1
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Johnson HK, Wahl SE, Sesay F, Litovchick L, Dickinson AJ. Dyrk1a is required for craniofacial development in Xenopus laevis. Dev Biol 2024; 511:63-75. [PMID: 38621649 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Loss of function variations in the dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1 A (DYRK1A) gene are associated with craniofacial malformations in humans. Here we characterized the effects of deficient DYRK1A in craniofacial development using a developmental model, Xenopus laevis. Dyrk1a mRNA and protein were expressed throughout the developing head and both were enriched in the branchial arches which contribute to the face and jaw. Consistently, reduced Dyrk1a function, using dyrk1a morpholinos and pharmacological inhibitors, resulted in orofacial malformations including hypotelorism, altered mouth shape, slanted eyes, and narrower face accompanied by smaller jaw cartilage and muscle. Inhibition of Dyrk1a function resulted in misexpression of key craniofacial regulators including transcription factors and members of the retinoic acid signaling pathway. Two such regulators, sox9 and pax3 are required for neural crest development and their decreased expression corresponds with smaller neural crest domains within the branchial arches. Finally, we determined that the smaller size of the faces, jaw elements and neural crest domains in embryos deficient in Dyrk1a could be explained by increased cell death and decreased proliferation. This study is the first to provide insight into why craniofacial birth defects might arise in humans with variants of DYRK1A.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stacey E Wahl
- Department of Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Fatmata Sesay
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Larisa Litovchick
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA; Massey Comprehensive Cancer Center, Richmond, VA, USA
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2
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Kotov A, Seal S, Alkobtawi M, Kappès V, Ruiz SM, Arbès H, Harland RM, Peshkin L, Monsoro-Burq AH. A time-resolved single-cell roadmap of the logic driving anterior neural crest diversification from neural border to migration stages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2311685121. [PMID: 38683994 PMCID: PMC11087755 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311685121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Neural crest cells exemplify cellular diversification from a multipotent progenitor population. However, the full sequence of early molecular choices orchestrating the emergence of neural crest heterogeneity from the embryonic ectoderm remains elusive. Gene-regulatory-networks (GRN) govern early development and cell specification toward definitive neural crest. Here, we combine ultradense single-cell transcriptomes with machine-learning and large-scale transcriptomic and epigenomic experimental validation of selected trajectories, to provide the general principles and highlight specific features of the GRN underlying neural crest fate diversification from induction to early migration stages using Xenopus frog embryos as a model. During gastrulation, a transient neural border zone state precedes the choice between neural crest and placodes which includes multiple converging gene programs. During neurulation, transcription factor connectome, and bifurcation analyses demonstrate the early emergence of neural crest fates at the neural plate stage, alongside an unbiased multipotent-like lineage persisting until epithelial-mesenchymal transition stage. We also decipher circuits driving cranial and vagal neural crest formation and provide a broadly applicable high-throughput validation strategy for investigating single-cell transcriptomes in vertebrate GRNs in development, evolution, and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandr Kotov
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
| | - Subham Seal
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
| | - Mansour Alkobtawi
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
| | - Vincent Kappès
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
| | - Sofia Medina Ruiz
- Molecular and Cell Biology Department, Genetics, Genomics and Development Division, University of California Berkeley, CA94720
| | - Hugo Arbès
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
| | - Richard M. Harland
- Molecular and Cell Biology Department, Genetics, Genomics and Development Division, University of California Berkeley, CA94720
| | - Leonid Peshkin
- Systems Biology Division, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA02115
| | - Anne H. Monsoro-Burq
- Université Paris-Saclay, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences d’Orsay, Signalisation Radiobiology and Cancer, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, Paris Science et Lettres Research University, OrsayF-91405, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, ParisF-75005, France
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3
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Edens BM, Bronner ME. Making developmental sense of the senses, their origin and function. Curr Top Dev Biol 2024; 159:132-167. [PMID: 38729675 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The primary senses-touch, taste, sight, smell, and hearing-connect animals with their environments and with one another. Aside from the eyes, the primary sense organs of vertebrates and the peripheral sensory pathways that relay their inputs arise from two transient stem cell populations: the neural crest and the cranial placodes. In this chapter we consider the senses from historical and cultural perspectives, and discuss the senses as biological faculties. We begin with the embryonic origin of the neural crest and cranial placodes from within the neural plate border of the ectodermal germ layer. Then, we describe the major chemical (i.e. olfactory and gustatory) and mechanical (i.e. vestibulo-auditory and somatosensory) senses, with an emphasis on the developmental interactions between neural crest and cranial placodes that shape their structures and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany M Edens
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
| | - Marianne E Bronner
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States.
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4
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Johnson HK, Wahl SE, Sesay F, Litovchick L, Dickinson AJ. Dyrk1a is required for craniofacial development in Xenopus laevis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.13.575394. [PMID: 38260562 PMCID: PMC10802584 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.13.575394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Loss of function mutations in the dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A) gene are associated with craniofacial malformations in humans. Here we characterized the effects of deficient DYRK1A in craniofacial development using a developmental model, Xenopus laevis . Dyrk1a mRNA and protein was expressed throughout the developing head and was enriched in the branchial arches which contribute to the face and jaw. Consistently, reduced Dyrk1a function, using dyrk1a morpholinos and pharmacological inhibitors, resulted in orofacial malformations including hypotelorism, altered mouth shape, slanted eyes, and narrower face accompanied by smaller jaw cartilage and muscle. Inhibition of Dyrk1a function resulted in misexpression of key craniofacial regulators including transcription factors and members of the retinoic acid signaling pathway. Two such regulators, sox9 and pax3 are required for neural crest development and their decreased expression corresponds with smaller neural crest domains within the branchial arches. Finally, we determined that the smaller size of the faces, jaw elements and neural crest domains in embryos deficient in Dyrk1a could be explained by increased cell death and decreased proliferation. This study is the first to provide insight into why craniofacial birth defects might arise in humans with DYRK1A mutations.
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5
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York JR, Rao A, Huber PB, Schock EN, Montequin A, Rigney S, LaBonne C. Shared features of blastula and neural crest stem cells evolved at the base of vertebrates. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.21.572714. [PMID: 38187687 PMCID: PMC10769357 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.21.572714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
The neural crest is vertebrate-specific stem cell population that helped drive the origin and evolution of the vertebrate clade. A distinguishing feature of these stem cells is their multi-germ layer potential, which has drawn developmental and evolutionary parallels to another stem cell population-pluripotent embryonic stem cells (animal pole cells or ES cells) of the vertebrate blastula. Here, we investigate the evolutionary origins of neural crest potential by comparing neural crest and pluripotency gene regulatory networks (GRNs) in both jawed ( Xenopus ) and jawless (lamprey) vertebrates. Through comparative gene expression analysis and transcriptomics, we reveal an ancient evolutionary origin of shared regulatory factors between neural crest and pluripotency GRNs that dates back to the last common ancestor of extant vertebrates. Focusing on the key pluripotency factor pou5 (formerly oct4), we show that the lamprey genome encodes a pou5 ortholog that is expressed in animal pole cells, as in jawed vertebrates, but is absent from the neural crest. However, gain-of-function experiments show that both lamprey and Xenopus pou5 enhance neural crest formation, suggesting that pou5 was lost from the neural crest of jawless vertebrates. Finally, we show that pou5 is required for neural crest specification in jawed vertebrates and that it acquired novel neural crest-enhancing activity after evolving from an ancestral pou3 -like clade that lacks this functionality. We propose that a pluripotency-neural crest GRN was assembled in stem vertebrates and that the multi-germ layer potential of the neural crest evolved by deploying this regulatory program.
