Effects of anthracene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene spiking and sewage sludge compost amendment on soil ecotoxicity during a bioremediation process

Insights into the effects of Zn exposure on the fate of tylosin resistance genes and dynamics of microbial community during co-composting with tylosin fermentation dregs and swine manure

Though heavy metals are widely reported to induce antibiotic resistance propagation, how antibiotic resistance changes in response to heavy metal abundances remains unclearly. In this study, the tylosin fermentation dregs (TFDs) and swine manure co-composting process amended with two exposure levels of heavy metal Zn were performed. Results showed that the bioavailable Zn contents decreased 2.6-fold averagely, and the removal percentage of total tylosin resistance genes was around 23.5% after the co-composting completed. Furthermore, the tylosin resistance genes and some generic bacteria may exhibited a hormetic-like dose-response with the high-dosage inhibition and low dosage stimulation induced by bioavailable Zn contents during the co-composting process, which represented a beneficial aspect of adaptive responses to harmful environmental stimuli. This study provided a comprehensive understanding and predicted risk assessment for the Zn-contaminate solid wastes deposal and suggested that low levels of Zn or other heavy metals should receive more attention for their potential to the induction of resistance bacteria and propagation of antibiotic resistance genes.

The environmental fate of graphene oxide in aquatic environment-Complete mitigation of its acute toxicity to planktonic and benthic crustaceans by algae

Graphene oxide (GO) as the most studied hydrophilic graphene derivative can be deployed in a broad spectrum of environmental technologies opening the issue of its ecotoxicity. Nevertheless, the information about its behavior in complex aquatic environment is still not sufficient. Here, we studied the interaction of three differently oxidized GO systems with planktonic and benthic crustaceans. By standard toxicity tests, we observed the importance of feeding strategy as well as the surface oxidation of GO with respect to GO's ecotoxicity. However, to gain a clearer insight into GO's environmental fate, we introduced a pre-treatment with algae as the most common source of food for crustaceans. Such an adjustment mimicking the conditions in real aquatic ecosystems resulted in complete mitigation of acute toxicity of GOs to all organisms and, more importantly, to the eradication of oxidative stress caused by GOs. We argue, that the pre-exposition of food is a crucial factor in GO's overall environmental fate, even though this fact has been completely neglected in recent studies. These experiments proved that GO is not a hazardous material in complex aquatic environments because its acute toxicity can be successfully mitigated through the interaction with algae even at very high concentrations (25 mg/L).

Effects of the application of an organic amendment and nanoscale zero-valent iron particles on soil Cr(VI) remediation

Chromium is considered an environmental pollutant of much concern whose toxicity depends, to a great extent, on its valence state, with Cr(VI) being more soluble, bioavailable, and toxic, compared to Cr(III). Nanoremediation is a promising strategy for the remediation of metal pollutants by changing their valence state. However, among other aspects, its effectiveness for soil remediation is seriously hampered by the interaction of nanoparticles with soil organic matter. In this study, soil was (i) amended with two doses of a municipal solid organic waste and (ii) artificially polluted with 300 mg Cr(VI) kg-1 DW soil. After a period of aging, a nanoremediation treatment with nanoscale zero-valent iron particles (1 g nZVI kg-1 DW soil) was applied. The efficiency of the remediation treatment was assessed in terms of Cr(VI) immobilization and recovery of soil health. The presence of the organic amendment caused (i) a decrease of redox potential, (ii) Cr(VI) immobilization via its reduction to Cr(III), (iii) a stimulation of soil microbial communities, and (iv) an improvement of soil health, compared to unamended soil. By contrast, nZVI did not have any impact on Cr(VI) immobilization nor on soil health. It was concluded that, unlike the presence of the organic amendment, nanoremediation with nZVI was not a valid option for soils polluted with Cr(VI) under our experimental conditions.

