Neonatal Rhesus Macaques Have Distinct Immune Cell Transcriptional Profiles following HIV Envelope Immunization

Single-Cell Transcriptomics of Mtb/HIV Co-Infection

Tuberculosis (TB) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) co-infection continues to pose a significant healthcare burden. HIV co-infection during TB predisposes the host to the reactivation of latent TB infection (LTBI), worsening disease conditions and mortality. There is a lack of biomarkers of LTBI reactivation and/or immune-related transcriptional signatures to distinguish active TB from LTBI and predict TB reactivation upon HIV co-infection. Characterizing individual cells using next-generation sequencing-based technologies has facilitated novel biological discoveries about infectious diseases, including TB and HIV pathogenesis. Compared to the more conventional sequencing techniques that provide a bulk assessment, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) can reveal complex and new cell types and identify more high-resolution cellular heterogeneity. This review will summarize the progress made in defining the immune atlas of TB and HIV infections using scRNA-seq, including host-pathogen interactions, heterogeneity in HIV pathogenesis, and the animal models employed to model disease. This review will also address the tools needed to bridge the gap between disease outcomes in single infection vs. co-infection. Finally, it will elaborate on the translational benefits of single-cell sequencing in TB/HIV diagnosis in humans.

Neonatal SHIV infection in rhesus macaques elicited heterologous HIV-1-neutralizing antibodies

Infants and children infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 have been shown to develop neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) against heterologous HIV-1 strains, characteristic of broadly nAbs (bnAbs). Thus, having a neonatal model for the induction of heterologous HIV-1 nAbs may provide insights into the mechanisms of neonatal bnAb development. Here, we describe a neonatal model for heterologous HIV-1 nAb induction in pathogenic simian-HIV (SHIV)-infected rhesus macaques (RMs). Viral envelope (env) evolution showed mutations at multiple sites, including nAb epitopes. All 13 RMs generated plasma autologous HIV-1 nAbs. However, 8/13 (62%) RMs generated heterologous HIV-1 nAbs with increasing potency over time, albeit with limited breadth, and mapped to multiple nAb epitopes, suggestive of a polyclonal response. Moreover, plasma heterologous HIV-1 nAb development was associated with antigen-specific, lymph-node-derived germinal center activity. We define a neonatal model for heterologous HIV-1 nAb induction that may inform future pediatric HIV-1 vaccines for bnAb induction in infants and children.

A Germline-Targeting Chimpanzee SIV Envelope Glycoprotein Elicits a New Class of V2-Apex Directed Cross-Neutralizing Antibodies

HIV-1 and its SIV precursors share a broadly neutralizing antibody (bNAb) epitope in variable loop 2 (V2) at the envelope glycoprotein (Env) trimer apex. Here, we tested the immunogenicity of germ line-targeting versions of a chimpanzee SIV (SIVcpz) Env in human V2-apex bNAb heavy-chain precursor-expressing knock-in mice and as chimeric simian-chimpanzee immunodeficiency viruses (SCIVs) in rhesus macaques (RMs). Trimer immunization of knock-in mice induced V2-directed NAbs, indicating activation of V2-apex bNAb precursor-expressing mouse B cells. SCIV infection of RMs elicited high-titer viremia, potent autologous tier 2 neutralizing antibodies, and rapid sequence escape in the canonical V2-apex epitope. Six of seven animals also developed low-titer heterologous plasma breadth that mapped to the V2-apex. Antibody cloning from two of these animals identified multiple expanded lineages with long heavy chain third complementarity determining regions that cross-neutralized as many as 7 of 19 primary HIV-1 strains, but with low potency. Negative stain electron microscopy (NSEM) of members of the two most cross-reactive lineages confirmed V2 targeting but identified an angle of approach distinct from prototypical V2-apex bNAbs, with antibody binding either requiring or inducing an occluded-open trimer. Probing with conformation-sensitive, nonneutralizing antibodies revealed that SCIV-expressed, but not wild-type SIVcpz Envs, as well as a subset of primary HIV-1 Envs, preferentially adopted a more open trimeric state. These results reveal the existence of a cryptic V2 epitope that is exposed in occluded-open SIVcpz and HIV-1 Env trimers and elicits cross-neutralizing responses of limited breadth and potency. IMPORTANCE An effective HIV-1 vaccination strategy will need to stimulate rare precursor B cells of multiple bNAb lineages and affinity mature them along desired pathways. Here, we searched for V2-apex germ line-targeting Envs among a large set of diverse primate lentiviruses and identified minimally modified versions of one chimpanzee SIV Env that bound several human V2-apex bNAb precursors and stimulated one of these in a V2-apex bNAb precursor-expressing knock-in mouse. We also generated chimeric simian-chimpanzee immunodeficiency viruses and showed that they elicit low-titer V2-directed heterologous plasma breadth in six of seven infected rhesus macaques. Characterization of this antibody response identified a new class of weakly cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies that target the V2-apex, but only in occluded-open Env trimers. The existence of this cryptic epitope, which in some Env backgrounds is immunodominant, needs to be considered in immunogen design.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals immune infiltrate in sepsis