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6
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Schock EN, York JR, Li AP, Tu AY, LaBonne C. SoxB1 transcription factors are essential for initiating and maintaining the neural plate border gene expression. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.28.560033. [PMID: 37808794 PMCID: PMC10557662 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.28.560033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
SoxB1 transcription factors (Sox2/3) are well known for their role in early neural fate specification in the embryo, but little is known about functional roles for SoxB1 factors in non-neural ectodermal cell types, such as the neural plate border (NPB). Using Xenopus laevis , we set out to determine if SoxB1 transcription factors have a regulatory function in NPB formation. Herein, we show that SoxB1 factors are necessary for NPB formation, and that prolonged SoxB1 factor activity blocks the transition from a NPB to a neural crest state. Using ChIP-seq we demonstrate that Sox3 is enriched upstream of NPB genes in early NPB cells and, surprisingly, in blastula stem cells. Depletion of SoxB1 factors in blastula stem cells results in downregulation of NPB genes. Finally, we identify Pou5f3 factors as a potential SoxB1 partners in regulating the formation of the NPB and show their combined activity is needed to maintain NPB gene expression. Together, these data identify a novel role for SoxB1 factors in the establishment and maintenance of the NPB, in part through partnership with Pou5f3 factors.
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7
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Thiery AP, Buzzi AL, Hamrud E, Cheshire C, Luscombe NM, Briscoe J, Streit A. scRNA-sequencing in chick suggests a probabilistic model for cell fate allocation at the neural plate border. eLife 2023; 12:e82717. [PMID: 37530410 PMCID: PMC10425176 DOI: 10.7554/elife.82717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate 'neural plate border' is a transient territory located at the edge of the neural plate containing precursors for all ectodermal derivatives: the neural plate, neural crest, placodes and epidermis. Elegant functional experiments in a range of vertebrate models have provided an in-depth understanding of gene regulatory interactions within the ectoderm. However, these experiments conducted at tissue level raise seemingly contradictory models for fate allocation of individual cells. Here, we carry out single cell RNA sequencing of chick ectoderm from primitive streak to neurulation stage, to explore cell state diversity and heterogeneity. We characterise the dynamics of gene modules, allowing us to model the order of molecular events which take place as ectodermal fates segregate. Furthermore, we find that genes previously classified as neural plate border 'specifiers' typically exhibit dynamic expression patterns and are enriched in either neural, neural crest or placodal fates, revealing that the neural plate border should be seen as a heterogeneous ectodermal territory and not a discrete transitional transcriptional state. Analysis of neural, neural crest and placodal markers reveals that individual NPB cells co-express competing transcriptional programmes suggesting that their ultimate identify is not yet fixed. This population of 'border located undecided progenitors' (BLUPs) gradually diminishes as cell fate decisions take place. Considering our findings, we propose a probabilistic model for cell fate choice at the neural plate border. Our data suggest that the probability of a progenitor's daughters to contribute to a given ectodermal derivative is related to the balance of competing transcriptional programmes, which in turn are regulated by the spatiotemporal position of a progenitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre P Thiery
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Ailin Leticia Buzzi
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Eva Hamrud
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Chris Cheshire
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Nicholas M Luscombe
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - James Briscoe
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Andrea Streit
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
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8
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Chromatin remodeler CHD7 targets active enhancer region to regulate cell type-specific gene expression in human neural crest cells. Sci Rep 2022; 12:22648. [PMID: 36587182 PMCID: PMC9805427 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-27293-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A mutation in the chromatin remodeler chromodomain helicase DNA-binding 7 (CHD7) gene causes the multiple congenital anomaly CHARGE syndrome. The craniofacial anomalies observed in CHARGE syndrome are caused by dysfunctions of neural crest cells (NCCs), which originate from the neural tube. However, the mechanism by which CHD7 regulates the function of human NCCs (hNCCs) remains unclear. We aimed to characterize the cis-regulatory elements governed by CHD7 in hNCCs by analyzing genome-wide ChIP-Seq data and identifying hNCC-specific CHD7-binding profiles. We compared CHD7-binding regions among cell types, including human induced pluripotent stem cells and human neuroepithelial cells, to determine the comprehensive properties of CHD7-binding in hNCCs. Importantly, analysis of the hNCC-specific CHD7-bound region revealed transcription factor AP-2α as a potential co-factor facilitating the cell type-specific transcriptional program in hNCCs. CHD7 was strongly associated with active enhancer regions, permitting the expression of hNCC-specific genes to sustain the function of hNCCs. Our findings reveal the regulatory mechanisms of CHD7 in hNCCs, thus providing additional information regarding the transcriptional programs in hNCCs.
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9
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Ash2l, an obligatory component of H3K4 methylation complexes, regulates neural crest development. Dev Biol 2022; 492:14-24. [PMID: 36162552 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The vertebrate nervous system develops from embryonic neural plate and neural crest. Although genetic mechanisms governing vertebrate neural development have been investigated in depth, epigenetic regulation of this process remains less understood. Redundancy of epigenetic factors and early lethality of animals deficient in critical epigenetic components pose major challenges in characterization of epigenetic factors in vertebrate neural development. In this study, we use the amphibian model Xenopus laevis to investigate the roles of non-redundant, obligatory components of all histone H3K4 activating methylation complexes (COMPASS, also known as SET1/MLL complexes) in early neural development. The two genes that we focus on, Ash2l and Dpy30, regulate mesendodermal differentiation in mouse embryonic stem cells and cause early embryonic lethality when removed from mouse embryos. Using targeted knockdown of the genes in dorsal ectoderm of Xenopus that gives rise to future nervous system, we show here that ash2l and dpy30 are required for neural and neural crest marker expression in Xenopus late neurula embryos but are dispensable for early neural and neural plate border gene expression. Co-immunoprecipitation assays reveal that Dpy30 and Ash2L associate with the neural plate border transcription factors, such as Msx1 and Tfap2a. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay further demonstrates that Ash2L and the H3K4me3 active histone mark accumulate at the promoter regions of the neural crest gene sox10 in a Tfap2a-dependent manner. Collectively, our data suggest that Ash2l and Dpy30 interact with specific transcription factors to recruit COMPASS complexes to the regulatory regions of neural crest specification genes to control their expression and influence development of the nervous system during vertebrate embryogenesis.
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10
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Hayot G, Massonot M, Keime C, Faure E, Golzio C. Loss of autism-candidate CHD8 perturbs neural crest development and intestinal homeostatic balance. Life Sci Alliance 2022; 6:6/1/e202201456. [PMID: 36375841 PMCID: PMC9664244 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals with mutations in CHD8 present with gastrointestinal complaints, yet the underlying mechanisms are understudied. Here, using a stable constitutive chd8 mutant zebrafish model, we found that the loss of chd8 leads to a reduced number of vagal neural crest cells (NCCs), enteric neural and glial progenitors, emigrating from the neural tube, and that their early migration capability was altered. At later stages, although the intestinal colonization by NCCs was complete, we found the decreased numbers of both serotonin-producing enterochromaffin cells and NCC-derived serotonergic neurons, suggesting an intestinal hyposerotonemia in the absence of chd8 Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses revealed an altered expression of key receptors and enzymes in serotonin and acetylcholine signaling pathways. The tissue examination of chd8 mutants revealed a thinner intestinal epithelium accompanied by an accumulation of neutrophils and the decreased numbers of goblet cells and eosinophils. Last, single-cell sequencing of whole intestines showed a global disruption of the immune balance with a perturbed expression of inflammatory interleukins and changes in immune cell clusters. Our findings propose a causal developmental link between chd8, NCC development, intestinal homeostasis, and autism-associated gastrointestinal complaints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Hayot
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Illkirch, France,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Illkirch, France,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Mathieu Massonot
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Illkirch, France,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Illkirch, France,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Céline Keime
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Illkirch, France,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Illkirch, France,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Elodie Faure
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Illkirch, France,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Illkirch, France,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Christelle Golzio
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France .,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Illkirch, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Illkirch, France.,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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11
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Kaushal K, Kim EJ, Tyagi A, Karapurkar JK, Haq S, Jung HS, Kim KS, Ramakrishna S. Genome-wide screening for deubiquitinase subfamily identifies ubiquitin-specific protease 49 as a novel regulator of odontogenesis. Cell Death Differ 2022; 29:1689-1704. [PMID: 35273362 PMCID: PMC9433428 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-022-00956-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins expressed by the paired box gene 9 (PAX9) and Msh Homeobox 1 (MSX1) are intimately involved in tooth development (odontogenesis). The regulation of PAX9 and MSX1 protein turnover by deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) plausibly maintain the required levels of PAX9 and MSX1 during odontogenesis. Herein, we used a loss-of-function CRISPR-Cas9-mediated DUB KO library kit to screen for DUBs that regulate PAX9 and MSX1 protein levels. We identify and demonstrate that USP49 interacts with and deubiquitinates PAX9 and MSX1, thereby extending their protein half-lives. On the other hand, the loss of USP49 reduces the levels of PAX9 and MSX1 proteins, which causes transient retardation of odontogenic differentiation in human dental pulp stem cells and delays the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into the neural crest cell lineage. USP49 depletion produced several morphological defects during tooth development, such as reduced dentin growth with shrunken enamel space, and abnormal enamel formation including irregular mineralization. In sum, our results suggest that deubiquitination of PAX9 and MSX1 by USP49 stabilizes their protein levels to facilitate successful odontogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamini Kaushal
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea
| | - Eun-Jung Kim
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Taste Research Center, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Apoorvi Tyagi
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea
| | | | - Saba Haq
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea
| | - Han-Sung Jung
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Taste Research Center, Oral Science Research Center, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.