Calculation of electron scattering cross sections for Anthracene, Pyridine and Warfarin molecules over energy range 10-30000 eV

This paper reports electron impact total cross section, total elastic, total inelastic and differential cross sections for molecules Anthracene, Pyridine and Warfarin having been computed using the independent atom model with screening-corrected additivity rule over an incident energy range of 10-30000 eV. The calculations are performed with relativistic (Dirac) partial-wave for scattering by applying a local central interaction potential V(r). A model spherical complex optical potential is used for calculations. Good agreement is achieved in intermediate and high-energy zones.

Evaluation of dredged sediment co-composted with green waste as plant growing media assessed by eco-toxicological tests, plant growth and microbial community structure

Dredged sediments have currently no broad reuse options as compared to other wastes due to their peculiar physico-chemical properties, posing problems for the management of the large volumes of sediments dredged worldwide. In this study we evaluated the performance of sediment (S) co-composted with green waste (GW) as growing medium for ornamental plants. Analysis of the microbial community structure, eco-toxicological tests, were conducted on sediments at 1:1 and 3:1S:GW composting ratios. Sediment-based growing media were then reused to growth the ornamental plant Photina x fraseri in a pilot-scale experiment and plants' physiological and chemical parameters were measured. The results showed that co-composting with green waste increased the diversity of bacteria, fungi and archaea as compared to the untreated sediments, and that both the 1:1 and 3:1 S:GW composted sediments had no substantial eco-toxicological impacts, allowing an excellent plant growth. We concluded that co-composted of sediment with green waste produce a growing medium with suitable properties for growing ornamental plants, and represent a sustainable option for beneficial use of dredged sediments.

Studying the Effects of Two Various Methods of Composting on the Degradation Levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Sewage Sludge

The research comprised of studying the effect composting sewage sludge with sawdust and vermicomposting with earthworm Eisenia fetida has on the degradation of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Raw rural sewage sludge prior composting was more contaminated with PAHs than urban sewage sludge, in both cases exceeding EU cutoff limits of 6 mg/kg established for land application. Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DBahAnt), acenaphtylene (Acy) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IPyr) were predominant in rural sewage sludge, whilst the urban sewage sludge contained the highest concentrations of benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbFl), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkFl) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IPyr). Thirty days of composting with sawdust has caused a significant reduction of 16 PAHs on average from 26.07 to 4.01 mg/kg (84.6%). During vermicomposting, total PAH concentration decreased on average from 15.5 to 2.37 mg/kg (84.7%). Vermicomposting caused full degradation of hydrocarbons containing 2 and 6 rings and significant reduction of PAHs with 3 aromatic rings (94.4%) as well as with 5 aromatic rings (83.2%). The lowest rate of degradation (64.4%) was observed for hydrocarbons with 4 aromatic rings such as fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene and pyrene. On the other hand, the highest level of degradation was determined for PAHs with 2 rings (100%), 3 rings (88%) and 6 aromatic rings in the molecule (86.9%) after composting with sawdust. Acenaphthene and pyrene were found to be the most resistant to biodegradation during both composting methods.

Fate of iron and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during the remediation of a contaminated soil using iron-activated persulfate: A column study

Remediation of contaminated soils under flow-through conditions is an issue of great interest since it provides a better approach to real case applications than batch experiments. In this work, a column filled with soil, artificially spiked and aged for three months with Phenanthrene (PHE), Anthracene (ANT), Pyrene (PYR) and Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), was treated for 25days with persulfate (PS) activated by Fe(3+) and nanoparticles of zerovalent iron (nZVI). Effects of type of iron fed into the column (Fe(3+) or nZVI) and nZVI concentration were studied. PS inlet concentration was 0.2mmolcm(-3) and residence time in the column was close to 1.72days. Iron, PS and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentration, as well as pH, were monitored during treatment. Concentration profiles of iron and PAHs were observed along the column, with higher iron concentrations and higher PAHs removal efficiencies in the closest sections to the column entrance. BaP and ANT were completely depleted regardless the conditions used, but PHE and PYR showed higher resistance to oxidation, achieving near a 90% removal in the closest sections to the injection source in all runs, but decreasing significantly with column length. Besides, natural degradation of ANT resulted in the formation 9.10-anthraquinone (ATQ), an oxy-PAH which showed higher resistance than PHE and PYR. Although higher PAHs removal efficiencies were achieved when nZVI was used as activator, only a moderate improvement was noticed when the highest concentration of nZVI was used as a consequence of radical scavenging by an excess of Fe(2+). Finally, a kinetic model based on runs performed in batch, from a previous work, was able to predict the experimental average concentrations of PAHs in the column when Fe(3+) was used as activator.

