups compared to the seizure group. The distribution of GAD65 in both hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas increased in the EX + CBZ (75) group. GABAA receptor α1 was up-regulated in the CA3 area of the EX + CBZ (75) group. The distribution of GAD65 in the cortical area increased in EX, EX + CBZ (50), CBZ (75) and EX + CBZ (75) groups. GABAA receptor α1 was up-regulated in the neocortex of EX + CBZ (50), CBZ (75) and EX + CBZ (75) groups. Our findings suggested that exercise has improved the efficacy of CBZ and reduced the anti-epileptic dose. The enhancement of GABA signaling might be involved in the synergistic effect of exercise and CBZ.

Electrophysiology of ionotropic GABA receptors

GABA_A receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels and ionotropic receptors of GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in vertebrates. In this review, we discuss the major and diverse roles GABA_A receptors play in the regulation of neuronal communication and the functioning of the brain. GABA_A receptors have complex electrophysiological properties that enable them to mediate different types of currents such as phasic and tonic inhibitory currents. Their activity is finely regulated by membrane voltage, phosphorylation and several ions. GABA_A receptors are pentameric and are assembled from a diverse set of subunits. They are subdivided into numerous subtypes, which differ widely in expression patterns, distribution and electrical activity. Substantial variations in macroscopic neural behavior can emerge from minor differences in structure and molecular activity between subtypes. Therefore, the diversity of GABA_A receptors widens the neuronal repertoire of responses to external signals and contributes to shaping the electrical activity of neurons and other cell types.

Relocation of an Extrasynaptic GABAA Receptor to Inhibitory Synapses Freezes Excitatory Synaptic Strength and Preserves Memory

The excitatory synapse between hippocampal CA3 and CA1 pyramidal neurons exhibits long-term potentiation (LTP), a positive feedback process implicated in learning and memory in which postsynaptic depolarization strengthens synapses, promoting further depolarization. Without mechanisms for interrupting positive feedback, excitatory synapses could strengthen inexorably, corrupting memory storage. Here, we reveal a hidden form of inhibitory synaptic plasticity that prevents accumulation of excitatory LTP. We developed a knockin mouse that allows optical control of endogenous α5-subunit-containing γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptors (α5-GABARs). Induction of excitatory LTP relocates α5-GABARs, which are ordinarily extrasynaptic, to inhibitory synapses, quashing further NMDA receptor activation necessary for inducing more excitatory LTP. Blockade of α5-GABARs accelerates reversal learning, a behavioral test for cognitive flexibility dependent on repeated LTP. Hence, inhibitory synaptic plasticity occurs in parallel with excitatory synaptic plasticity, with the ensuing interruption of the positive feedback cycle of LTP serving as a possible critical early step in preserving memory.

Parvalbumin interneurons provide spillover to newborn and mature dentate granule cells

Parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (PVs) in the dentate gyrus provide activity-dependent regulation of adult neurogenesis as well as maintain inhibitory control of mature neurons. In mature neurons, PVs evoke GABA_A postsynaptic currents (GPSCs) with fast rise and decay phases that allow precise control of spike timing, yet synaptic currents with fast kinetics do not appear in adult-born neurons until several weeks after cell birth. Here we used mouse hippocampal slices to address how PVs signal to newborn neurons prior to the appearance of fast GPSCs. Whereas PV-evoked currents in mature neurons exhibit hallmark fast rise and decay phases, newborn neurons display slow GPSCs with characteristics of spillover signaling. We also unmasked slow spillover currents in mature neurons in the absence of fast GPSCs. Our results suggest that PVs mediate slow spillover signaling in addition to conventional fast synaptic signaling, and that spillover transmission mediates activity-dependent regulation of early events in adult neurogenesis.

Regulation of GABAA Receptor Subunit Expression in Substance Use Disorders

The modulation of neuronal cell firing is mediated by the release of the neurotransmitter GABA (γ-aminobuytric acid), which binds to two major families of receptors. The ionotropic GABAA receptors (GABA_ARs) are composed of five distinct subunits that vary in expression by brain region and cell type. The action of GABA on GABA_ARs is modulated by a variety of clinically and pharmacologically important drugs such as benzodiazepines and alcohol. Exposure to and abuse of these substances disrupts homeostasis and induces plasticity in GABAergic neurotransmission, often via the regulation of receptor expression. Here, we review the regulation of GABA_AR subunit expression in adaptive and pathological plasticity, with a focus on substance use. We examine the factors influencing the expression of GABA_AR subunit genes including the regulation of the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions, variations in DNA methylation, immediate early genes and transcription factors that regulate subunit expression, translational and post-translational modifications, and other forms of receptor regulation beyond expression. Advancing our understanding of the factors regulating GABA_AR subunit expression during adaptive plasticity, as well as during substance use and withdrawal will provide insight into the role of GABAergic signaling in substance use disorders, and contribute to the development of novel targeted therapies.

Comparison of biophysical properties of α1β2 and α3β2 GABAA receptors in whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiological recordings

In the present study we have characterized the biophysical properties of wild-type (WT) α1β2 and α3β2 GABA_A receptors and probed the molecular basis for the observed differences. The activation and desensitization behavior and the residual currents of the receptors expressed in HEK293 cells were determined in whole-cell patch clamp recordings. Kinetic parameters of α1β2 and α3β2 activation differed significantly, with α1β2 and α3β2 exhibiting rise times (10–90%) of 24 ± 2 ms and 51 ± 7 ms, respectively. In contrast, the two receptors exhibited largely comparable desensitization behavior with decay currents that could be fitted to exponential functions with two or three components. Most notably, the two receptor compositions displayed different degrees of desentization, with the residual currents of α1β2 and α3β2 constituting 34 ± 2% and 21 ± 2% of the peak current, respectively. The respective contributions of the extracellular domains and the transmembrane/intracellular domains of the α-subunit to these physiological profiles were next assessed in recordings from cells expressing αβ2 receptors comprising chimeric α-subunits. The rise times displayed by α1^ECD/α3^TMDβ2 and α3^ECD/α1^TMDβ2 receptors were intermediate to those of WT α1β2 and WT α3β2, and the distribution of the different components of the current decays exhibited by the two chimeric receptors followed the same pattern as the two WT receptors. The residual current exhibited by α1^ECD/α3^TMDβ2 (23 ± 3%) was similar to that of α3β2 but significantly different from that of α1β2, whereas the residual current displayed by α3^ECD/α1^TMDβ2 (27 ± 2%) was intermediate to and did not differ significantly from either of the WT receptors. This points to molecular differences in the transmembrane/intracellular domains of the α-subunit as the main determinants of the observed differences in receptor physiology between α1β2 and α3β2 receptors.

A half century of γ-aminobutyric acid

γ-aminobutyric acid has become one of the most widely known neurotransmitter molecules in the brain over the last 50 years, recognised for its pivotal role in inhibiting neural excitability. It emerged from studies of crustacean muscle and neurons before its significance to the mammalian nervous system was appreciated. Now, after five decades of investigation, we know that most neurons are γ-aminobutyric-acid-sensitive, it is a cornerstone of neural physiology and dysfunction to γ-aminobutyric acid signalling is increasingly documented in a range of neurological diseases. In this review, we briefly chart the neurodevelopment of γ-aminobutyric acid and its two major receptor subtypes: the γ-aminobutyric acidA and γ-aminobutyric acidB receptors, starting from the humble invertebrate origins of being an 'interesting molecule' acting at a single γ-aminobutyric acid receptor type, to one of the brain's most important neurochemical components and vital drug targets for major therapeutic classes of drugs. We document the period of molecular cloning and the explosive influence this had on the field of neuroscience and pharmacology up to the present day and the production of atomic γ-aminobutyric acidA and γ-aminobutyric acidB receptor structures. γ-Aminobutyric acid is no longer a humble molecule but the instigator of rich and powerful signalling processes that are absolutely vital for healthy brain function.