Immune cells and immune microenvironment play important in the evolution of sepsis. This study aimed to explore hub genes related to the abundance of immune cell infiltration in sepsis. The GEOquery package is used to download and organize data from the GEO database. A total of 61 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between sepsis samples and normal samples were obtained through the 'limma' package. T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, monocytes, megakaryocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), and B cells formed six distinct clusters on the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) plot generated using the Seurat R package. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) enrichment analysis showed that sepsis samples and normal samples were related to Neutrophil Degranulation, Modulators of Tcr Signaling and T Cell Activation, IL 17 Pathway, T Cell Receptor Signaling Pathway, Ctl Pathway, Immunoregulatory Interactions Between a Lymphoid and A Non-Lymphoid Cell. GO analysis and KEGG analysis of immune-related genes showed that the intersection genes were mainly associated with Immune-related signaling pathways. Seven hub genes (CD28, CD3D, CD2, CD4, IL7R, LCK, and CD3E) were screened using Maximal Clique Centrality, Maximum neighborhood component, and Density of Maximum Neighborhood Component algorithms. The lower expression of the six hub genes (CD28, CD3D, CD4, IL7R, LCK, and CD3E) was observed in sepsis samples. We observed the significant difference of several immune cell between sepsis samples and control samples. Finally, we carried out in vivo animal experiments, including Western blotting, flow cytometry, Elisa, and qPCR assays to detect the concentration and the expression of several immune factors.

Development of combinatorial antibody therapies for diffuse large B cell lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), the most common form of lymphoma, is typically treated with chemotherapy combined with the immunotherapy rituximab, an antibody targeting the B cell receptor, CD20. Despite the success of this treatment regimen, approximately a third of DLBCL patients experience either relapse or have refractory disease that is resistant to rituximab, indicating the need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Here, we identified that CD74 and IL4R are expressed on the cell surface of both CD20 positive and CD20 negative B cell populations. Moreover, genes encoding CD74 and IL4R are expressed in lymphoma biopsies isolated from all stages of disease. We engineered bispecific antibodies targeting CD74 or IL4R in combination with rituximab anti-CD20 (anti-CD74/anti-CD20 and anti-IL4R/anti-CD20). Bispecific antibody function was evaluated by measuring direct induction of apoptosis, antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP), and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in both rituximab-sensitive and rituximab-resistant DLBCL cell lines. Both anti-CD74/anti-CD20 and anti-IL4R/anti-CD20 were able to mediate ADCC and ADCP, but CD74-targeting therapeutic antibodies could also mediate direct cytotoxicity. Overall, this study strongly indicates that development of bispecific antibodies that target multiple B cell receptors expressed by lymphoma could provide improved defense against relapse and rituximab resistance.

Single-cell analysis of immune cell transcriptome during HIV-1 infection and therapy

BACKGROUND

Cellular immune responses are phenotypically and functionally perturbed during HIV-1 infection, with the majority of function restored upon antiretroviral therapy (ART). Despite ART, residual inflammation remains that can lead to HIV-related co-morbidities and mortality, indicating that ART does not fully restore normal immune cell function. Thus, understanding the dynamics of the immune cell landscape during HIV-1 infection and ART is critical to defining cellular dysfunction that occurs during HIV-1 infection and imprints during therapy.