Effect of Biostimulation Using Sewage Sludge, Soybean Meal, and Wheat Straw on Oil Degradation and Bacterial Community Composition in a Contaminated Desert Soil

Waste materials have a strong potential in the bioremediation of oil-contaminated sites, because of their richness in nutrients and their economical feasibility. We used sewage sludge, soybean meal, and wheat straw to biostimulate oil degradation in a heavily contaminated desert soil. While oil degradation was assessed by following the produced CO₂ and by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), shifts in bacterial community composition were monitored using illumina MiSeq. The addition of sewage sludge and wheat straw to the desert soil stimulated the respiration activities to reach 3.2–3.4 times higher than in the untreated soil, whereas the addition of soybean meal resulted in an insignificant change in the produced CO₂, given the high respiration activities of the soybean meal alone. GC–MS analysis revealed that the addition of sewage sludge and wheat straw resulted in 1.7–1.8 fold increase in the degraded C₁₄ to C₃₀ alkanes, compared to only 1.3 fold increase in the case of soybean meal addition. The degradation of ≥90% of the C₁₄ to C₃₀ alkanes was measured in the soils treated with sewage sludge and wheat straw. MiSeq sequencing revealed that the majority (76.5–86.4% of total sequences) of acquired sequences from the untreated soil belonged to Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Firmicutes. Multivariate analysis of operational taxonomic units placed the bacterial communities of the soils after the treatments in separate clusters (ANOSIM R = 0.66, P = 0.0001). The most remarkable shift in bacterial communities was in the wheat straw treatment, where 95–98% of the total sequences were affiliated to Bacilli. We conclude that sewage sludge and wheat straw are useful biostimulating agents for the cleanup of oil-contaminated desert soils.

Application of spent mushroom (Lentinula edodes) substrate and acclimated sewage sludge on the bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon polluted soil

A novel technology for remediation and improvement of soil was provided along with a new approach for waste recycling.

The influence of SBR parameters on the sludge toxicity of synthetic wastewater containing bisphenol A

Synthetic wastewater with bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations of 7.5, 20, and 40 mg/L was treated with activated sludge sequential batch reactors (SBRs). The sludge acute toxicity indicated by the inhibitory ratio to luminous bacteria T3 was evaluated. The influent COD was controlled at approximately 300 mg/L, and aerobic conditions were maintained in the SBR. It was found that the process of BPA biodegradation, as opposed to BPA adsorption, contributed to the formation of sludge toxicity; there was a positive relationship between sludge toxicity and influent BPA concentration, and the toxicity centralized in intracellular regions and the intersection of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in sludge flocs. Since the BPA biodegradation process dedicated to sludge toxicity, the influence of key operational parameters such as sludge retention time (SRT) and hydraulic retention time (HRT) on sludge toxicity were investigated. It was founded that sludge toxicity decreased significantly when SRT and HRT were shortened from 20 to 10 days and 12 to 8 h, respectively. The results of Pearson correlation analysis indicated that the Shannon index H of the bacterial community correlated significantly to sludge toxicity. The results from both similarity analysis and UPGMA indicated that influent quality characteristic contributes much more to bacterial community than operation parameters, and then leads to difference between blank and control sludge toxicity.