| | - Kye-Seong Kim
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea. .,College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea.
| | - Suresh Ramakrishna
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea. .,College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, South Korea.
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12
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Leathers TA, Rogers CD. Time to go: neural crest cell epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Development 2022; 149:276152. [PMID: 35905012 PMCID: PMC9440755 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a dynamic, multipotent, vertebrate-specific population of embryonic stem cells. These ectodermally-derived cells contribute to diverse tissue types in developing embryos including craniofacial bone and cartilage, the peripheral and enteric nervous systems and pigment cells, among a host of other cell types. Due to their contribution to a significant number of adult tissue types, the mechanisms that drive their formation, migration and differentiation are highly studied. NCCs have a unique ability to transition from tightly adherent epithelial cells to mesenchymal and migratory cells by altering their polarity, expression of cell-cell adhesion molecules and gaining invasive abilities. In this Review, we discuss classical and emerging factors driving NCC epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and migration, highlighting the role of signaling and transcription factors, as well as novel modifying factors including chromatin remodelers, small RNAs and post-translational regulators, which control the availability and longevity of major NCC players.
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13
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Zhao T, McMahon M, Reynolds K, Saha SK, Stokes A, Zhou CJ. The role of Lrp6-mediated Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the development and intervention of spinal neural tube defects in mice. Dis Model Mech 2022; 15:275313. [PMID: 35514236 PMCID: PMC9194482 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural tube defects (NTDs) are among the common and severe birth defects with poorly understood etiology. Mutations in the Wnt co-receptor LRP6 are associated with NTDs in humans. Either gain-of-function (GOF) or loss-of-function (LOF) mutations of Lrp6 can cause NTDs in mice. NTDs in Lrp6-GOF mutants may be attributed to altered β-catenin-independent noncanonical Wnt signaling. However, the mechanisms underlying NTDs in Lrp6-LOF mutants and the role of Lrp6-mediated canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling in neural tube closure remain unresolved. We previously demonstrated that β-catenin signaling is required for posterior neuropore (PNP) closure. In the current study, conditional ablation of Lrp6 in dorsal PNP caused spinal NTDs with diminished activities of Wnt/β-catenin signaling and its downstream target gene Pax3, which is required for PNP closure. β-catenin-GOF rescued NTDs in Lrp6-LOF mutants. Moreover, maternal supplementation of a Wnt/β-catenin signaling agonist reduced the frequency and severity of spinal NTDs in Lrp6-LOF mutants by restoring Pax3 expression. Together, these results demonstrate the essential role of Lrp6-mediated Wnt/β-catenin signaling in PNP closure, which could also provide a therapeutic target for NTD intervention through manipulation of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling activities. Summary: Conditional ablation of Lrp6 in dorsal neural folds causes spinal neural tube defects that can be rescued by genetic activation of β-catenin or maternal supplementation of Wnt signaling agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Zhao
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Moira McMahon
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Kurt Reynolds
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Subbroto Kumar Saha
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Arjun Stokes
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Chengji J Zhou
- Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Northern California, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
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14
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Pax3 Hypomorphs Reveal Hidden Pax7 Functional Genetic Compensation in Utero. J Dev Biol 2022; 10:jdb10020019. [PMID: 35645295 PMCID: PMC9149870 DOI: 10.3390/jdb10020019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Pax3 and Pax7 transcription factors are paralogs within the Pax gene family that that are expressed in early embryos in partially overlapping expression domains and have distinct functions. Significantly, mammalian development is largely unaffected by Pax7 systemic deletion but systemic Pax3 deletion results in defects in neural tube closure, neural crest emigration, cardiac outflow tract septation, muscle hypoplasia and in utero lethality by E14. However, we previously demonstrated that Pax3 hypomorphs expressing only 20% functional Pax3 protein levels exhibit normal neural tube and heart development, but myogenesis is selectively impaired. To determine why only some Pax3-expressing cell lineages are affected and to further titrate Pax3 threshold levels required for neural tube and heart development, we generated hypomorphs containing both a hypomorphic and a null Pax3 allele. This resulted in mutants only expressing 10% functional Pax3 protein with exacerbated neural tube, neural crest and muscle defects, but still a normal heart. To examine why the cardiac neural crest appears resistant to very low Pax3 levels, we examined its paralog Pax7. Significantly, Pax7 expression is both ectopically expressed in Pax3-expressing dorsal neural tube cells and is also upregulated in the Pax3-expressing lineages. To test whether this compensatory Pax7 expression is functional, we deleted Pax7 both systemically and lineage-specifically in hypomorphs expressing only 10% Pax3. Removal of one Pax7 allele resulted in partial outflow tract defects, and complete loss of Pax7 resulted in full penetrance outflow tract defects and in utero lethality. Moreover, combinatorial loss of Pax3 and Pax7 resulted in severe craniofacial defects and a total block of neural crest cell emigration from the neural tube. Pax7Cre lineage mapping revealed ectopic labeling of Pax3-derived neural crest tissues and within the outflow tract of the heart, experimentally confirming the observation of ectopic activation of Pax7 in 10% Pax3 hypomorphs. Finally, genetic cell ablation of Pax7Cre-marked cells is sufficient to cause outflow tract defects in hypomorphs expressing only 10% Pax3, confirming that ectopic and induced Pax7 can play an overlapping functional genetic compensational role in both cardiac neural crest lineage and during craniofacial development, which is normally masked by the dominant role of Pax3.