RESULTS

Here, we have applied single-cell transcriptome sequencing of peripheral blood immune cells from chronic untreated HIV-1 individuals, HIV-1-infected individuals receiving ART and HIV-1 negative individuals. We also applied single-cell transcriptome sequencing to a primary cell model of early HIV-1 infection using CD4+ T cells from healthy donors. We described changes in the transcriptome at high resolution that occurred during HIV-1 infection, and perturbations that remained during ART. We also determined transcriptional differences among T cells expressing HIV-1 transcripts that identified key regulators of HIV-1 infection that may serve as targets for future therapies to block HIV-1 infection.

CONCLUSIONS

This work identified key molecular pathways that are altered in immune cells during chronic HIV-1 infection that could remain despite therapy. We also identified key genes that are upregulated during early HIV-1 infection that provide insights on the mechanism of HIV-1 infection and could be targets for future therapy.

Innate cell markers that predict anti-HIV neutralizing antibody titers in vaccinated macaques

Given the time and resources invested in clinical trials, innovative prediction methods are needed to decrease late-stage failure in vaccine development. We identify combinations of early innate responses that predict neutralizing antibody (nAb) responses induced in HIV-Env SOSIP immunized cynomolgus macaques using various routes of vaccine injection and adjuvants. We analyze blood myeloid cells before and 24 h after each immunization by mass cytometry using a three-step clustering, and we discriminate unique vaccine signatures based on HLA-DR, CD39, CD86, CD11b, CD45, CD64, CD14, CD32, CD11c, CD123, CD4, CD16, and CADM1 surface expression. Various combinations of these markers characterize cell families positively associated with nAb production, whereas CADM1-expressing cells are negatively associated (p < 0.05). Our results demonstrate that monitoring immune signatures during early vaccine development could assist in identifying biomarkers that predict vaccine immunogenicity.

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HIV-Env SOSIP trimers induce neutralizing antibodies in cynomolgus macaques

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Vaccine-induced innate cells changes are characterized using mass cytometry

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Adjuvant and route of immunization influence early innate signatures in vaccinated NHP

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Early innate cell signatures predict neutralizing antibody levels

Single‐cell RNA sequencing in oral science: Current awareness and perspectives

The emergence of single‐cell RNA sequencing enables simultaneous sequencing of thousands of cells, making the analysis of cell population heterogeneity more efficient. In recent years, single‐cell RNA sequencing has been used in the investigation of heterogeneous cell populations, cellular developmental trajectories, stochastic gene transcriptional kinetics, and gene regulatory networks, providing strong support in life science research. However, the application of single‐cell RNA sequencing in the field of oral science has not been reviewed comprehensively yet. Therefore, this paper reviews the development and application of single‐cell RNA sequencing in oral science, including fields of tissue development, teeth and jaws diseases, maxillofacial tumors, infections, etc., providing reference and prospects for using single‐cell RNA sequencing in studying the oral diseases, tissue development, and regeneration.

Precision Vaccine Development: Cues From Natural Immunity

Traditional vaccine development against infectious diseases has been guided by the overarching aim to generate efficacious vaccines normally indicated by an antibody and/or cellular response that correlates with protection. However, this approach has been shown to be only a partially effective measure, since vaccine- and pathogen-specific immunity may not perfectly overlap. Thus, some vaccine development strategies, normally focused on targeted generation of both antigen specific antibody and T cell responses, resulting in a long-lived heterogenous and stable pool of memory lymphocytes, may benefit from better mimicking the immune response of a natural infection. However, challenges to achieving this goal remain unattended, due to gaps in our understanding of human immunity and full elucidation of infectious pathogenesis. In this review, we describe recent advances in the development of effective vaccines, focusing on how understanding the differences in the immunizing and non-immunizing immune responses to natural infections and corresponding shifts in immune ontogeny are crucial to inform the next generation of infectious disease vaccines.