Biotests for environmental quality assessment of composted sewage sludge

The quality of sewage sludge-based products, such as composts and growth media, is affected by the contamination of sewage sludge with, potentially, hundreds of different substances. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve the reliable environmental quality assessment of sewage sludge-based products solely based on chemical analysis. In the present work, we demonstrate the use of the kinetic luminescent bacteria test (ISO 21338) to evaluate acute toxicity and the Vitotox™ test to monitor genotoxicity of sewage sludge and composted sewages sludge. In addition, endocrine-disrupting and dioxin-like activity was studied using yeast-cell-based assays. The relative contribution of industrial waste water treated at the Waste Water Treatment Plants led to elevated concentrations of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/F) in sewage sludge. The effect of elevated amounts of organic contaminants could also be identified with biotests able to demonstrate higher acute toxicity, genotoxicity, and potential for endocrine-disruptive properties. Additional extraction steps in kinetic luminescent bacteria test with DMSO and hexane increased the level of toxicity detected. Composting in a pilot-scale efficiently reduced the amounts of linear alkylbenzensulphonates (LASs), nonylphenols and nonylphenolethoxylates (NPE/NPs) and PAH with relative removal efficiencies of 84%, 61% and 56%. In addition, decrease in acute toxicity, genotoxicity and endocrorine-disrupting and dioxin-like activity during composting could be detected. However, the biotests did have limitations in accessing the ecotoxicity of test media rich with organic matter, such as sewage sludge and compost, and effects of sample characteristics on biotest organisms must be acknowledged. The compost matrix itself, however, which contained a high amount of nutrients, bark, and peat, reduced the sensitivity of the genotoxicity tests and yeast bioreporter assays.

Assessment of respiration activity and ecotoxicity of composts containing biopolymers

The research was conducted to determine if introducing biodegradable polymer materials to the composting process would affect selected biological properties of mature compost. Determination of biological properties of composts composed of testing their respiration activity and toxicity. Respiration activity was measured in material from the composting process by means of OxiTop Control measuring system. The ecotoxicity of composts was estimated by means of a set of biotests composed of three microbiotests using five test organisms. Introduction of polymer materials caused a decrease in respiration activity of mature compost. Similar dependencies as in the case of mass loss were registered. Compost to which a biodegradable polymer with the highest content of starch was added revealed the smallest difference in comparison with organic material composted without polymers. Lower content of starch in a polymer caused lower respiration activity of composts, whereas microorganism vaccine might have accelerated maturing of composts, thus contributing to the smallest respiration of compost. In composts containing biopolymers the following were observed: an increase in germination inhibition--2.5 times, roots growth inhibition--1.8 times, growth inhibition of Heterocypris incongruens--four times and luminescence inhibition of Vibrio fischeri--1.6 times in comparison with the control (compost K1). Composts containing biopolymers were classified as toxicity class III, whereas the compost without polymer addition as class II.

Electron scattering cross sections from anthracene over a broad energy range (0.00001-10,000 eV)

We report a computational investigation of electron scattering by anthracene (C14H10) in the gas phase. Integral and differential cross sections have been calculated by employing two distinct ab-initio quantum scattering methods: the symmetry adapted-single centre expansion method (ePOLYSCAT) and a screening corrected form of the independent atom model (IAM-SCAR) at low and high energies, respectively. After a detailed evaluation of the current results, we present a complete set of integral scattering cross sections from 0.00001 to 10,000 eV.