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15
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Romero-Morales AI, Gama V. Revealing the Impact of Mitochondrial Fitness During Early Neural Development Using Human Brain Organoids. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:840265. [PMID: 35571368 PMCID: PMC9102998 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.840265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial homeostasis -including function, morphology, and inter-organelle communication- provides guidance to the intrinsic developmental programs of corticogenesis, while also being responsive to environmental and intercellular signals. Two- and three-dimensional platforms have become useful tools to interrogate the capacity of cells to generate neuronal and glia progeny in a background of metabolic dysregulation, but the mechanistic underpinnings underlying the role of mitochondria during human neurogenesis remain unexplored. Here we provide a concise overview of cortical development and the use of pluripotent stem cell models that have contributed to our understanding of mitochondrial and metabolic regulation of early human brain development. We finally discuss the effects of mitochondrial fitness dysregulation seen under stress conditions such as metabolic dysregulation, absence of developmental apoptosis, and hypoxia; and the avenues of research that can be explored with the use of brain organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vivian Gama
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt Center for Stem Cell Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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16
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Godden AM, Antonaci M, Ward NJ, van der Lee M, Abu-Daya A, Guille M, Wheeler GN. An efficient miRNA knockout approach using CRISPR-Cas9 in Xenopus. Dev Biol 2022; 483:66-75. [PMID: 34968443 PMCID: PMC8865746 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In recent years CRISPR-Cas9 knockouts (KO) have become increasingly ultilised to study gene function. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs, 20-22 nucleotides long, which affect gene expression through post-transcriptional repression. We previously identified miRNAs-196a and -219 as implicated in the development of Xenopus neural crest (NC). The NC is a multipotent stem-cell population, specified during early neurulation. Following EMT, NC cells migrate to various points in the developing embryo where they give rise to a number of tissues including parts of the peripheral nervous system, pigment cells and craniofacial skeleton. Dysregulation of NC development results in many diseases grouped under the term neurocristopathies. As miRNAs are so small, it is difficult to design CRISPR sgRNAs that reproducibly lead to a KO. We have therefore designed a novel approach using two guide RNAs to effectively 'drop out' a miRNA. We have knocked out miR-196a and miR-219 and compared the results to morpholino knockdowns (KD) of the same miRNAs. Validation of efficient CRISPR miRNA KO and phenotype analysis included use of whole-mount in situ hybridization of key NC and neural plate border markers such as Pax3, Xhe2, Sox10 and Snail2, q-RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. To show specificity we have also rescued the knockout phenotype using miRNA mimics. MiRNA-219 and miR-196a KO's both show loss of NC, altered neural plate and hatching gland phenotypes. Tadpoles show gross craniofacial and pigment phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice M Godden
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Antonaci
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole J Ward
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael van der Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Anita Abu-Daya
- King Henry Building, King Henry I St, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Guille
- King Henry Building, King Henry I St, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, United Kingdom
| | - Grant N Wheeler
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom.
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17
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Klein SL, Tavares ALP, Peterson M, Sullivan CH, Moody SA. Repressive Interactions Between Transcription Factors Separate Different Embryonic Ectodermal Domains. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:786052. [PMID: 35198557 PMCID: PMC8859430 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.786052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The embryonic ectoderm is composed of four domains: neural plate, neural crest, pre-placodal region (PPR) and epidermis. Their formation is initiated during early gastrulation by dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior gradients of signaling factors that first divide the embryonic ectoderm into neural and non-neural domains. Next, the neural crest and PPR domains arise, either via differential competence of the neural and non-neural ectoderm (binary competence model) or via interactions between the neural and non-neural ectoderm tissues to produce an intermediate neural border zone (NB) (border state model) that subsequently separates into neural crest and PPR. Many previous gain- and loss-of-function experiments demonstrate that numerous TFs are expressed in initially overlapping zones that gradually resolve into patterns that by late neurula stages are characteristic of each of the four domains. Several of these studies suggested that this is accomplished by a combination of repressive TF interactions and competence to respond to local signals. In this study, we ectopically expressed TFs that at neural plate stages are characteristic of one domain in a different domain to test whether they act cell autonomously as repressors. We found that almost all tested TFs caused reduced expression of the other TFs. At gastrulation these effects were strictly within the lineage-labeled cells, indicating that the effects were cell autonomous, i.e., due to TF interactions within individual cells. Analysis of previously published single cell RNAseq datasets showed that at the end of gastrulation, and continuing to neural tube closure stages, many ectodermal cells express TFs characteristic of more than one neural plate stage domain, indicating that different TFs have the opportunity to interact within the same cell. At neurula stages repression was observed both in the lineage-labeled cells and in adjacent cells not bearing detectable lineage label, suggesting that cell-to-cell signaling has begun to contribute to the separation of the domains. Together, these observations directly demonstrate previous suggestions in the literature that the segregation of embryonic ectodermal domains initially involves cell autonomous, repressive TF interactions within an individual cell followed by the subsequent advent of non-cell autonomous signaling to neighbors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Klein
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, D.C., DC, United States
| | - Andre L P Tavares
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, D.C., DC, United States
| | - Meredith Peterson
- Department of Biology, State College, Penn State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | | | - Sally A Moody
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, D.C., DC, United States
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18
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Caglar HO. Bioinformatics analysis of recurrent deletion regions in neuroblastoma. Med Oncol 2022; 39:31. [DOI: 10.1007/s12032-021-01639-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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19
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Nam MW, Kim CW, Choi KC. Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition-Inducing Factors Involved in the Progression of Lung Cancers. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2022; 30:213-220. [PMID: 35039464 PMCID: PMC9047489 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2021.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although there have been advances in cancer therapy and surgical improvement, lung cancer has the lowest survival rate (19%) at all stages. This is because most patients are diagnosed with concurrent metastasis, which occurs due to numerous related reasons. Especially, lung cancer is one of the most common and malignant cancers in the world. Although there are advanced therapeutic strategies, lung cancer remains one of the main causes of cancer death. Recent work has proposed that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the main cause of metastasis in most cases of human cancers including lung cancer. EMT involves the conversion of epithelial cells, wherein the cells lose their epithelial abilities and become mesenchymal cells involved in embryonic development, such as gastrulation and neural crest formation. In addition, recent research has indicated that EMT contributes to altering the cancer cells into cancer stem cells (CSCs). Although EMT is important in the developmental stages, this process also activates lung cancer progression, including complicated and diverse signaling pathways. Despite the numerous investigations on signaling pathways involved in the progression of lung cancer, this malignancy is considered critical for treatment. EMT in lung cancer involves many transcription factors and inducers, for example, Snail, TWIST, and ZEB are the master regulators of EMT. EMT-related factors and signaling pathways are involved in the progression of lung cancer, proposing new approaches to lung cancer therapy. In the current review, we highlight the signaling pathways implicated in lung cancer and elucidate the correlation of these pathways, indicating new insights to treat lung cancer and other malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Woo Nam
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Cho-Won Kim
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Chul Choi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
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20
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Shaping axial identity during human pluripotent stem cell differentiation to neural crest cells. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:499-511. [PMID: 35015077 PMCID: PMC9022984 DOI: 10.1042/bst20211152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) is a multipotent cell population which can give rise to a vast array of derivatives including neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, cartilage, cardiac smooth muscle, melanocytes and sympathoadrenal cells. An attractive strategy to model human NC development and associated birth defects as well as produce clinically relevant cell populations for regenerative medicine applications involves the in vitro generation of NC from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). However, in vivo, the potential of NC cells to generate distinct cell types is determined by their position along the anteroposterior (A–P) axis and, therefore the axial identity of hPSC-derived NC cells is an important aspect to consider. Recent advances in understanding the developmental origins of NC and the signalling pathways involved in its specification have aided the in vitro generation of human NC cells which are representative of various A–P positions. Here, we explore recent advances in methodologies of in vitro NC specification and axis patterning using hPSCs.