Cannabinoid control of gingival immune activation in chronically SIV-infected rhesus macaques involves modulation of the indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase-1 pathway and salivary microbiome

BACKGROUND

HIV/SIV-associated periodontal disease (gingivitis/periodontitis) (PD) represents a major comorbidity affecting people living with HIV (PLWH) on combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART). PD is characterized by chronic inflammation and dysbiosis. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms and use of feasible therapeutic strategies to reduce/reverse inflammation and dysbiosis remain understudied and unaddressed.

METHODS

Employing a systems biology approach, we report molecular, metabolome and microbiome changes underlying PD and its modulation by phytocannabinoids [delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)] in uninfected and SIV-infected rhesus macaques (RMs) untreated (VEH-untreated/SIV) or treated with vehicle (VEH/SIV) or Δ9-THC (THC/SIV).

FINDINGS

VEH- untreated/SIV but not THC/SIV RMs showed significant enrichment of genes linked to anti-viral defense, interferon-β, NFκB, RIG-1, and JAK-STAT signaling. We focused on the anti-microbial DUOX1 and immune activation marker IDO1 that were reciprocally regulated in the gingiva of VEH-untreated/SIV RMs. Both proteins localized to the gingival epithelium and CD163+ macrophages, and showed differential expression in the gingiva of THC/SIV and VEH/SIV RMs. Additionally, inflammation-associated miR-21, miR-142-3p, miR-223, and miR-125a-5p showed significantly higher expression in the gingiva of VEH/SIV RMs. In human primary gingival epithelial cells, miR-125a-5p post-transcriptionally downregulated DUOX1 and THC inhibited IDO1 protein expression through a cannabinoid receptor-2 mediated mechanism. Interestingly, THC/SIV RMs showed relatively reduced plasma levels of kynurenine, kynurenate, and the neurotoxic quinolinate compared to VEH/SIV RMs at 5 months post SIV infection (MPI). Most importantly, THC blocked HIV/SIV-induced depletion of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, and reduced Gammaproteobacteria abundance in saliva. Reduced IDO1 protein expression was associated with significantly (p<0.05) higher abundance of Prevotella, Lactobacillus (L. salivarius, L. buchneri, L. fermentum, L. paracasei, L. rhamnosus, L. johnsonii) and Bifidobacteria and reduced abundance of the pathogenic Porphyromonas cangingivalis and Porphyromonas macacae at 5MPI.

INTERPRETATION

The data provides deeper insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying HIV/SIV-induced PD and more importantly, the anti-inflammatory and anti-dysbiotic properties of THC in the oral cavity. Overall, these translational findings suggest that phytocannabinoids may help reduce gingival/systemic inflammation, salivary dysbiosis and potentially metabolic disease/syndrome in PLWH on cART and those with no access to cART or do not suppress the virus under cART.

FUNDING

Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institutes of Health Award Numbers R01DA052845 (MM and SNB), R01DA050169 (MM and CO), R01DA042524 and R56DE026930 (MM), and P51OD011104 and P51OD011133. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH.

Strategies for induction of HIV-1 envelope-reactive broadly neutralizing antibodies

INTRODUCTION

A primary focus of HIV-1 vaccine development is the activation of B cell receptors for naïve or precursor broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs), followed by expansion and maturation of bnAb B cell lineage intermediates leading to highly affinity-matured bnAbs. HIV-1 envelope (Env) encodes epitopes for bnAbs of different specificities. Design of immunogens to induce bnAb precursors of different specificities and mature them into bnAb status is a goal for HIV-1 vaccine development. We review vaccine strategies for bnAb lineages development and highlight the immunological barriers that these strategies must overcome to generate bnAbs.

METHODS

We provide perspectives based on published research articles and reviews.