A review of the technological solutions for the treatment of oily sludges from petroleum refineries

The activities of the oil industry have several impacts on the environment due to the large amounts of oily wastes that are generated. The oily sludges are a semi-solid material composed by a mixture of clay, silica and iron oxides contaminated with oil, produced water and the chemicals used in the production of oil. Nowadays both the treatment and management of these waste materials is essential to promote sustainable management of exploration and exploitation of natural resources. Biological, physical and chemical processes can be used to reduce environmental contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons to acceptable levels. The choice of treatment method depends on the physical and chemical properties of the waste as well as the availability of facilities to process these wastes. Literature provides some operations for treatment of oily sludges, such as landfilling, incineration, co-processing in clinkerization furnaces, microwave liquefaction, centrifugation, destructive distillation, thermal plasma, low-temperature conversion, incorporation in ceramic materials, development of impermeable materials, encapsulation and biodegradation in land farming, biopiles and bioreactors. The management of the technology to be applied for the treatment of oily wastes is essential to promote proper environmental management, and provide alternative methods to reduce, reuse and recycle the wastes.

Structural effects of the bioavailable fraction of pesticides in soil: suitability of elutriate testing

This study focused the ecotoxicological evaluation of four different pesticides (chlorpyrifos, glyphosate, vinclozolin, endosulfan), sprayed into an agricultural soil, using a standard battery of aquatic bioassays for testing of soil elutriates: Vibrio fischeri -Microtox(®); Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata growth inhibition; Daphnia magna acute and chronic toxicity. Despite relevant pesticide residues were recovered from the soil matrix (concentrations higher than 1000 μg kg(-1)), much lower concentrations could be retrieved from elutriates (highest records for endosulfan of ca. 250 ng L(-1)and 1400 ng L(-1); dissolved and particulate concentration, respectively) and little effects were generally found in the bioassays. Lethal effects (D. magna 48 h-EC50 of 36.8%) could be noticed following exposure to the endosulfan elutriate. Elutriates induced no toxicity on V. fischeri; algal growth was generally inhibited at high elutriate dilutions and stimulated at the lower elutriate dilutions; and no overall impairment of D. magna life-history was noticed. Results revealed that cross-contamination during field application, input of organic matter and nutrients by elutriates in test solutions, and choice of test species and endpoints may constrain the ecotoxicological assessment. Suitability of established aquatic bioassay test batteries for these purposes, and questioning on whether direct assays with soil organisms could be more protective tools is discussed.

Distribution of 16 EPA-priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sludges collected from nine Tunisian wastewater treatment plants

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic compounds which may be present as contaminants in wastewater sewage sludge. Due to their toxicity and persistence in the solid phase, information should be gathered relating to their presence in sewage sludge in order to determine their contamination risks after land application. In this study, sewage sludge samples from nine Tunisian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were characterized for the total content in 16 EPA-priority PAHs using an optimized extraction protocol. These WWTPs differ in the type of applied treatment and the wastewater source. Through this first assessment of PAHs in Tunisian sludges, their total concentration varied from 96 to the highest level of 7718 ng g(-1). Regardless of the source of wastewater, the highest PAH content was found in sludges deriving from untreated wastewater (natural lagooning). In addition, some correlation was found between the distribution patterns of each PAH, the type of applied treatment on one hand and the wastewater source on other hand.

Characterization of two diesel fuel degrading microbial consortia enriched from a non acclimated, complex source of microorganisms

BACKGROUND

The bioremediation of soils impacted by diesel fuels is very often limited by the lack of indigenous microflora with the required broad substrate specificity. In such cases, the soil inoculation with cultures with the desired catabolic capabilities (bioaugmentation) is an essential option. The use of consortia of microorganisms obtained from rich sources of microbes (e.g., sludges, composts, manure) via enrichment (i.e., serial growth transfers) on the polluting hydrocarbons would provide bioremediation enhancements more robust and reproducible than those achieved with specialized pure cultures or tailored combinations (co-cultures) of them, together with none or minor risks of soil loading with unrelated or pathogenic allocthonous microorganisms.