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21
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Ojiro R, Watanabe Y, Okano H, Takahashi Y, Takashima K, Tang Q, Ozawa S, Saito F, Akahori Y, Jin M, Yoshida T, Shibutani M. Gene expression profiles of multiple brain regions in rats differ between developmental and postpubertal exposure to valproic acid. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 42:864-882. [PMID: 34779009 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported that the valproic acid (VPA)-induced disruption pattern of hippocampal adult neurogenesis differs between developmental and 28-day postpubertal exposure. In the present study, we performed brain region-specific global gene expression profiling to compare the profiles of VPA-induced neurotoxicity between developmental and postpubertal exposure. Offspring exposed to VPA at 0, 667, and 2000 parts per million (ppm) via maternal drinking water from gestational day 6 until weaning (postnatal day 21) were examined, along with male rats orally administered VPA at 0, 200, and 900 mg/kg body weight for 28 days starting at 5 weeks old. Four brain regions-the hippocampal dentate gyrus, corpus callosum, cerebral cortex, and cerebellar vermis-were subjected to expression microarray analysis. Profiled data suggested a region-specific pattern of effects after developmental VPA exposure, and a common pattern of effects among brain regions after postpubertal VPA exposure. Developmental VPA exposure typically led to the altered expression of genes related to nervous system development (Msx1, Xcl1, Foxj1, Prdm16, C3, and Kif11) in the hippocampus, and those related to nervous system development (Neurod1) and gliogenesis (Notch1 and Sox9) in the corpus callosum. Postpubertal VPA exposure led to the altered expression of genes related to neuronal differentiation and projection (Cd47, Cyr61, Dbi, Adamts1, and Btg2) in multiple brain regions. These findings suggested that neurotoxic patterns of VPA might be different between developmental and postpubertal exposure, which was consistent with our previous study. Of note, the hippocampal dentate gyrus might be a sensitive target of developmental neurotoxicants after puberty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Ojiro
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yousuke Watanabe
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiromu Okano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasunori Takahashi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazumi Takashima
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Qian Tang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Ozawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fumiyo Saito
- Chemicals Assessment and Research Center, Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari-shi, Ehime, Japan
| | - Yumi Akahori
- Chemicals Assessment and Research Center, Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Meilan Jin
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Toshinori Yoshida
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Shibutani
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan.,Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, Japan
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22
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Palmer AJ, Savery D, Massa V, Copp AJ, Greene NDE. Genetic interaction of Pax3 mutation and canonical Wnt signaling modulates neural tube defects and neural crest abnormalities. Genesis 2021; 59:e23445. [PMID: 34490995 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Mouse models provide opportunities to investigate genetic interactions that cause or modify the frequency of neural tube defects (NTDs). Mutation of the PAX3 transcription factor prevents neural tube closure, leading to cranial and spinal NTDs whose frequency is responsive to folate status. Canonical Wnt signalling is implicated both in regulation of Pax3 expression and as a target of PAX3. This study investigated potential interactions of Pax3 mutation and canonical Wnt signalling using conditional gain- and loss-of-function models of β-catenin. We found an additive effect of β-catenin gain of function and Pax3 loss of function on NTDs and neural crest defects. β-catenin gain of function in the Pax3 expression domain led to significantly increased frequency of cranial but not spinal NTDs in embryos that are heterozygous for Pax3 mutation, while both cranial and spinal neural tube closure were exacerbated in Pax3 homozygotes. Similarly, deficits of migrating neural crest cells were exacerbated by β-catenin gain of function, with almost complete ablation of spinal neural crest cells and derivatives in Pax3 homozygous mutants. Pax3 expression was not affected by β-catenin gain of function, while we confirmed that loss of function led to reduced Pax3 transcription. In contrast to gain of function, β-catenin knockout in the Pax3 expression domain lowered the frequency of cranial NTDs in Pax3 null embryos. However, loss of function of β-catenin and Pax3 resulted in spinal NTDs, suggesting differential regulation of cranial and spinal neural tube closure. In summary, β-catenin function modulates the frequency of PAX3-related NTDs in the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra J Palmer
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dawn Savery
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Valentina Massa
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Copp
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas D E Greene
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Department, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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23
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Martik ML, Bronner ME. Riding the crest to get a head: neural crest evolution in vertebrates. Nat Rev Neurosci 2021; 22:616-626. [PMID: 34471282 PMCID: PMC10168595 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-021-00503-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In their seminal 1983 paper, Gans and Northcutt proposed that evolution of the vertebrate 'new head' was made possible by the advent of the neural crest and cranial placodes. The neural crest is a stem cell population that arises adjacent to the forming CNS and contributes to important cell types, including components of the peripheral nervous system and craniofacial skeleton and elements of the cardiovascular system. In the past few years, the new head hypothesis has been challenged by the discovery in invertebrate chordates of cells with some, but not all, characteristics of vertebrate neural crest cells. Here, we discuss recent findings regarding how neural crest cells may have evolved during the course of deuterostome evolution. The results suggest that there was progressive addition of cell types to the repertoire of neural crest derivatives throughout vertebrate evolution. Novel genomic tools have enabled higher resolution insight into neural crest evolution, from both a cellular and a gene regulatory perspective. Together, these data provide clues regarding the ancestral neural crest state and how the neural crest continues to evolve to contribute to the success of vertebrates as efficient predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L Martik
- Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Marianne E Bronner
- Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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24
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Zebrafish Cdx4 regulates neural crest cell specification and migratory behaviors in the posterior body. Dev Biol 2021; 480:25-38. [PMID: 34389276 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) is a transient multipotent cell population that migrates extensively to produce a remarkable array of vertebrate cell types. NC cell specification progresses in an anterior to posterior fashion, resulting in distinct, axial-restricted subpopulations. The anterior-most, cranial, population of NC is specified as gastrulation concludes and neurulation begins, while more posterior populations become specified as the body elongates. The mechanisms that govern development of the more posterior NC cells remain incompletely understood. Here, we report a key role for zebrafish Cdx4, a homeodomain transcription factor, in the development of posterior NC cells. We demonstrate that cdx4 is expressed in trunk NC cell progenitors, directly binds NC cell-specific enhancers in the NC GRN, and regulates expression of the key NC development gene foxd3 in the posterior body. Moreover, cdx4 mutants show disruptions to the segmental pattern of trunk NC cell migration due to loss of normal leader/follower cell dynamics. Finally, using cell transplantation to generate chimeric specimens, we show that Cdx4 does not function in the paraxial mesoderm-the environment adjacent to which crest migrates-to influence migratory behaviors. We conclude that cdx4 plays a critical, and likely tissue autonomous, role in the establishment of trunk NC migratory behaviors. Together, our results indicate that cdx4 functions as an early NC specifier gene in the posterior body of zebrafish embryos.
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25
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Alkobtawi M, Pla P, Monsoro-Burq AH. BMP signaling is enhanced intracellularly by FHL3 controlling WNT-dependent spatiotemporal emergence of the neural crest. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109289. [PMID: 34161771 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The spatiotemporal coordination of multiple morphogens is essential for embryonic patterning yet poorly understood. During neural crest (NC) formation, dynamic bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and WNT signals cooperate by acting on mesoderm and ectoderm. Here, we show that Fhl3, a scaffold LIM domain protein, modulates BMP gradient interpretation during NC induction. During gastrulation, low BMP signaling neuralizes the neural border (NB) ectoderm, while Fhl3 enhances Smad1 intracellular response in underlying paraxial mesoderm, triggering the high WNT8 signals needed to pattern the NB. During neurulation, fhl3 activation in NC ectoderm promotes simultaneous high BMP and BMP-dependent WNT activity required for specification. Mechanistically, Fhl3 interacts with Smad1 and promotes Smad1 binding to wnt8 promoter in a BMP-dependent manner. Consequently, differential Fhl3 expression in adjacent cells ensures a finely tuned coordination of BMP and WNT signaling at several stages of NC development, starting by positioning the NC-inducing mesoderm center under competent NB ectoderm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour Alkobtawi
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, F-91405 Orsay, France; Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, rue Henri Becquerel, F-91405 Orsay, France
| | - Patrick Pla
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, F-91405 Orsay, France; Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, rue Henri Becquerel, F-91405 Orsay, France
| | - Anne H Monsoro-Burq
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, F-91405 Orsay, France; Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, rue Henri Becquerel, F-91405 Orsay, France; Institut Universitaire de France, F-75005 Paris, France.