GABAA receptor polymorphisms in alcohol use disorder in the GWAS era

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a chronic, relapsing, neuro-psychiatric illness of high prevalence and with a serious public health impact worldwide. It is complex and polygenic, with a heritability of about 50%, and influenced by environmental causal heterogeneity. Risk factors associated with its etiology have a genetic component. GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian brain. GABA_A receptors are believed to mediate some of the physiological and behavioral actions of alcohol. In this critical review, relevant genetic terms and type and methodology of the genetic studies are briefly explained. Postulated candidate genes that encode subunits of GABA_A receptors, with all the reported SNPs, are presented. Genetic studies and meta-analyses examining polymorphisms of the GABA_A receptor and their association with AUD predisposition are presented. The data are critically examined with reference to recent GWAS studies that failed to show relations between GABA_A receptors and AUD. Restrictions and perspectives of the different findings are discussed.

Examining the effects of alcohol on GABAA receptor mRNA expression and function in neural cultures generated from control and alcohol dependent donor induced pluripotent stem cells

Factors influencing the development of alcohol-use disorder (AUD) are complex and heterogeneous. While animal models have been crucial to identifying actions of alcohol on neural cells, human-derived in vitro systems that reflect an individual's genetic background hold promise in furthering our understanding of the molecular and functional effects of alcohol exposure and the pathophysiology of AUD. In this report, we utilized induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs)-derived neural cell cultures obtained from healthy individuals (CTLs) and those with alcohol dependence (ADs) to 1) examine the effect of 21-day alcohol exposure on mRNA expression of three genes encoding GABAA receptor subunits (GABRA1, GABRG2, and GABRD) using quantitative PCR, and 2) examine the effect of acute and chronic alcohol exposure on GABA-evoked currents using whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology. iPSCs from CTLs and ADs were differentiated into neural cultures enriched for forebrain-type excitatory glutamate neurons. Following 21-day alcohol exposure, significant treatment effects were observed in GABRA1, GABRG2, and GABRD mRNA expression. A modestly significant interaction between treatment and donor phenotype was observed for GABRD, which was increased in cell cultures derived from ADs. No effect of acute or chronic alcohol was observed on GABA-evoked currents in neurons from either CTLs or ADs. This work extends findings examining the effects of alcohol on the GABAA receptor in human cell in vitro model systems.

Crystal structures of a GABAA-receptor chimera reveal new endogenous neurosteroid-binding sites

γ-Aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA_ARs) are vital for controlling excitability in the brain. This is emphasized by the numerous neuropsychiatric disorders that result from receptor dysfunction. A critical component of most native GABA_ARs is the α subunit. Its transmembrane domain is the target for many modulators, including endogenous brain neurosteroids that impact anxiety, stress and depression, and for therapeutic drugs, such as general anesthetics. Understanding the basis for the modulation of GABA_AR function requires high-resolution structures. Here we present the first atomic structures of a GABA_AR chimera at 2.8-Å resolution, including those bound with potentiating and inhibitory neurosteroids. These structures define new allosteric binding sites for these modulators that are associated with the α-subunit transmembrane domain. Our findings will enable the exploitation of neurosteroids for therapeutic drug design to regulate GABA_ARs in neurological disorders.

Distance-dependent inhibition facilitates focality of gamma oscillations in the dentate gyrus

Gamma oscillations (30-150 Hz) in neuronal networks are associated with the processing and recall of information. We measured local field potentials in the dentate gyrus of freely moving mice and found that gamma activity occurs in bursts, which are highly heterogeneous in their spatial extensions, ranging from focal to global coherent events. Synaptic communication among perisomatic-inhibitory interneurons (PIIs) is thought to play an important role in the generation of hippocampal gamma patterns. However, how neuronal circuits can generate synchronous oscillations at different spatial scales is unknown. We analyzed paired recordings in dentate gyrus slices and show that synaptic signaling at interneuron-interneuron synapses is distance dependent. Synaptic strength declines whereas the duration of inhibitory signals increases with axonal distance among interconnected PIIs. Using neuronal network modeling, we show that distance-dependent inhibition generates multiple highly synchronous focal gamma bursts allowing the network to process complex inputs in parallel in flexibly organized neuronal centers.Perisomatic-inhibitory interneurons (PIIs) contribute to the generation of gamma oscillations in the hippocampus. Here the authors demonstrate distance-dependent inhibition between PIIs in freely moving mice, and use computational analysis to show that distance-dependent inhibition supports the emergence of focal gamma bursts.

Antinociceptive Effects of a Novel α2/α3-Subtype Selective GABAA Receptor Positive Allosteric Modulator

Pain remains a challenging clinical condition and spinal GABA_A receptors are crucial modulators of pain processing. α2/α3-subtype GABA_A receptors mediate the analgesic actions of benzodiazepines. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) at α2/α3-subtype GABA_A receptors may have analgesic potential. Here we report a new selective α2/α3-subtype GABA_A receptor PAM in in vitro and in vivo pain assays. KRM-II-81 demonstrated similar efficacy at α1/α2/α3 GABA_A receptors and negligible efficacy at α4/α5/α6 GABA_A receptors, with α2 and α3-subtypes being 17- and 28-fold more potent than α1 subtypes in HEK-293T cells expressing GABA_A receptors with different α subunits. In contrast, KRM-II-18B showed significant efficacy at α1/α2/α3/ α5 subtypes, with similar potency at α1/α2/α3 subtypes. Both PAMs and morphine dose-dependently decreased 0.6% acetic acid- and 0.32% lactic acid-induced writhing. The effects of both PAMs were reversed by the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil, confirming their action at the benzodiazepine binding site of GABA_A receptors. Both PAMS and morphine all dose-dependently reversed 0.32% lactic acid (but not 0.6% acetic acid) induced suppression of nesting behavior. Acetaminophen, but not the PAMs, reversed acid-depressed locomotor activity. Combined, these findings suggest that KRM-II-81 is a selective α2/α3 subtype GABA_A PAM with significant antinociceptive effects in chemical stimulation-induced pain in mice.

Impaired GABAergic inhibition in the hippocampus of Fmr1 knockout mice

Many clinical and molecular features of the fragile X syndrome, a common form of intellectual disability and autism, can be modeled by deletion of the Fmr1 protein (Fmrp) in mice. Previous studies showed a decreased expression of several components of the GABAergic system in Fmr1 knockout mice. Here, we used this mouse model to investigate the functional consequences of Fmrp deletion on hippocampal GABAergic inhibition in the CA1-region of the hippocampus. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings demonstrated a significantly reduced amplitude of evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) and a decrease in the amplitude and frequency of spontaneous IPSCs. In addition, miniature IPSCs were reduced in amplitude and frequency and decayed significantly slower than mIPSCs in controls. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed a significantly lower expression of α2, β1 and δ GABA_A receptor subunits in the hippocampus of the juvenile mice (P22) compared to wild-type littermates. Correspondingly, we found also at the protein level reduced amounts of α2, β1 and δ subunits in Fmr1 knockout mice. Overall, these results demonstrate that the reduction in several components of the GABAergic system is already present at young age and that this reduction results in measurable abnormalities on GABA_A receptor-mediated phasic inhibition. These abnormalities might contribute to the behavioral and cognitive deficits of this fragile X mouse model.