RESULTS

In this work, two microbial consortia, i.e., ENZ-G1 and ENZ-G2, were enriched from ENZYVEBA (a complex commercial source of microorganisms) on Diesel (G1) and HiQ Diesel (G2), respectively, and characterized in terms of microbial composition and hydrocarbon biodegradation capability and specificity. ENZ-G1 and ENZ-G2 exhibited a comparable and remarkable biodegradation capability and specificity towards n-C10 to n-C24 linear paraffins by removing about 90% of 1 g l-1 of diesel fuel applied after 10 days of aerobic shaken flask batch culture incubation at 30 degrees C. Cultivation dependent and independent approaches evidenced that both consortia consist of bacteria belonging to the genera Chryseobacterium, Acinetobacter, Psudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Alcaligenes and Gordonia along with the fungus Trametes gibbosa. However, only the fungus was found to grow and remarkably biodegrade G1 and G2 hydrocarbons under the same conditions. The biodegradation activity and specificity and the microbial composition of ENZ-G1 and ENZ-G2 did not significantly change after cryopreservation and storage at -20 degrees C for several months.

CONCLUSIONS

ENZ-G1 and ENZ-G2 are very similar highly enriched consortia of bacteria and a fungus capable of extensively degrading a broad range of the hydrocarbons mainly composing diesel fuels. Given their remarkable biodegradation potential, stability and resistance to cryopreservation, both consortia appear very interesting candidates for bioaugmentation operations on Diesel fuel impacted soils and sites.

Acute toxicity of metals and reference toxicants to a freshwater ostracod, Cypris subglobosa Sowerby, 1840 and correlation to EC(50) values of other test models

The ostracod Cypris subglobosa Sowerby, 1840 static bioassay test on the basis of a 48h of 50% of immobilization (EC(50)) has been used to measure the toxicity of 36 metals and metalloids and 12 reference toxicants. Among the 36 metals and metalloids, osmium (Os) was found to be the most toxic in the test while boron (B), the least toxic. The EC(50) values of this study revealed positive linear relationship with the established test models of cladoceran (Daphnia magna), sludge worm (Tubifex tubifex), chironomid larvae (Chironomus tentans), protozoan (Tetrahymena pyriformis), fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus), and aquatic macrophyte duckweed (Lemna minor). Correlation coefficients (r(2)) for 17 physicochemical properties of metals or metal ions and EC(50)s (as pM) were examined by linear regression analysis. The electronegativity, ionization potential, melting point, solubility product of metal sulfides (pK(sp)), softness parameter and some other physicochemical characteristics were significantly correlated with EC(50)s of metals to C. subglobosa. The reproducibility of toxicity test was determined using 12 reference toxicants. The coefficient of variability of the EC(50)s ranged from 6.95% to 55.37% and variability was comparable to that noticed for D. magna and other aquatic test models. The study demonstrated the need to include crustacean ostracods in a battery of biotests to detect the presence of hazardous chemicals in soils, sewage sludges, sediments and aquatic systems.

Changes of solid phase toxicity during sewage sludge composting in relation to bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

The aim of the present study was to determine the content of the bioaccessible fraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sewage sludges and composts by means of three techniques (solid phase extraction with Tenax-TA and non-exhaustive extraction with hydroxypropyl[beta]cyclodextrin and n-butanol) and at the same time to establish their influence on toxicity for Heterocypris incongruens (Ostracodtoxkit test) and Lepidium sativum (Phytotoxkit test). In the majority of cases sewage sludges negatively influenced on organisms. Generally, sewage sludge composting exerted a positive influence on phytotoxicity, whereas in the case of ecotoxicity a negative effect was noted. The content of the potentially bioaccessible PAHs fraction varied depending on the method applied. Composting usually lowered the content of the potentially bioaccessible fraction. Significant positive relationships were observed mainly between Tenax-TA extracted fraction of individual PAHs and growth inhibition of H. incongruens. Only negative correlations were noted in the case of phytotoxicity.