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26
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Wessely A, Steeb T, Berking C, Heppt MV. How Neural Crest Transcription Factors Contribute to Melanoma Heterogeneity, Cellular Plasticity, and Treatment Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115761. [PMID: 34071193 PMCID: PMC8198848 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma represents one of the deadliest types of skin cancer. The prognosis strongly depends on the disease stage, thus early detection is crucial. New therapies, including BRAF and MEK inhibitors and immunotherapies, have significantly improved the survival of patients in the last decade. However, intrinsic and acquired resistance is still a challenge. In this review, we discuss two major aspects that contribute to the aggressiveness of melanoma, namely, the embryonic origin of melanocytes and melanoma cells and cellular plasticity. First, we summarize the physiological function of epidermal melanocytes and their development from precursor cells that originate from the neural crest (NC). Next, we discuss the concepts of intratumoral heterogeneity, cellular plasticity, and phenotype switching that enable melanoma to adapt to changes in the tumor microenvironment and promote disease progression and drug resistance. Finally, we further dissect the connection of these two aspects by focusing on the transcriptional regulators MSX1, MITF, SOX10, PAX3, and FOXD3. These factors play a key role in NC initiation, NC cell migration, and melanocyte formation, and we discuss how they contribute to cellular plasticity and drug resistance in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Wessely
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (A.W.); (T.S.); (C.B.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Theresa Steeb
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (A.W.); (T.S.); (C.B.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Carola Berking
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (A.W.); (T.S.); (C.B.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Markus Vincent Heppt
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany; (A.W.); (T.S.); (C.B.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-European Metropolitan Area of Nuremberg (CCC ER-EMN), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-9131-85-35747
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27
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Artinger KB, Monsoro-Burq AH. Neural crest multipotency and specification: power and limits of single cell transcriptomic approaches. Fac Rev 2021; 10:38. [PMID: 34046642 PMCID: PMC8130411 DOI: 10.12703/r/10-38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural crest is a unique population of multipotent cells forming in vertebrate embryos. Their vast cell fate potential enables the generation of a diverse array of differentiated cell types in vivo. These include, among others, connective tissue, cartilage and bone of the face and skull, neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system (including enteric nervous system), and melanocytes. Following migration, these derivatives extensively populate multiple germ layers. Within the competent neural border ectoderm, an area located at the junction between the neural and non-neural ectoderm during embryonic development, neural crest cells form in response to a series of inductive secreted cues including BMP, Wnt, and FGF signals. As cells become progressively specified, they express transcriptional modules conducive with their stage of fate determination or cell state. Those sequential states include the neural border state, the premigratory neural crest state, the epithelium-to-mesenchyme transitional state, and the migratory state to end with post-migratory and differentiation states. However, despite the extensive knowledge accumulated over 150 years of neural crest biology, many key questions remain open, in particular the timing of neural crest lineage determination, the control of potency during early developmental stages, and the lineage relationships between different subpopulations of neural crest cells. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in understanding early neural crest formation using cutting-edge high-throughput single cell sequencing approaches. We will discuss how this new transcriptomic data, from 2017 to 2021, has advanced our knowledge of the steps in neural crest cell lineage commitment and specification, the mechanisms driving multipotency, and diversification. We will then discuss the questions that remain to be resolved and how these approaches may continue to unveil the biology of these fascinating cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin B Artinger
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado School of Dental Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Anne H Monsoro-Burq
- Université Paris-Saclay, Faculté des Sciences d'Orsay, France
- Institut Curie, INSERM U1021, CNRS UMR3347, Orsay, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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28
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Deal KK, Chandrashekar AS, Beaman MM, Branch MC, Buehler DP, Conway SJ, Southard-Smith EM. Altered sacral neural crest development in Pax3 spina bifida mutants underlies deficits of bladder innervation and function. Dev Biol 2021; 476:173-188. [PMID: 33839113 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mouse models of Spina bifida (SB) have been instrumental for identifying genes, developmental processes, and environmental factors that influence neurulation and neural tube closure. Beyond the prominent neural tube defects, other aspects of the nervous system can be affected in SB with significant changes in essential bodily functions such as urination. SB patients frequently experience bladder dysfunction and SB fetuses exhibit reduced density of bladder nerves and smooth muscle although the developmental origins of these deficits have not been determined. The Pax3 Splotch-delayed (Pax3Sp-d) mouse model of SB is one of a very few mouse SB models that survives to late stages of gestation. Through analysis of Pax3Sp-d mutants we sought to define how altered bladder innervation in SB might arise by tracing sacral neural crest (NC) development, pelvic ganglia neuronal differentiation, and assessing bladder nerve fiber density. In Pax3Sp-d/Sp-d fetal mice we observed delayed migration of Sox10+ NC-derived progenitors (NCPs), deficient pelvic ganglia neurogenesis, and reduced density of bladder wall innervation. We further combined NC-specific deletion of Pax3 with the constitutive Pax3Sp-d allele in an effort to generate viable Pax3 mutants to examine later stages of bladder innervation and postnatal bladder function. Neural crest specific deletion of a Pax3 flox allele, using a Sox10-cre driver, in combination with a constitutive Pax3Sp-d mutation produced postnatal viable offspring that exhibited altered bladder function as well as reduced bladder wall innervation and altered connectivity between accessory ganglia at the bladder neck. Combined, the results show that Pax3 plays critical roles within sacral NC that are essential for initiation of neurogenesis and differentiation of autonomic neurons within pelvic ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen K Deal
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | | | - Meagan C Branch
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Dennis P Buehler
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Simon J Conway
- HB Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - E Michelle Southard-Smith
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.
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29
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Hutchins EJ, Piacentino ML, Bronner ME. Transcriptomic Identification of Draxin-Responsive Targets During Cranial Neural Crest EMT. Front Physiol 2021; 12:624037. [PMID: 33613313 PMCID: PMC7886793 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.624037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Canonical Wnt signaling plays an essential role in proper craniofacial morphogenesis, at least partially due to regulation of various aspects of cranial neural crest development. In an effort to gain insight into the etiology of craniofacial abnormalities resulting from Wnt signaling and/or cranial neural crest dysfunction, we sought to identify Wnt-responsive targets during chick cranial neural crest development. To this end, we leveraged overexpression of a canonical Wnt antagonist, Draxin, in conjunction with RNA-sequencing of cranial neural crest cells that have just activated their epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) program. Through differential expression analysis, gene list functional annotation, hybridization chain reaction (HCR), and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), we validated a novel downstream target of canonical Wnt signaling in cranial neural crest - RHOB - and identified possible signaling pathway crosstalk underlying cranial neural crest migration. The results reveal novel putative targets of canonical Wnt signaling during cranial neural crest EMT and highlight important intersections across signaling pathways involved in craniofacial development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marianne E. Bronner
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
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30
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Perfetto M, Xu X, Lu C, Shi Y, Yousaf N, Li J, Yien YY, Wei S. The RNA helicase DDX3 induces neural crest by promoting AKT activity. Development 2021; 148:dev.184341. [PMID: 33318149 DOI: 10.1242/dev.184341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the RNA helicase DDX3 have emerged as a frequent cause of intellectual disability in humans. Because many individuals carrying DDX3 mutations have additional defects in craniofacial structures and other tissues containing neural crest (NC)-derived cells, we hypothesized that DDX3 is also important for NC development. Using Xenopus tropicalis as a model, we show that DDX3 is required for normal NC induction and craniofacial morphogenesis by regulating AKT kinase activity. Depletion of DDX3 decreases AKT activity and AKT-dependent inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3β, leading to reduced levels of β-catenin and Snai1: two GSK3β substrates that are crucial for NC induction. DDX3 function in regulating these downstream signaling events during NC induction is likely mediated by RAC1, a small GTPase whose translation depends on the RNA helicase activity of DDX3. These results suggest an evolutionarily conserved role of DDX3 in NC development by promoting AKT activity, and provide a potential mechanism for the NC-related birth defects displayed by individuals harboring mutations in DDX3 and its downstream effectors in this signaling cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Perfetto
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.,Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Xiaolu Xu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Congyu Lu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Yu Shi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Natasha Yousaf
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Jiejing Li
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Hospital of KMUST, Medical School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Yvette Y Yien
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Shuo Wei
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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31
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Chong-Morrison V, Sauka-Spengler T. The Cranial Neural Crest in a Multiomics Era. Front Physiol 2021; 12:634440. [PMID: 33732166 PMCID: PMC7956944 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.634440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural crest ontogeny plays a prominent role in craniofacial development. In this Perspective article, we discuss recent advances to the understanding of mechanisms underlying the cranial neural crest gene regulatory network (cNC-GRN) stemming from omics-based studies. We briefly summarize how parallel considerations of transcriptome, interactome, and epigenome data significantly elaborated the roles of key players derived from pre-omics era studies. Furthermore, the growing cohort of cNC multiomics data revealed contribution of the non-coding genomic landscape. As technological improvements are constantly being developed, we reflect on key questions we are poised to address by taking advantage of the unique perspective a multiomics approach has to offer.