DISCUSSION

The recent Antibody Mediated Protection (AMP) trial that tested the protective efficacy of one HIV-1 Env bnAb specificity demonstrated that relatively high levels of long-lasting serum titers of multiple specificities of bnAbs will be required for protection from HIV-1 transmission. Current vaccine efforts for induction of bnAb lineages are focused on immunogens designed to expand naïve HIV-1 bnAb precursor B cells following the recent success of vaccine-induction of bnAb precursor B cells in macaques and humans. BnAb precursor B cells serve as templates for priming-immunogen design. However, design of boosting immunogens for bnAb maturation requires knowledge of the optimal immunogen design and immunological environment for bnAb B cell lineage affinity maturation. BnAb lineages acquire rare genetic changes as mutations during B cell maturation. Moreover, the immunological environment that supports bnAb development during HIV-1 infection is perturbed with an altered B cell repertoire and dysfunctional immunoregulatory controls, suggesting that in normal settings, bnAb development will be disfavoured. Thus, strategies for vaccine induction of bnAbs must circumvent immunological barriers for bnAb development that normally constrain bnAb B cell affinity maturation.

CONCLUSIONS

A fully protective HIV-1 vaccine needs to induce durable high titers of bnAbs that can be generated by a sequential set of Env immunogens for expansion and maturation of bnAb B cell lineages in a permitted immunological environment. Moreover, multiple specificities of bnAbs will be required to be sufficiently broad to prevent the escape of HIV-1 strains during transmission.

Microbiome Studies in Non-human Primates

Purpose of Review

Observations of differing bacterial, intestinal microbiomes in people living with HIV have propelled interest in contributions of the microbiome to HIV disease. Non-human primate (NHP) models of HIV infection provide a controlled setting for assessing contributions of the microbiome by standardizing environmental confounders. We provide an overview of the findings of microbiome contributions to aspects of HIV disease derived from these animal models.

Recent Findings

Observations of differing bacterial, intestinal microbiomes are inconsistently observed in the NHP model following SIV infection. Differences in lentiviral susceptibility and vaccine efficacy have been attributed to variations in the intestinal microbiome; however, by-and-large, these differences have not been experimentally assessed.

Summary

Although compelling associations exist, clearly defined contributions of the microbiome to HIV and SIV disease are lacking. The empirical use of comprehensive multi-omics assessments and longitudinal and interventional study designs in NHP models is necessary to define this contribution more clearly.

Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Heterogeneity of Virus Infection, Pathogenicity, and Host Responses: HIV as a Pioneering Example

While analyses of cell populations provide averaged information about viral infections, single-cell analyses offer individual consideration, thereby revealing a broad spectrum of diversity as well as identifying extreme phenotypes that can be exploited to further understand the complex virus-host interplay. Single-cell technologies applied in the context of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection proved to be valuable tools to help uncover specific biomarkers as well as novel candidate players in virus-host interactions. This review aims at providing an updated overview of single-cell analyses in the field of HIV and acquired knowledge on HIV infection, latency, and host response. Although HIV is a pioneering example, similar single-cell approaches have proven to be valuable for elucidating the behavior and virus-host interplay in a range of other viruses.

Neonatal Immune System Ontogeny: The Role of Maternal Microbiota and Associated Factors. How Might the Non-Human Primate Model Enlighten the Path?

Interactions between the immune system and the microbiome play a crucial role on the human health. These interactions start in the prenatal period and are critical for the maturation of the immune system in newborns and infants. Several factors influence the composition of the infant's microbiota and subsequently the development of the immune system. They include maternal infection, antibiotic treatment, environmental exposure, mode of delivery, breastfeeding, and food introduction. In this review, we focus on the ontogeny of the immune system and its association to microbial colonization from conception to food diversification. In this context, we give an overview of the mother-fetus interactions during pregnancy, the impact of the time of birth and the mode of delivery, the neonate gastrointestinal colonization and the role of breastfeeding, weaning, and food diversification. We further review the impact of the vaccination on the infant's microbiota and the reciprocal case. Finally, we discuss several potential therapeutic interventions that might help to improve the newborn and infant's health and their responses to vaccination. Throughout the review, we underline the main scientific questions that are left to be answered and how the non-human primate model could help enlighten the path.