Phytotoxic effects of sewage sludge extracts on the germination of three plant species

In order to evaluate the ability of three types of extracts to explain the ecotoxicological risk of treated municipal sewage sludges, the OECD 208A germination test was applied using three plants (Lolium perenne L., Brassica rapa L., and Trifolium pratense L.). Three equivalent batches of sludge, remained as dewatered sludge, composted with plant remains and thermally dried, from an anaerobic waste water treatment plant were separated. Samples from these three batches were extracted in water, methanol, and dichloromethane. Plant bioassays were performed and the Germination Index (GI) for the three plants was evaluated once after a period of 10 days. Germination in extracts was always lower than the respective controls. The germination in composted sludge (GI 40.9-86.2) was higher than the dewatered (GI 2.9-45.8), or thermally dried sludges (GI 24.6-64.4). A comparison of the germination between types of extracts showed differences for dewatered sludge with the three plants, where the water and methanol extracts had significantly lower germination than the dichloromethane extract. A higher half maximal effective concentration (EC50) in composted extracts was established, mainly in the water extract (EC50 431-490 g kg(-1)). On the contrary, the germination was strongly inhibited in the water extract of the dewatered sludge (EC50 14 g kg(-1)). The germination was positively correlated with the degree of organic matter stability of the parent sludge, and an inverse correlation was detected for total nitrogen, hydrolysable nitrogen and ammonium content. It is concluded that the phytotoxic effect of the water extract is more closely related to hydrophilic substances rather than lipophilic ones, and care must be taken with dewatered sludge application, especially with their aqueous eluates. Results obtained in this work show the suitability of the use of sludge extracts in ecotoxic assays and emphasize the relevance of sewage sludge stabilization by post-treatment processes.

Forms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in the formation of sewage sludge toxicity to Heterocypris incongruens

The aim of the present study was to evaluate to what degree polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) determines sewage sludge toxicity in relation to Heterocypris incongruens. Six differing sewage sludges with increasing contents of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were selected for the present study. As well as total PAH content, the content of the potentially bioavailable fraction was also determined in the sewage sludges using a method of mild-solvent extraction (with n-butanol). The PAH content was also calculated in the sewage sludge pore water by the equilibrium partitioning method. The total PAH content in the sewage sludges studied were in the range 3.60 to 27.95 mg kg(-1). The contribution of the n-butanol extracted fraction was in the range 38.7 to 75.4%. In the group of individual PAHs, 4- and 5-ring compounds had the highest content in the potentially bioavailable group. H. incongruens mortality in the range 6.7 to 100%, depending both on the sewage sludge and the dose applied. An increase of the sewage sludge dose usually resulted in an increase in toxicity. At the highest dose, a 100% mortality of H. incongruens was found in half of the sludges. The lowest dose, irrespective of the sludge type, caused over 40% growth inhibition. However, the results obtained did not allow for the establishing of an unambiguous relationship between various sludge toxicity levels and the content of potentially bio-available PAHs. In some cases only, the extraction using n-butanol explained the high difference in toxicity despite a slight differentiation in the PAH content.

Assessment of the effects of soil PAH accumulation by a battery of ecotoxicological tests

Surface soils were collected at remote, urban and industrial sites in the Southern of Italy in order to evaluate PAH concentrations and assess the toxic effects by a battery of ecotoxicological tests. The tests were performed on whole soils and on both organic and aqueous extracts. Further goal of this study was to integrate the results coming from each test and matrix in a synthetic toxicity index. The highest summation sigmaPAH concentrations were measured at the industrial soil, although this one did not show an high ecotoxicological risk. Among the performed tests, the phytotoxicity tests showed the highest sensitivity. For whole soil, the worst case always has been represented by test through bacteria. Our results could represent the first step toward the selection of a proper battery to characterize the soil ecotoxicological risk.