Instructing Perisomatic Inhibition by Direct Lineage Reprogramming of Neocortical Projection Neurons

During development of the cerebral cortex, local GABAergic interneurons recognize and pair with excitatory projection neurons to ensure the fine excitatory-inhibitory balance essential for proper circuit function. Whether the class-specific identity of projection neurons has a role in the establishment of afferent inhibitory synapses is debated. Here, we report that direct in vivo lineage reprogramming of layer 2/3 (L2/3) callosal projection neurons (CPNs) into induced corticofugal projection neurons (iCFuPNs) increases inhibitory input onto the converted neurons to levels similar to that of endogenous CFuPNs normally found in layer 5 (L5). iCFuPNs recruit increased numbers of inhibitory perisomatic synapses from parvalbumin (PV)-positive interneurons, with single-cell precision and despite their ectopic location in L2/3. The data show that individual reprogrammed excitatory projection neurons extrinsically modulate afferent input by local PV(+) interneurons, suggesting that projection neuron class-specific identity can actively control the wiring of the cortical microcircuit.

During postnatal development endogenous neurosteroids influence GABA-ergic neurotransmission of mouse cortical neurons

As neuronal development progresses, GABAergic synaptic transmission undergoes a defined program of reconfiguration. For example, GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR)-mediated synaptic currents, (miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents; mIPSCs), which initially exhibit a relatively slow decay phase, become progressively reduced in duration, thereby supporting the temporal resolution required for mature network activity. Here we report that during postnatal development of cortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons, GABA_AR-mediated phasic inhibition is influenced by a resident neurosteroid tone, which wanes in the second postnatal week, resulting in the brief phasic events characteristic of mature neuronal signalling. Treatment of cortical slices with the immediate precursor of 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (5α3α), the GABA_AR-inactive 5α-dihydroprogesterone, (5α-DHP), greatly prolonged the mIPSCs of P20 pyramidal neurons, demonstrating these more mature neurons retain the capacity to synthesize GABA_AR-active neurosteroids, but now lack the endogenous steroid substrate. Previously, such developmental plasticity of phasic inhibition was ascribed to the expression of synaptic GABA_ARs incorporating the α1 subunit. However, the duration of mIPSCs recorded from L2/3 cortical neurons derived from α1 subunit deleted mice, were similarly under the developmental influence of a neurosteroid tone. In addition to principal cells, synaptic GABA_ARs of L2/3 interneurons were modulated by native neurosteroids in a development-dependent manner. In summary, local neurosteroids influence synaptic transmission during a crucial period of cortical neurodevelopment, findings which may be of importance for establishing normal network connectivity.

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Upon postnatal maturation GABAA receptor synaptic inhibition is reduced in duration.

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Reduced synthesis of local neurosteroids contributes to this cortical plasticity.

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The study reveals a potent mechanism to locally regulate cortical neuron activity.

A Comprehensive Optogenetic Pharmacology Toolkit for In Vivo Control of GABA(A) Receptors and Synaptic Inhibition

Exogenously expressed opsins are valuable tools for optogenetic control of neurons in circuits. A deeper understanding of neural function can be gained by bringing control to endogenous neurotransmitter receptors that mediate synaptic transmission. Here we introduce a comprehensive optogenetic toolkit for controlling GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibition in the brain. We developed a series of photoswitch ligands and the complementary genetically modified GABA(A) receptor subunits. By conjugating the two components, we generated light-sensitive versions of the entire GABA(A) receptor family. We validated these light-sensitive receptors for applications across a broad range of spatial scales, from subcellular receptor mapping to in vivo photo-control of visual responses in the cerebral cortex. Finally, we generated a knockin mouse in which the "photoswitch-ready" version of a GABA(A) receptor subunit genomically replaces its wild-type counterpart, ensuring normal receptor expression. This optogenetic pharmacology toolkit allows scalable interrogation of endogenous GABA(A) receptor function with high spatial, temporal, and biochemical precision.

The developmental evolution of the seizure phenotype and cortical inhibition in mouse models of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy

The GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) α1 subunit mutation, A322D, causes autosomal dominant juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). Previous in vitro studies demonstrated that A322D elicits α1(A322D) protein degradation and that the residual mutant protein causes a dominant-negative effect on wild type GABA(A)Rs. Here, we determined the effects of heterozygous A322D knockin (Het(α1)AD) and deletion (Het(α1)KO) on seizures, GABA(A)R expression, and motor cortex (M1) miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) at two developmental time-points, P35 and P120. Both Het(α1)AD and Het(α1)KO mice experience absence seizures at P35 that persist at P120, but have substantially more frequent spontaneous and evoked polyspike wave discharges and myoclonic seizures at P120. Both mutant mice have increased total and synaptic α3 subunit expression at both time-points and decreased α1 subunit expression at P35, but not P120. There are proportional reductions in α3, β2, and γ2 subunit expression between P35 and P120 in wild type and mutant mice. In M1, mutants have decreased mIPSC peak amplitudes and prolonged decay constants compared with wild type, and the Het(α1)AD mice have reduced mIPSC frequency and smaller amplitudes than Het(α1)KO mice. Wild type and mutants exhibit proportional increases in mIPSC amplitudes between P35 and P120. We conclude that Het(α1)KO and Het(α1)AD mice model the JME subsyndrome, childhood absence epilepsy persisting and evolving into JME. Both mutants alter GABA(A)R composition and motor cortex physiology in a manner expected to increase neuronal synchrony and excitability to produce seizures. However, developmental changes in M1 GABA(A)Rs do not explain the worsened phenotype at P120 in mutant mice.

Synaptic-type α1β2γ2L GABAA receptors produce large persistent currents in the presence of ambient GABA and anesthetic drugs

Synaptic GABAA receptors respond to synaptically released GABA and are considered to be unaffected by the low levels of ambient transmitter in the brain. We show that synaptic-type α1β2γ2L GABAA receptors expressed in HEK293 cells respond with large steady-state currents to combinations of a low concentration (0.5 μM) of GABA and clinically used GABAergic modulators propofol, etomidate, or pentobarbital or the steroid alphaxalone. At a maximally effective concentration of modulator, the current levels at the end of 2-minute applications of drug combinations were >10% of the peak response to saturating GABA. In the absence of modulators, 0.5 μM GABA generated a steady-state response of 1% of the peak response to saturating GABA. The concentration-response curves for enhancement of steady-state currents by propofol, etomidate, pentobarbital, or alphaxalone were at similar or lower drug concentrations compared with concentration-response relationships for enhancement of peak responses. We propose that modulation of tonically activated synaptic-type GABAA receptors contributes to the clinical actions of sedative drugs.

Snake neurotoxin α-bungarotoxin is an antagonist at native GABA(A) receptors

The snake neurotoxin α-bungarotoxin (α-Bgtx) is a competitive antagonist at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and is widely used to study their function and cell-surface expression. Increasingly, α-Bgtx is also used as an imaging tool for fluorophore-labelling studies, and given the structural conservation within the pentameric ligand-gated ion channel family, we assessed whether α-Bgtx could bind to recombinant and native γ-aminobutyric type-A receptors (GABA_ARs). Applying fluorophore-linked α-Bgtx to recombinant αxβ1/2γ2 GABA_ARs expressed in HEK-293 cells enabled clear cell-surface labelling of α2β1/2γ2 contrasting with the weaker staining of α1/4β1/2γ2, and no labelling for α3/5/6β1/2γ2. The labelling of α2β2γ2 was abolished by bicuculline, a competitive antagonist at GABA_ARs, and by d-tubocurarine (d-Tc), which acts in a similar manner at nAChRs and GABA_ARs. Labelling by α-Bgtx was also reduced by GABA, suggesting that the GABA binding site at the receptor β–α subunit interface forms part of the α-Bgtx binding site. Using whole-cell recording, high concentrations of α-Bgtx (20 μM) inhibited GABA-activated currents at all αxβ2γ2 receptors examined, but at lower concentrations (5 μM), α-Bgtx was selective for α2β2γ2. Using α-Bgtx, at low concentrations, permitted the selective inhibition of α2 subunit-containing GABA_ARs in hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells, reducing synaptic current amplitudes without affecting the GABA-mediated tonic current. In conclusion, α-Bgtx can act as an inhibitor at recombinant and native GABA_ARs and may be used as a selective tool to inhibit phasic but not tonic currents in the hippocampus.