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32
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Thawani A, Groves AK. Building the Border: Development of the Chordate Neural Plate Border Region and Its Derivatives. Front Physiol 2020; 11:608880. [PMID: 33364980 PMCID: PMC7750469 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.608880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The paired cranial sensory organs and peripheral nervous system of vertebrates arise from a thin strip of cells immediately adjacent to the developing neural plate. The neural plate border region comprises progenitors for four key populations of cells: neural plate cells, neural crest cells, the cranial placodes, and epidermis. Putative homologues of these neural plate border derivatives can be found in protochordates such as amphioxus and tunicates. In this review, we summarize key signaling pathways and transcription factors that regulate the inductive and patterning events at the neural plate border region that give rise to the neural crest and placodal lineages. Gene regulatory networks driven by signals from WNT, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling primarily dictate the formation of the crest and placodal lineages. We review these studies and discuss the potential of recent advances in spatio-temporal transcriptomic and epigenomic analyses that would allow a mechanistic understanding of how these signaling pathways and their downstream transcriptional cascades regulate the formation of the neural plate border region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Thawani
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Andrew K Groves
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States.,Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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33
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Seal S, Monsoro-Burq AH. Insights Into the Early Gene Regulatory Network Controlling Neural Crest and Placode Fate Choices at the Neural Border. Front Physiol 2020; 11:608812. [PMID: 33324244 PMCID: PMC7726110 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.608812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) cells and cranial placodes are two ectoderm-derived innovations in vertebrates that led to the acquisition of a complex head structure required for a predatory lifestyle. They both originate from the neural border (NB), a portion of the ectoderm located between the neural plate (NP), and the lateral non-neural ectoderm. The NC gives rise to a vast array of tissues and cell types such as peripheral neurons and glial cells, melanocytes, secretory cells, and cranial skeletal and connective cells. Together with cells derived from the cranial placodes, which contribute to sensory organs in the head, the NC also forms the cranial sensory ganglia. Multiple in vivo studies in different model systems have uncovered the signaling pathways and genetic factors that govern the positioning, development, and differentiation of these tissues. In this literature review, we give an overview of NC and placode development, focusing on the early gene regulatory network that controls the formation of the NB during early embryonic stages, and later dictates the choice between the NC and placode progenitor fates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subham Seal
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, Orsay, France.,Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Anne H Monsoro-Burq
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, Orsay, France.,Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, Orsay Cedex, France.,Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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34
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George RM, Maldonado-Velez G, Firulli AB. The heart of the neural crest: cardiac neural crest cells in development and regeneration. Development 2020; 147:147/20/dev188706. [PMID: 33060096 DOI: 10.1242/dev.188706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac neural crest cells (cNCCs) are a migratory cell population that stem from the cranial portion of the neural tube. They undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and migrate through the developing embryo to give rise to portions of the outflow tract, the valves and the arteries of the heart. Recent lineage-tracing experiments in chick and zebrafish embryos have shown that cNCCs can also give rise to mature cardiomyocytes. These cNCC-derived cardiomyocytes appear to be required for the successful repair and regeneration of injured zebrafish hearts. In addition, recent work examining the response to cardiac injury in the mammalian heart has suggested that cNCC-derived cardiomyocytes are involved in the repair/regeneration mechanism. However, the molecular signature of the adult cardiomyocytes involved in this repair is unclear. In this Review, we examine the origin, migration and fates of cNCCs. We also review the contribution of cNCCs to mature cardiomyocytes in fish, chick and mice, as well as their role in the regeneration of the adult heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajani M George
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
| | - Gabriel Maldonado-Velez
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
| | - Anthony B Firulli
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W. Walnut St., Indianapolis, IN 46202-5225, USA
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35
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Garland MA, Sun B, Zhang S, Reynolds K, Ji Y, Zhou CJ. Role of epigenetics and miRNAs in orofacial clefts. Birth Defects Res 2020; 112:1635-1659. [PMID: 32926553 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Orofacial clefts (OFCs) have multiple etiologies and likely result from an interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Within the last decade, studies have implicated specific epigenetic modifications and noncoding RNAs as additional facets of OFC etiology. Altered gene expression through DNA methylation and histone modification offer novel insights into how specific genes contribute to distinct OFC subtypes. Epigenetics research has also provided further evidence that cleft lip only (CLO) is a cleft subtype with distinct etiology. Polymorphisms or misexpression of genes encoding microRNAs, as well as their targets, contribute to OFC risk. The ability to experimentally manipulate epigenetic changes and noncoding RNAs in animal models, such as zebrafish, Xenopus, mice, and rats, has offered novel insights into the mechanisms of various OFC subtypes. Although much remains to be understood, recent advancements in our understanding of OFC etiology may advise future strategies of research and preventive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Garland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Bo Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Shuwen Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Kurt Reynolds
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Yu Ji
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Chengji J Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine of Shriners Hospitals for Children, University of California at Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA.,Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (BMCDB) graduate group, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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36
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Marquez J, Criscione J, Charney RM, Prasad MS, Hwang WY, Mis EK, García-Castro MI, Khokha MK. Disrupted ER membrane protein complex-mediated topogenesis drives congenital neural crest defects. J Clin Invest 2020; 130:813-826. [PMID: 31904590 DOI: 10.1172/jci129308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Multipass membrane proteins have a myriad of functions, including transduction of cell-cell signals, ion transport, and photoreception. Insertion of these proteins into the membrane depends on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein complex (EMC). Recently, birth defects have been observed in patients with variants in the gene encoding a member of this complex, EMC1. Patient phenotypes include congenital heart disease, craniofacial malformations, and neurodevelopmental disease. However, a molecular connection between EMC1 and these birth defects is lacking. Using Xenopus, we identified defects in neural crest cells (NCCs) upon emc1 depletion. We then used unbiased proteomics and discovered a critical role for emc1 in WNT signaling. Consistent with this, readouts of WNT signaling and Frizzled (Fzd) levels were reduced in emc1-depleted embryos, while NCC defects could be rescued with β-catenin. Interestingly, other transmembrane proteins were mislocalized upon emc1 depletion, providing insight into additional patient phenotypes. To translate our findings back to humans, we found that EMC1 was necessary for human NCC development in vitro. Finally, we tested patient variants in our Xenopus model and found the majority to be loss-of-function alleles. Our findings define molecular mechanisms whereby EMC1 dysfunction causes disease phenotypes through dysfunctional multipass membrane protein topogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Marquez
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - June Criscione
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Rebekah M Charney
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Maneeshi S Prasad
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Woong Y Hwang
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Emily K Mis
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Martín I García-Castro
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Mustafa K Khokha
- Pediatric Genomics Discovery Program, Department of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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37
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Neilson KM, Keer S, Bousquet N, Macrorie O, Majumdar HD, Kenyon KL, Alfandari D, Moody SA. Mcrs1 interacts with Six1 to influence early craniofacial and otic development. Dev Biol 2020; 467:39-50. [PMID: 32891623 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The Six1 transcription factor plays a major role in craniofacial development. Mutations in SIX1 and its co-factor, EYA1, are causative for about 50% of Branchio-otic/Branchio-oto-renal syndrome (BOR) patients, who are characterized by variable craniofacial, otic and renal malformations. We previously screened for other proteins that might interact with Six1 to identify additional genes that may play a role in BOR, and herein characterize the developmental role of one of them, Microspherule protein 1 (Mcrs1). We found that in cultured cells, Mcrs1 bound to Six1 and in both cultured cells and embryonic ectoderm reduced Six1-Eya1 transcriptional activation. Knock-down of Mcrs1 in embryos caused an expansion of the domains of neural plate genes and two genes expressed in both the neural plate and neural crest (zic1, zic2). In contrast, two other genes expressed in pre-migratory neural crest (foxd3, sox9) were primarily reduced. Cranial placode genes showed a mixture of expanded and diminished expression domains. At larval stages, loss of Mcrs1 resulted in a significant reduction of otic vesicle gene expression concomitant with a smaller otic vesicle volume. Experimentally increasing Mcrs1 above endogenous levels favored the expansion of neural border and neural crest gene domains over cranial placode genes; it also reduced otic vesicle gene expression but not otic vesicle volume. Co-expression of Mcrs1 and Six1 as well as double knock-down and rescue experiments establish a functional interaction between Mcrs1 and Six1 in the embryo, and demonstrate that this interaction has an important role in the development of craniofacial tissues including the otic vesicle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Neilson
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Stephanie Keer
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Nicole Bousquet
- Department of Animal Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Olivia Macrorie
- Department of Animal Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Himani D Majumdar
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kristy L Kenyon
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY, USA
| | | | - Sally A Moody
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA.