Predictive Markers of Immunogenicity and Efficacy for Human Vaccines

Vaccines represent one of the major advances of modern medicine. Despite the many successes of vaccination, continuous efforts to design new vaccines are needed to fight "old" pandemics, such as tuberculosis and malaria, as well as emerging pathogens, such as Zika virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Vaccination aims at reaching sterilizing immunity, however assessing vaccine efficacy is still challenging and underscores the need for a better understanding of immune protective responses. Identifying reliable predictive markers of immunogenicity can help to select and develop promising vaccine candidates during early preclinical studies and can lead to improved, personalized, vaccination strategies. A systems biology approach is increasingly being adopted to address these major challenges using multiple high-dimensional technologies combined with in silico models. Although the goal is to develop predictive models of vaccine efficacy in humans, applying this approach to animal models empowers basic and translational vaccine research. In this review, we provide an overview of vaccine immune signatures in preclinical models, as well as in target human populations. We also discuss high-throughput technologies used to probe vaccine-induced responses, along with data analysis and computational methodologies applied to the predictive modeling of vaccine efficacy.

T-follicular helper cells in malaria infection and roles in antibody induction

Immunity to malaria is mediated by antibodies that block parasite replication to limit parasite burden and prevent disease. Cytophilic antibodies have been consistently shown to be associated with protection, and recent work has improved our understanding of the direct and Fc-mediated mechanisms of protective antibodies. Antibodies also have important roles in vaccine-mediated immunity. Antibody induction is driven by the specialized CD4⁺ T cells, T-follicular helper (Tfh) cells, which function within the germinal centre to drive B-cell activation and antibody induction. In humans, circulating Tfh cells can be identified in peripheral blood and are differentiated into subsets that appear to have pathogen/vaccination-specific roles in antibody induction. Tfh cell responses are essential for protective immunity from Plasmodium infection in murine models of malaria. Our understanding of the activation of Tfh cells during human malaria infection and the importance of different Tfh cell subsets in antibody development is still emerging. This review will discuss our current knowledge of Tfh cell activation and development in malaria, and the potential avenues and pitfalls of targeting Tfh cells to improve malaria vaccines.

Probing infectious disease by single-cell RNA sequencing: Progresses and perspectives

The increasing application of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology in life science and biomedical research has significantly increased our understanding of the cellular heterogeneities in immunology, oncology and developmental biology. This review will summarize the development of various scRNA-seq technologies; primarily discussing the application of scRNA-seq on infectious diseases, and exploring the current development, challenges, and potential applications of scRNA-seq technology in the future.

Long Term Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol Administration Inhibits Proinflammatory Responses in Minor Salivary Glands of Chronically Simian Immunodeficieny Virus Infected Rhesus Macaques

HIV/SIV-associated oral mucosal disease/dysfunction (HAOMD) (gingivitis/periodontitis/salivary adenitis) represents a major comorbidity affecting HIV patients on anti-retroviral therapy. Using a systems biology approach, we investigated molecular changes (mRNA/microRNA) underlying HAOMD and its modulation by phytocannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆⁹-THC)) in uninfected (n = 5) and SIV-infected rhesus macaques untreated (VEH-untreated/SIV; n = 7) or treated with vehicle (VEH/SIV; n = 3) or ∆⁹-THC (THC/SIV; n = 3). Relative to controls, fewer mRNAs were upregulated in THC/SIV compared to VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. Gene enrichment analysis showed differential enrichment of biological functions involved in anti-viral defense, Type-I interferon, Toll-like receptor, RIG-1 and IL1R signaling in VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. We focused on the anti-ER-stress anterior gradient-2 (AGR2), epithelial barrier protecting and anti-dysbiotic WAP Four-Disulfide Core Domain-2 (WFDC2) and glucocorticoid-induced anti-inflammatory TSC22D3 (TSC22-domain family member-3) that were significantly downregulated in oropharyngeal mucosa (OPM) of VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. All three proteins localized to minor salivary gland acini and secretory ducts and showed enhanced and reduced expression in OPM of THC/SIV and VEH/SIV macaques, respectively. Additionally, inflammation associated miR-21, miR-142-3p and miR-29b showed significantly higher expression in OPM of VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. TSC22D3 was validated as a target of miR-29b. These preliminary translational findings suggest that phytocannabinoids may safely and effectively reduce oral inflammatory responses in HIV/SIV and other (autoimmune) diseases.