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Recombinant GABA_A receptors are inhibited by α-bungarotoxin

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The β–α subunit interface of GABA_A receptors forms the α-bungarotoxin binding site.

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α-bungarotoxin can selectively inhibit α2 subunit-containing GABA_A receptors (α2β2γ2).

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α-bungarotoxin inhibits GABA synaptic currents in the hippocampus.

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GABA-mediated tonic currents are unaffected by α-bungarotoxin

Strength and duration of perisomatic GABAergic inhibition depend on distance between synaptically connected cells

GABAergic perisoma-inhibiting fast-spiking interneurons (PIIs) effectively control the activity of large neuron populations by their wide axonal arborizations. It is generally assumed that the output of one PII to its target cells is strong and rapid. Here, we show that, unexpectedly, both strength and time course of PII-mediated perisomatic inhibition change with distance between synaptically connected partners in the rodent hippocampus. Synaptic signals become weaker due to lower contact numbers and decay more slowly with distance, very likely resulting from changes in GABAA receptor subunit composition. When distance-dependent synaptic inhibition is introduced to a rhythmically active neuronal network model, randomly driven principal cell assemblies are strongly synchronized by the PIIs, leading to higher precision in principal cell spike times than in a network with uniform synaptic inhibition.

Synaptic GABAA receptor clustering without the γ2 subunit

Rapid activation of postsynaptic GABAA receptors (GABAARs) is crucial in many neuronal functions, including the synchronization of neuronal ensembles and controlling the precise timing of action potentials. Although the γ2 subunit is believed to be essential for the postsynaptic clustering of GABAARs, synaptic currents have been detected in neurons obtained from γ2(-/-) mice. To determine the role of the γ2 subunit in synaptic GABAAR enrichment, we performed a spatially and temporally controlled γ2 subunit deletion by injecting Cre-expressing viral vectors into the neocortex of GABAARγ2(77I)lox mice. Whole-cell recordings revealed the presence of miniature IPSCs in Cre(+) layer 2/3 pyramidal cells (PCs) with unchanged amplitudes and rise times, but significantly prolonged decays. Such slowly decaying currents could be evoked in PCs by action potentials in presynaptic fast-spiking interneurons. Freeze-fracture replica immunogold labeling revealed the presence of the α1 and β3 subunits in perisomatic synapses of cells that lack the γ2 subunit. Miniature IPSCs in Cre(+) PCs were insensitive to low concentrations of flurazepam, providing a pharmacological confirmation of the lack of the γ2 subunit. Receptors assembled from only αβ subunits were unlikely because Zn(2+) did not block the synaptic currents. Pharmacological experiments indicated that the αβγ3 receptor, rather than the αβδ, αβε, or αβγ1 receptors, was responsible for the slowly decaying IPSCs. Our data demonstrate the presence of IPSCs and the synaptic enrichment of the α1 and β3 subunits and suggest that the γ3 subunit is the most likely candidate for clustering GABAARs at synapses in the absence of the γ2 subunit.

Engineering a light-regulated GABAA receptor for optical control of neural inhibition

Optogenetics has become an emerging technique for neuroscience investigations owing to the great spatiotemporal precision and the target selectivity it provides. Here we extend the optogenetic strategy to GABAA receptors (GABAARs), the major mediators of inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain. We generated a light-regulated GABAA receptor (LiGABAR) by conjugating a photoswitchable tethered ligand (PTL) onto a mutant receptor containing the cysteine-substituted α1-subunit. The installed PTL can be advanced to or retracted from the GABA-binding pocket with 500 and 380 nm light, respectively, resulting in photoswitchable receptor antagonism. In hippocampal neurons, this LiGABAR enabled a robust photoregulation of inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Moreover, it allowed reversible photocontrol over neuron excitation in response to presynaptic stimulation. LiGABAR thus provides a powerful means for functional and mechanistic investigations of GABAAR-mediated neural inhibition.

SB-205384 is a positive allosteric modulator of recombinant GABAA receptors containing rat α3, α5, or α6 subunit subtypes coexpressed with β3 and γ2 subunits

Many drugs used to treat anxiety are positive modulators of GABAA receptors, which mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission. The GABAA receptors can be assembled from a combination of at least 16 different subunits. The receptor's subunit composition determines its pharmacologic and functional properties, and subunit expression varies throughout the brain. A primary goal for new treatments targeting GABAA receptors is the production of subunit-selective modulators acting upon a discrete population of receptors. The anxiolytic 4-amino-7-hydroxy-2-methyl-5,6,7,8,-tetrahydrobenzo[b]thieno[2,3-b]pyridine-3-carboxylic acid, but-2-ynyl ester (SB-205384) is widely considered to be selective for α3-containing GABAA receptors. However, it has been tested only on α1-, α2-, and α3-containing receptors. We examined the activity of SB-205384 at recombinant receptors containing the six different α subunits and found that receptors containing the α3, α5, and α6 subunits were potentiated by SB-205384, with the α6 subunit conferring the greatest responsiveness. Properties associated with chimeric α1/α6 subunits suggested that multiple structural domains influence sensitivity to SB-205384. Point mutations of residues within the extracellular N-terminal domain identified a leucine residue located in loop E of the agonist binding site as an important determinant of high sensitivity to modulation. In the α6 subunit the identity of this residue is species-dependent, with the leucine found in rat subunits but not in human. Our results indicate that SB-205384 is not an α3-selective modulator, and instead acts at several GABAA receptor isoforms. These findings have implications for the side-effect profile of this anxiolytic as well as for its use in neuronal and animal studies as a marker for contribution from α3-containing receptors.

Altered cortical GABAA receptor composition, physiology, and endocytosis in a mouse model of a human genetic absence epilepsy syndrome

Patients with generalized epilepsy exhibit cerebral cortical disinhibition. Likewise, mutations in the inhibitory ligand-gated ion channels, GABAA receptors (GABAARs), cause generalized epilepsy syndromes in humans. Recently, we demonstrated that heterozygous knock-out (Hetα1KO) of the human epilepsy gene, the GABAAR α1 subunit, produced absence epilepsy in mice. Here, we determined the effects of Hetα1KO on the expression and physiology of GABAARs in the mouse cortex. We found that Hetα1KO caused modest reductions in the total and surface expression of the β2 subunit but did not alter β1 or β3 subunit expression, results consistent with a small reduction of GABAARs. Cortices partially compensated for Hetα1KO by increasing the fraction of residual α1 subunit on the cell surface and by increasing total and surface expression of α3, but not α2, subunits. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that Hetα1KO increased the fraction of α1 subunits, and decreased the fraction of α3 subunits, that associated in hybrid α1α3βγ receptors. Patch clamp electrophysiology studies showed that Hetα1KO layer VI cortical neurons exhibited reduced inhibitory postsynaptic current peak amplitudes, prolonged current rise and decay times, and altered responses to benzodiazepine agonists. Finally, application of inhibitors of dynamin-mediated endocytosis revealed that Hetα1KO reduced base-line GABAAR endocytosis, an effect that probably contributes to the observed changes in GABAAR expression. These findings demonstrate that Hetα1KO exerts two principle disinhibitory effects on cortical GABAAR-mediated inhibitory neurotransmission: 1) a modest reduction of GABAAR number and 2) a partial compensation with GABAAR isoforms that possess physiological properties different from those of the otherwise predominant α1βγ GABAARs.