The toxicity of composts from sewage sludges evaluated by the direct contact tests phytotoxkit and ostracodtoxkit

Limitations relating to permissible standards of undesirable substances in sewage sludges make it necessary to optimize sludge properties. One of the methods to achieve the above goal is the use of a composting process. The aim of this study was to determine the toxicity of composts obtained from sewage sludges composted for 76 days. Dewatered sewage sludges were collected from the four wastewater treatment plants located in the south-eastern part of Poland (Kraśnik, Lublin, Biłgoraj and Zamość). The sludges were mixed with standard OECD soil at doses of 6% and 24%. Phytotoxkit (with Lepidium sativum) and ostracodtoxkit (with Heterocypris incongruens) tests were used to evaluate toxicity. The results obtained showed different toxicity of sewage sludge depending on the sludge dose and bioassay used. H. incongruens mortality ranged from 0% to 90% and depended on the sewage sludge. The greatest inhibition of test organism growth was noted at a level of 55%. In the case of the Phytotoxkit test, a clearly negative influence of the sewage sludges on seed germination was observed at a dose of 24%. Root growth inhibition was noted in the case of most sewage sludges and was at a level of 20-100%. The influence of the composting on the toxicity of biosolids also showed various trends depending on the sludge type. Sludge composting often resulted in a toxicity increase in relation to H. incongruens. In the case of plants (Phytotoxkit test) and most sewage sludges, however, the composting process influenced both the seed germination and root growth in a positive way.

Investigation of potentially bioavailable and sequestrated forms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during sewage sludge composting

The present study focuses on the influence of the composting process on the formation of potentially bioavailable and sequestrated PAH fractions. The potentially bioavailable fraction was determined by means of a mild-solvent extraction (with n-butanol). The total and potentially bioavailable PAH content was evaluated in the consecutive composting stages, i.e. at the onset of the experiment, after the stabilization phase (on the 35th day), and after the maturation phase (on the 76th day). Four municipal sewage sludges with differentiated PAH content were selected for the present experiment. Eleven PAHs from the US EPA list (with exception of naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphtene, fluorene and benz[ah]anthracene) were determined for the purpose of this experiment. The content of the total PAHs ranged from 3052 to 10352microg kg(-1). The share of the potentially bioavailable fraction was at a similar level in the sludge samples tested and ranged from 75% to 81%. Greater differences were noted in the share of the bioavailable fraction in the case of individual PAH groups. The influence of the composting process on the contribution of the potentially bioavailable fraction of the PAH clearly depended on the stage of the experiment and sewage sludge type. However, in the case of all sludges, a lowering of the bioavailable fraction by 19-52% as compared to the level at the outset of the experiment was observed. During the first phase (stabilization) of the sewage sludge composting process, a reduction of the PAH content took place mainly at the expense of potentially bioavailable fraction, whereas in the second phase (maturation), sequestration processes predominated. The above phenomenon was most clearly visible for the 6-rings PAHs.

Solid-phase bioassays and soil microbial activities to evaluate PAH-spiked soil ecotoxicity after a long-term bioremediation process simulating landfarming

The residual ecotoxicity of long-term bioremediated soils concomitantly spiked with three PAHs at four levels (15, 75, 150, 300 mg Sigma 3 PAHs kg(-1) soil) was evaluated using physico-chemical analyses, solid-phase bioassays and soil microbial activities. The pot-scale bioremediation process consisted of weekly moderate waterings in the presence or absence of sewage sludge compost (SSC) under greenhouse conditions. After 15 months, anthracene and pyrene were almost completely degraded whereas benzo[a]pyrene was still persisting, most apparently in SSC-amended soil treatments. However, no apparent toxic effects of the residual PAHs could be detected. SSC application at 40 t ha(-1) was performed to valorize the biowaste and stimulate PAH biodegradation but caused soil salinization and pH reduction at the end of the bioremediation process. Consequently, SSC-amended soils were characterized by strong phytotoxicity to lettuce and had adverse effects on the ostracod Heterocypris incongruens. Despite the smaller number of culturable bacterial populations in SSC-amended soils, soil enzymatic activities were not affected by the organic amendment and residual PAHs; and the bioremediation efficiency was likely to be more limited by the bioavailability of PAHs rather than by the total number of PAH-degraders.