Setting the time course of inhibitory synaptic currents by mixing multiple GABA(A) receptor α subunit isoforms

The kinetics of IPSCs influence many neuronal processes, such as the frequencies of oscillations and the duration of shunting inhibition. The subunit composition of recombinant GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)Rs) strongly affects the deactivation kinetics of GABA-evoked currents. However, for GABAergic synapses, the relationship between subunit composition and IPSC decay is less clear. Here we addressed this by combining whole-cell recordings of miniature IPSCs (mIPSCs) and quantitative immunolocalization of synaptic GABA(A)R subunits. In cerebellar stellate, thalamic relay, and main olfactory bulb (MOB) deep short-axon cells of Wistar rats, the only synaptic α subunit was α1, and zolpidem-sensitive mIPSCs had weighted decay time constants (τ(w)) of 4-6 ms. Nucleus reticularis thalami neurons expressed only α3 as the synaptic α subunit and exhibited slow (τ(w) = 28 ms), zolpidem-insensitive mIPSCs. By contrast, MOB external tufted cells contained two α subunit types (α1 and α3) at their synapses. Quantitative analysis of multiple immunolabeled images revealed small within-cell, but large between-cell, variability in synaptic α1/α3 ratios. This corresponded to large cell-to-cell variability in the decay (τ(w) = 3-30 ms) and zolpidem sensitivity of mIPSCs. Currents evoked by rapid application of GABA to patches excised from HEK cells expressing different mixtures of α1 and α3 subunits displayed highly variable deactivation times that correlated with the α1/α3 cDNA ratio. Our results demonstrate that diversity in the decay of IPSCs can be generated by varying the expression of different GABA(A)R subunits that alone confer different decay kinetics, allowing the time course of inhibition to be tuned to individual cellular requirements.

Altered inhibition in tuberous sclerosis and type IIb cortical dysplasia

OBJECTIVE

The most common neurological symptom of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) is early life refractory epilepsy. As previous studies have shown enhanced excitatory glutamatergic neurotransmission in TSC and FCD brains, we hypothesized that neurons associated with these lesions may also express altered γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A) receptor (GABA(A)R)-mediated inhibition.

METHODS

Expression of the GABA(A)R subunits α1 and α4, and the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) (NKCC1) and the K(+)-Cl(-) (KCC2) transporters, in human TSC and FCD type II specimens were analyzed by Western blot and double label immunocytochemistry. GABA(A) R responses in dysplastic neurons from a single case of TSC were measured by perforated patch recording and compared to normal-appearing cortical neurons from a non-TSC epilepsy case.

RESULTS

TSC and FCD type IIb lesions demonstrated decreased expression of GABA(A)R α1, and increased NKCC1 and decreased KCC2 levels. In contrast, FCD type IIa lesions showed decreased α4, and increased expression of both NKCC1 and KCC2 transporters. Patch clamp recordings from dysplastic neurons in acute slices from TSC tubers demonstrated excitatory GABA(A)R responses that were significantly attenuated by the NKCC1 inhibitor bumetanide, in contrast to hyperpolarizing GABA(A)R-mediated currents in normal neurons from non-TSC cortical slices.

INTERPRETATION

Expression and function of GABA(A)Rs in TSC and FCD type IIb suggest the relative benzodiazepine insensitivity and more excitatory action of GABA compared to FCD type IIa. These factors may contribute to resistance of seizure activity to anticonvulsants that increase GABAergic function, and may justify add-on trials of the NKCC1 inhibitor bumetanide for the treatment of TSC and FCD type IIb-related epilepsy.

Putative TRP channel antagonists, SKF 96365, flufenamic acid and 2-APB, are non-competitive antagonists at recombinant human α1β2γ2 GABA(A) receptors

Although transient receptor potential (TRP) channel biology research has expanded rapidly in recent years, the field is hampered by the widely held, but relatively poorly investigated, belief that most of the pharmacological tools used to investigate TRP channel function may not be particularly selective for their intended targets. The objective of this study was therefore to determine if this was indeed the case by systematically evaluating the effects of three routinely used putative TRP channel antagonists, SKF 96365, flufenamic acid (FF) and 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) against one of the most widely expressed CNS receptor subtypes CNS, the human α1β2γ2 GABA(A) receptor. Using whole cell patch-clamp recording to record responses to rapidly applied GABA in the absence and presence of the three putative antagonists in turn we found that SKF 96365 (1-100 μM) and FF (1-100 μM) significantly inhibited GABA responses of recombinant human α1β2γ2 GABA(A) receptor stably expressed in HEK293 cells with IC(50) values of 13.4 ± 5.1 and 1.9 ± 1.4 μM, respectively, suppressing the maximal response to GABA at all concentrations used in a manner consistent with a non-competitive mode of action. SKF 96365 and FF also both significantly reduced desensitisation and prolonged the deactivation kinetics of the receptors to GABA (1mM; P<0.05). 2-APB (10-1000 μM) also inhibited responses to GABA at all concentrations used with an IC(50) value of 16.7 ± 5.4 μM (n=3-5) but had no significant effect on the activation, desensitisation or deactivation kinetics of the GABA responses. Taken together this investigation revealed that these widely utilised TRP channel antagonists display significant 'off-target' effects at concentrations that are routinely used for the study of TRP channel function in numerous biological systems and as such, data which is obtained utilising these compounds should be interpreted with caution.

Structural studies of the actions of anesthetic drugs on the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor

The γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor is the major transmitter-gated inhibitory channel in the central nervous system. The receptor is a target for anesthetics, anticonvulsants, anxiolytics, and sedatives whose actions facilitate the flow of chloride ions through the channel and enhance the inhibitory tone in the brain. Both the kinetic and structural aspects of the actions of modulators of the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor are of great importance to understanding the molecular mechanisms of general anesthesia. In this review, the structural rearrangements that take place in the γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor during channel activation and modulation are described, focusing on data obtained using voltage-clamp fluorometry. Voltage-clamp fluorometry entails the binding of an environmentally sensitive fluorophore molecule to a site of interest in the receptor, and measurement of changes in the fluorescence signal resulting from activation- or modulation-elicited structural changes. Detailed investigations can provide a map of structural changes that underlie or accompany the functional effects of modulators.

Ion channels and schizophrenia: a gene set-based analytic approach to GWAS data for biological hypothesis testing

Schizophrenia is a complex genetic disorder. Gene set-based analytic (GSA) methods have been widely applied for exploratory analyses of large, high-throughput datasets, but less commonly employed for biological hypothesis testing. Our primary hypothesis is that variation in ion channel genes contribute to the genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia. We applied Exploratory Visual Analysis (EVA), one GSA application, to analyze European-American (EA) and African-American (AA) schizophrenia genome-wide association study datasets for statistical enrichment of ion channel gene sets, comparing GSA results derived under three SNP-to-gene mapping strategies: (1) GENIC; (2) 500-Kb; (3) 2.5-Mb and three complimentary SNP-to-gene statistical reduction methods: (1) minimum p value (pMIN); (2) a novel method, proportion of SNPs per Gene with p values below a pre-defined α-threshold (PROP); and (3) the truncated product method (TPM). In the EA analyses, ion channel gene set(s) were enriched under all mapping and statistical approaches. In the AA analysis, ion channel gene set(s) were significantly enriched under pMIN for all mapping strategies and under PROP for broader mapping strategies. Less extensive enrichment in the AA sample may reflect true ethnic differences in susceptibility, sampling or case ascertainment differences, or higher dimensionality relative to sample size of the AA data. More consistent findings under broader mapping strategies may reflect enhanced power due to increased SNP inclusion, enhanced capture of effects over extended haplotypes or significant contributions from regulatory regions. While extensive pMIN findings may reflect gene size bias, the extent and significance of PROP and TPM findings suggest that common variation at ion channel genes may capture some of the heritability of schizophrenia.

GABA(A) Receptor β3 Subunit Expression Regulates Tonic Current in Developing Striatopallidal Medium Spiny Neurons

The striatum is a key structure for movement control, but the mechanisms that dictate the output of distinct subpopulations of medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs), striatonigral projecting and dopamine D1 receptor- (D1+) or striatopallidal projecting and dopamine D2 receptor- (D2+) expressing neurons, remains poorly understood. GABA-mediated tonic inhibition largely controls neuronal excitability and action potential firing rates, and we previously suggested with pharmacological analysis that the GABA(A) receptor β3 subunit plays a large role in the basal tonic current seen in D2+ MSNs from young mice (Ade et al., 2008; Janssen et al., 2009). In this study, we demonstrated the essential role of the β3 GABA(A) receptor subunit in mediating MSN tonic currents using conditional β3 subunit knock-out (β3f/f(Drd2)) mice. Cre-lox genetics were used to generate mice where Cre recombinase was expressed under the D2 receptor (Drd2) promoter. We show that while the wild-type MSN tonic current pattern demonstrates a high degree of variability, tonic current patterns from β3f/f(Drd2) mice are narrow, suggesting that the β3 subunit is essential to striatal MSN GABA-mediated tonic current. Our data also suggest that a distinct population of synaptic receptors upregulate due to β3 subunit removal. Further, deletion of this subunit significantly decreases the D2+ MSN excitability. These results offer insight for target mechanisms in Parkinson's disease, where symptoms arise due to the imbalance in striatal D1+ and D2+ MSN excitability and output.

Use of multicomponent reactions in developing small-molecule tools to study GABAA receptor mechanism and function

We discuss the potential use of multicomponent reactions in developing small-molecule probes of GABA(A) receptor function. Two examples that illustrate this approach are presented: the synthesis of a class of compounds that specifically modulate the function of GABA(A) receptors containing the δ-subunit, and also 'caged' GABA derivatives. A caged GABA is a photolabile precursor of GABA that releases GABA upon photolysis.

Potential role of GABAA receptor subunit; GABRA6, GABRB2 and GABRR2 gene polymorphisms in epilepsy susceptibility and pharmacotherapy in North Indian population

BACKGROUND

GABA(A) receptors influence the susceptibility to seizures, and variations in the receptor genes can contribute to antiepileptic drug resistance also.

METHODS

We investigated the possible associations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) present in GABRA6 c. 1512 T>C, GABRB2 c. 1412 C>T, and GABRR2 c. IVS2C>G genes of GABA(A) receptors in epilepsy susceptibility and drug resistance in northern Indian patients with epilepsy. After screening a total of 202 healthy controls and 401 epilepsy patients were enrolled in study. The genotyping was done by PCR-RFLP methods.

RESULTS

The GABRA6 c. 1512 T>C, polymorphism was conferring risk for epilepsy susceptibility for TC (P=0.018), CC (P=0.0001) genotype and for C allele (P=0.0002). Another polymorphism GABRB2 c. 1412 C>T was also conferring high risk for epilepsy susceptibility CT (P=0.012), TT (P=0.778) genotype and for variant T allele (P=0.034) but was not associated with drug resistance. No association was found with epilepsy susceptibility or with drug resistance in case of GABRR2 c. IVS2C>G gene polymorphism.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings suggest significant involvement of alpha (GABRA6) and beta (GABRB2) subunits of GABA(A) receptor in epilepsy susceptibility in north Indian population.

The wake-promoting transmitter histamine preferentially enhances α-4 subunit-containing GABAA receptors

Histamine is an important wake-promoting neurotransmitter that activates seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled histamine receptors. However, histamine demonstrates target promiscuity, including direct interaction with the structurally unrelated glutamate (NMDA) and GABA(A) receptor channels. Previous work showed that histamine enhances the activity of recombinant GABA(A) receptor isoforms typically found in synaptic locations, although co-release of histamine and GABA is not known to occur in vivo. Here we used patch clamp recordings of various recombinant GABA(A) receptor isoforms (α1-6, β1-3, γ1-3, δ) to test the hypothesis that histamine might show subunit preference under low GABA concentration (extrasynaptic) conditions. We found that histamine potentiated the whole-cell responses to GABA for all tested subunit combinations. However, the magnitude of enhancement was largest (∼400% of EC(10) GABA-evoked currents) with α4β3 and α4β3X isoforms, where X could be γ or δ. In contrast, histamine (1 mM) had small effects on prolonging deactivation of α4β3γ2 receptors following brief (5 ms) pulses of 1 mM GABA. These findings suggest GABA-histamine cross-talk may occur preferentially at low GABA concentrations, which could theoretically be inhibitory (via enhancing tonic inhibition), directly excitatory (via enhancing presynaptic GABAergic signaling), or indirectly excitatory (via inhibiting GABAergic interneurons).

Differential short-term plasticity at convergent inhibitory synapses to the substantia nigra pars reticulata

Inhibitory projections from the striatum and globus pallidus converge onto GABAergic projection neurons of the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). Based on existing structural and functional evidence, these pathways are likely to differentially regulate the firing of SNr neurons. We sought to investigate the functional differences in inhibitory striatonigral and pallidonigral traffic using whole-cell voltage clamp in brain slices with these pathways preserved. We found that striatonigral IPSCs exhibited a high degree of paired-pulse facilitation. We tracked this facilitation over development and found the facilitation as the animal aged, but stabilized by postnatal day 17 (P17), with a paired pulse ratio of 2. We also found that the recovery from facilitation accelerated over development, again, reaching a stable phenotype by P17. In contrast, pallidonigral synapses show paired-pulse depression, and this depression could be solely explained by presynaptic changes. The mean paired-pulse ratio of 0.67 did not change over development, but the recovery from depression slowed over development. Pallidonigral IPSCs were significantly faster than striatonigral IPSCs when measured at the soma. Finally, under current clamp, prolonged bursts of striatal IPSPs were able to consistently silence the pacemaker activity of nigral neurons, whereas pallidal inputs depressed, allowing nigral neurons to reinstate firing. These findings highlight the importance of differential dynamics of neurotransmitter release in regulating the circuit behavior of the basal ganglia.

Slow GABA transient and receptor desensitization shape synaptic responses evoked by hippocampal neurogliaform cells

The kinetics of GABAergic synaptic currents can vary by an order of magnitude depending on the cell type. The neurogliaform cell (NGFC) has recently been identified as a key generator of slow GABA(A) receptor-mediated volume transmission in the isocortex. However, the mechanisms underlying slow GABA(A) receptor-mediated IPSCs and their use-dependent plasticity remain unknown. Here, we provide experimental and modeling data showing that hippocampal NGFCs generate an unusually prolonged (tens of milliseconds) but low-concentration (micromolar range) GABA transient, which is responsible for the slow response kinetics and which leads to a robust desensitization of postsynaptic GABA(A) receptors. This strongly contributes to the use-dependent synaptic depression elicited by various patterns of NGFC activity including the one detected during theta network oscillations in vivo. Synaptic depression mediated by NGFCs is likely to play an important modulatory role in the feedforward inhibition of CA1 pyramidal cells provided by the entorhinal cortex.

GABA(A) receptor alpha1 subunit mutation A322D associated with autosomal dominant juvenile myoclonic epilepsy reduces the expression and alters the composition of wild type GABA(A) receptors

A GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) alpha1 subunit mutation, A322D (AD), causes an autosomal dominant form of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (ADJME). Previous studies demonstrated that the mutation caused alpha1(AD) subunit misfolding and rapid degradation, reducing its total and surface expression substantially. Here, we determined the effects of the residual alpha1(AD) subunit expression on wild type GABA(A)R expression to determine whether the AD mutation conferred a dominant negative effect. We found that although the alpha1(AD) subunit did not substitute for wild type alpha1 subunits on the cell surface, it reduced the surface expression of alpha1beta2gamma2 and alpha3beta2gamma2 receptors by associating with the wild type subunits within the endoplasmic reticulum and preventing them from trafficking to the cell surface. The alpha1(AD) subunit reduced surface expression of alpha3beta2gamma2 receptors by a greater amount than alpha1beta2gamma2 receptors, thus altering cell surface GABA(A)R composition. When transfected into cultured cortical neurons, the alpha1(AD) subunit altered the time course of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current kinetics and reduced miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current amplitudes. These findings demonstrated that, in addition to causing a heterozygous loss of function of alpha1(AD) subunits, this epilepsy mutation also elicited a modest dominant negative effect that likely shapes the epilepsy phenotype.

Developmental co-regulation of the beta and gamma GABAA receptor subunits with distinct alpha subunits in the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

The GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) is a pentameric chloride ion channel that mediates neuronal inhibition and is commonly comprised of 2alpha, 2beta and 1gamma subunits. These subunits have distinct characteristics that critically impact receptor function. In this study, we sought to determine if developmental expression of the beta and gamma subunit mRNAs in the prefrontal cortex would show complementary or opposing patterns of change as compared to the alpha subunits. Certain GABA(A)R subunit genes are arranged in tandem on the chromosome, and we hypothesized that genomic proximity would lead to co-regulation during development. The mRNA expression of the 3beta and 3gamma subunits was measured in the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of 68 individuals aged neonate to adult, using microarray with qPCR validation. Changes between age groups were identified through ANOVA, linear regression and post hoc Fisher LSD tests while a principal component analysis was used to establish co-regulation of GABA(A)R genes. beta1, gamma1 and gamma3 subunits decreased in expression with age whereas gamma2 increased. beta2 showed dynamic regulation with early increases plateauing across childhood and adolescence before decreasing in adulthood while beta3 levels remained relatively constant. Using published alpha subunit data we identified two principal components labeled 'Decreasing' (alpha2, alpha5, beta1, gamma1 and gamma3) and 'Dynamic' (alpha1, alpha4, beta2 and gamma2) responsible for 84% of the variation in GABA(A)R subunit development. This grouping is generally consistent with the chromosomal localization of subunits, lending credence to regional transcriptional control mechanisms. In addition, understanding developmental changes in GABA(A)R subunits could foster better pediatric pharmaceutical treatments.

Distinct activities of GABA agonists at synaptic- and extrasynaptic-type GABAA receptors

The activation characteristics of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors are important for shaping the profile of phasic and tonic inhibition in the central nervous system, which will critically impact on the activity of neuronal networks. Here, we study in isolation the activity of three agonists, GABA, muscimol and 4,5,6,7-tetrahydoisoxazolo[5,4-c]pyridin-3(2H)-one (THIP), to further understand the activation profiles of alpha 1 beta 3 gamma 2, alpha 4 beta 3 gamma 2 and alpha 4 beta 3 delta receptors that typify synaptic- and extrasynaptic-type receptors expressed in the hippocampus and thalamus. The agonists display an order of potency that is invariant between the three receptors, which is reliant mostly on the agonist dissociation constant. At delta subunit-containing extrasynaptic-type GABA(A) receptors, both THIP and muscimol additionally exhibited, to different degrees, superagonist behaviour. By comparing whole-cell and single channel currents induced by the agonists, we provide a molecular explanation for their different activation profiles. For THIP at high concentrations, the unusual superagonist behaviour on alpha 4 beta 3 delta receptors is a consequence of its ability to increase the duration of longer channel openings and their frequency, resulting in longer burst durations. By contrast, for muscimol, moderate superagonist behaviour was caused by reduced desensitisation of the extrasynaptic-type receptors. The ability to specifically increase the efficacy of receptor activation, by selected exogenous agonists over that obtained with the natural transmitter, may prove to be of therapeutic benefit under circumstances when synaptic inhibition is compromised or dysfunctional.

Chronic exposure to anabolic androgenic steroids alters neuronal function in the mammalian forebrain via androgen receptor- and estrogen receptor-mediated mechanisms

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) can promote detrimental effects on social behaviors for which GABA type A (GABA(A)) receptor-mediated circuits in the forebrain play a critical role. While all AAS bind to androgen receptors (AR), they may also be aromatized to estrogens and thus potentially impart effects via estrogen receptors (ER). Chronic exposure of wild-type male mice to a combination of chemically distinct AAS increased action potential (AP) frequency, selective GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNAs, and GABAergic synaptic current decay in the medial preoptic area (mPOA). Experiments performed with pharmacological agents and in AR-deficient Tfm mutant mice suggest that the AAS-dependent enhancement of GABAergic transmission in wild-type mice is AR-mediated. In AR-deficient mice, the AAS elicited dramatically different effects, decreasing AP frequency, spontaneous IPSC amplitude and frequency and the expression of selective GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNAs. Surprisingly, in the absence of AR signaling, the data indicate that the AAS do not act as ER agonists, but rather suggest a novel in vivo action in which the AAS inhibit aromatase and impair endogenous ER signaling. These results show that the AAS have the capacity to alter neuronal function in the forebrain via multiple steroid signaling mechanisms and suggest that effects of these steroids in the brain will depend not only on the balance of AR- versus ER-mediated regulation for different target genes, but also on the ability of these drugs to alter steroid metabolism and thus the endogenous steroid milieu.

Synaptic currents and transmitter responses in human NT2 neurons differentiated in aggregate culture

Postmitotic neurons were generated from the human NT2 teratocarcinoma cell line in a novel cell aggregate differentiation procedure. The NT2 model neurons express punctate immunoreactivity for synapsin and for cell markers related to GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Using the outside-out patch-clamp configuration, we characterized the kinetics of currents elicited by a rapid application of the amino acid neurotransmitters. Moreover, we detected spontaneous postsynaptic currents in glia free cell cultures that may result from the firing activity of glutamatergic and GABAergic NT2 neurons. These cultured spontaneously active networks may be a useful tool to analyze factors that modulate the formation and efficacy of synapses between human neurons.

RNA editing of the GABA(A) receptor alpha3 subunit alters the functional properties of recombinant receptors

RNA editing provides a post-transcriptional mechanism to increase structural heterogeneity of gene products. Recently, the alpha3 subunit of the GABAA receptors has been shown to undergo RNA editing. As a result, a highly conserved isoleucine residue in the third transmembrane domain is replaced with a methionine. To determine the effect of this structural change on receptor function, we compared the GABA sensitivity, pharmacological properties and macroscopic kinetics of recombinant receptors containing either the edited or unedited forms of the alpha3 subunit along with beta3 and gamma2L. Editing substantially altered the GABA sensitivity and deactivation rate of the receptors, with the unedited form showing a lower GABA EC50 and slower decay. Comparable effects were observed with a mutation at the homologous location in the alpha1 subunit, suggesting a common role for this site in regulation of channel gating. Except for the response to GABA, the pharmacological properties of the receptor were unaffected by editing, with similar enhancement by a variety of modulators. Since RNA editing of the alpha3 subunit increases through development, our findings suggest that GABAergic neurotransmission may be more effective early in development, with greater GABA sensitivity and slower decay rates conferred by the unedited alpha3 subunit.

GABAergic synaptic communication in the GABAergic and non-GABAergic cells in the deep cerebellar nuclei

The deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) are the final integrative units of the cerebellar network. The strongest single afferent to the DCN is formed by GABAergic Purkinje neuron axons whose synapses constitute the majority of all synapses in the DCN, with their action strongly regulating the intrinsic activity of their target neurons. Although this is well established, it remains unclear whether all DCN cell groups receive a functionally similar inhibitory input. We previously characterized three types of mouse DCN neurons based on the expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform 67 (GAD67), their active membrane properties and morphological features. Here we describe the GABAergic synapses in these cell groups and show that spontaneous GABAergic synaptic activity can be seen in all three cell types. Since the majority of DCN neurons fire action potentials spontaneously at high frequencies both in vivo and in vitro, we expected that spontaneous GABAergic synaptic activities mediated by intra-DCN synaptic connections could be uncovered by their sensitivity to TTX. However, TTX had little effect on spontaneous synaptic activity. It seems, therefore that functional GABAergic connectivity within the DCN is sparse and/or weak at least under our experimental conditions. Even though present in all cell types, the spontaneous GABAergic events showed significant differences between the cell types. The synaptic currents in GABAergic cells had lower amplitude, lower frequency and slower kinetics than those of non-GABAergic cells. These differences could not be sufficiently explained by considering only cell size differences or a differential GABA(A)-receptor alpha-subunit composition. Rather, the main differentiating factor appears to be the dendritic localization of GABAergic synapses in the GABAergic cells.

The insecticide fipronil and its metabolite fipronil sulphone inhibit the rat alpha1beta2gamma2L GABA(A) receptor

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Fipronil is the active ingredient in a number of widely used insecticides. Human exposure to fipronil leads to symptoms (headache, nausea and seizures) typically associated with the antagonism of GABA(A) receptors in the brain. In this study, we have examined the modulation of the common brain GABA(A) receptor subtype by fipronil and its major metabolite, fipronil sulphone.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Whole-cell and single-channel recordings were made from HEK 293 cells transiently expressing rat alpha1beta2gamma2L GABA(A) receptors.

KEY RESULTS

The major effect of fipronil was to increase the rate of current decay in macroscopic recordings. In single-channel recordings, the presence of fipronil resulted in shorter cluster durations without affecting the intracluster open and closed time distributions or the single-channel conductance. The alpha1V256S mutation, previously shown alleviate channel inhibition by inhibitory steroids and several insecticides, had a relatively small effect on channel block by fipronil. The mode of action of fipronil sulphone was similar to that of its parent compound but the metabolite was less potent at inhibiting the alpha1beta2gamma2L receptor.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

We conclude that exposure to fipronil induces accumulation of receptors in a novel, long-lived blocked state. This process proceeds in parallel with and independently of, channel desensitization. The lower potency of fipronil sulphone indicates that the conversion serves as a detoxifying process in mammalian brain.

Developmental modulation of GABA(A) receptor function by RNA editing

Adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing of RNA transcripts is an increasingly recognized cellular strategy to modulate the function of proteins involved in neuronal excitability. We have characterized the editing of transcripts encoding the alpha3 subunit of heteromeric GABA(A) receptors (Gabra3), in which a genomically encoded isoleucine codon (ATA) is converted to a methionine codon (ATI) in a region encoding the predicted third transmembrane domain of this subunit. Editing at this position (I/M site) was regulated in a spatiotemporal manner with approximately 90% of the Gabra3 transcripts edited in most regions of adult mouse brain, but with lower levels of editing in the hippocampus. Editing was low in whole-mouse brain at embryonic day 15 and increased during development, reaching maximal levels by postnatal day 7. GABA-evoked current in transfected cells expressing nonedited alpha3(I)beta3gamma2L GABA(A) receptors activated more rapidly and deactivated much more slowly than edited alpha3(M)beta3gamma2L receptors. Furthermore, currents from nonedited alpha3(I)beta3gamma2L receptors were strongly outwardly rectifying (corresponding to chloride ion influx), whereas currents from edited alpha3(M)beta3gamma2L receptors had a more linear current/voltage relationship. These studies suggest that increased expression of the nonedited alpha3(I) subunit during brain development, when GABA is depolarizing, may allow the robust excitatory responses that are critical for normal synapse formation. However, the strong chloride ion influx conducted by receptors containing the nonedited alpha3(I) subunit could act as a shunt to prevent excessive excitation, providing the delicate balance necessary for normal neuronal development.

The anti-convulsant stiripentol acts directly on the GABA(A) receptor as a positive allosteric modulator

Stiripentol (STP) has been used as co-therapy for treatment of epilepsy for many years. Its mechanism of action has long been considered to be indirect, as it inhibits the enzymes responsible for metabolism of other anti-convulsant agents. However, a recent report suggested that STP might also act at the neuronal level, increasing inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. We examined the effect of STP on the functional properties of recombinant GABA(A) receptors (GABARs) and found that it was a positive allosteric modulator of these ion channels. Its activity showed some dependence on subunit composition, with greater potentiation of alpha3-containing receptors and reduced potentiation when the beta1 or epsilon subunits were present. STP caused a leftward shift in the GABA concentration-response relationship, but did not increase the peak response of the receptors to a maximal GABA concentration. Although STP shares some functional characteristics with the neurosteroids, its activity was not inhibited by a neurosteroid site antagonist and was unaffected by a mutation in the alpha3 subunit that reduced positive modulation by neurosteroids. The differential effect of STP on beta1- and beta2/beta3-containing receptors was not altered by mutations within the second transmembrane domain that affect modulation by loreclezole. These findings suggest that STP acts as a direct allosteric modulator of the GABAR at a site distinct from many commonly used anti-convulsant, sedative and anxiolytic drugs. Its higher activity at alpha3-containing receptors as well as its activity at delta-containing receptors may provide a unique opportunity to target selected populations of GABARs.

Developmental maturation of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAA receptors in mouse thalamic ventrobasal neurones

Thalamic ventrobasal (VB) relay neurones express multiple GABA(A) receptor subtypes mediating phasic and tonic inhibition. During postnatal development, marked changes in subunit expression occur, presumably reflecting changes in functional properties of neuronal networks. The aims of this study were to characterize the properties of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors of developing VB neurones and investigate the role of the alpha(1) subunit during maturation of GABA-ergic transmission, using electrophysiology and immunohistochemistry in wild type (WT) and alpha(1)(0/0) mice and mice engineered to express diazepam-insensitive receptors (alpha(1H101R), alpha(2H101R)). In immature brain, rapid (P8/9-P10/11) developmental change to mIPSC kinetics and increased expression of extrasynaptic receptors (P8-27) formed by the alpha(4) and delta subunit occurred independently of the alpha(1) subunit. Subsequently (> or = P15), synaptic alpha(2) subunit/gephyrin clusters of WT VB neurones were replaced by those containing the alpha(1) subunit. Surprisingly, in alpha(1)(0/0) VB neurones the frequency of mIPSCs decreased between P12 and P27, because the alpha(2) subunit also disappeared from these cells. The loss of synaptic GABA(A) receptors led to a delayed disruption of gephyrin clusters. Despite these alterations, GABA-ergic terminals were preserved, perhaps maintaining tonic inhibition. These results demonstrate that maturation of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors in VB follows a developmental programme independent of the alpha(1) subunit. Changes to synaptic GABA(A) receptor function and the increased expression of extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors represent two distinct mechanisms for fine-tuning GABA-ergic control of thalamic relay neurone activity during development.