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38
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Dash S, Trainor PA. The development, patterning and evolution of neural crest cell differentiation into cartilage and bone. Bone 2020; 137:115409. [PMID: 32417535 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2020.115409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neural crest cells are a vertebrate-specific migratory, multipotent cell population that give rise to a diverse array of cells and tissues during development. Cranial neural crest cells, in particular, generate cartilage, bone, tendons and connective tissue in the head and face as well as neurons, glia and melanocytes. In this review, we focus on the chondrogenic and osteogenic potential of cranial neural crest cells and discuss the roles of Sox9, Runx2 and Msx1/2 transcription factors and WNT, FGF and TGFβ signaling pathways in regulating neural crest cell differentiation into cartilage and bone. We also describe cranioskeletal defects and disorders arising from gain or loss-of-function of genes that are required for patterning and differentiation of cranial neural crest cells. Finally, we discuss the evolution of skeletogenic potential in neural crest cells and their function as a conduit for intraspecies and interspecies variation, and the evolution of craniofacial novelties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Dash
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Paul A Trainor
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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Cell fate decisions during the development of the peripheral nervous system in the vertebrate head. Curr Top Dev Biol 2020; 139:127-167. [PMID: 32450959 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Sensory placodes and neural crest cells are among the key cell populations that facilitated the emergence and diversification of vertebrates throughout evolution. Together, they generate the sensory nervous system in the head: both form the cranial sensory ganglia, while placodal cells make major contributions to the sense organs-the eye, ear and olfactory epithelium. Both are instrumental for integrating craniofacial organs and have been key to drive the concentration of sensory structures in the vertebrate head allowing the emergence of active and predatory life forms. Whereas the gene regulatory networks that control neural crest cell development have been studied extensively, the signals and downstream transcriptional events that regulate placode formation and diversity are only beginning to be uncovered. Both cell populations are derived from the embryonic ectoderm, which also generates the central nervous system and the epidermis, and recent evidence suggests that their initial specification involves a common molecular mechanism before definitive neural, neural crest and placodal lineages are established. In this review, we will first discuss the transcriptional networks that pattern the embryonic ectoderm and establish these three cell fates with emphasis on sensory placodes. Second, we will focus on how sensory placode precursors diversify using the specification of otic-epibranchial progenitors and their segregation as an example.
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40
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Scerbo P, Monsoro-Burq AH. The vertebrate-specific VENTX/NANOG gene empowers neural crest with ectomesenchyme potential. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaaz1469. [PMID: 32494672 PMCID: PMC7190326 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaz1469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
During Cambrian, unipotent progenitors located at the neural (plate) border (NB) of an Olfactoria chordate embryo acquired the competence to form ectomesenchyme, pigment cells and neurons, initiating the rise of the multipotent neural crest cells (NC) specific to vertebrates. Surprisingly, the known vertebrate NB/NC transcriptional circuitry is a constrained feature also found in invertebrates. Therefore, evidence for vertebrate-specific innovations endowing vertebrate NC with multipotency is still missing. Here, we identified VENTX/NANOG and POU5/OCT4 as vertebrate-specific innovations. When VENTX was depleted in vivo and in directly-induced NC, the NC lost its early multipotent state and its skeletogenic potential, but kept sensory neuron and pigment identity, thus reminiscent of invertebrate NB precursors. In vivo, VENTX gain-of-function enabled NB specifiers to reprogram embryonic non-neural ectoderm towards early NC identity. We propose that skeletogenic NC evolved by acquiring VENTX/NANOG activity, promoting a novel multipotent progenitor regulatory state into the pre-existing sensory neuron/pigment NB program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierluigi Scerbo
- Univ. Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Centre Universitaire, 15, rue Georges Clémenceau, F-91405 Orsay, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, F-91405 Orsay, France
| | - Anne H. Monsoro-Burq
- Univ. Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Centre Universitaire, 15, rue Georges Clémenceau, F-91405 Orsay, France
- Institut Curie Research Division, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 3347, INSERM U1021, F-91405 Orsay, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, F-75005 Paris, France
- Corresponding author.
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Shah AM, Krohn P, Baxi AB, Tavares ALP, Sullivan CH, Chillakuru YR, Majumdar HD, Neilson KM, Moody SA. Six1 proteins with human branchio-oto-renal mutations differentially affect cranial gene expression and otic development. Dis Model Mech 2020; 13:dmm043489. [PMID: 31980437 PMCID: PMC7063838 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.043489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Single-nucleotide mutations in human SIX1 result in amino acid substitutions in either the protein-protein interaction domain or the homeodomain, and cause ∼4% of branchio-otic (BOS) and branchio-oto-renal (BOR) cases. The phenotypic variation between patients with the same mutation, even within affected members of the same family, make it difficult to functionally distinguish between the different SIX1 mutations. We made four of the BOS/BOR substitutions in the Xenopus Six1 protein (V17E, R110W, W122R, Y129C), which is 100% identical to human in both the protein-protein interaction domain and the homeodomain, and expressed them in embryos to determine whether they cause differential changes in early craniofacial gene expression, otic gene expression or otic morphology. We confirmed that, similar to the human mutants, all four mutant Xenopus Six1 proteins access the nucleus but are transcriptionally deficient. Analysis of craniofacial gene expression showed that each mutant causes specific, often different and highly variable disruptions in the size of the domains of neural border zone, neural crest and pre-placodal ectoderm genes. Each mutant also had differential effects on genes that pattern the otic vesicle. Assessment of the tadpole inner ear demonstrated that while the auditory and vestibular structures formed, the volume of the otic cartilaginous capsule, otoliths, lumen and a subset of the hair cell-containing sensory patches were reduced. This detailed description of the effects of BOS/BOR-associated SIX1 mutations in the embryo indicates that each causes subtle changes in gene expression in the embryonic ectoderm and otocyst, leading to inner ear morphological anomalies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita M Shah
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Patrick Krohn
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- Institute of Zoology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart 70599, Germany
| | - Aparna B Baxi
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Andre L P Tavares
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Charles H Sullivan
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
- Department of Biology, Grinnell College, Grinnell, IA 50112, USA
| | - Yeshwant R Chillakuru
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Himani D Majumdar
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Karen M Neilson
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Sally A Moody
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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Cerrizuela S, Vega-Lopez GA, Aybar MJ. The role of teratogens in neural crest development. Birth Defects Res 2020; 112:584-632. [PMID: 31926062 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The neural crest (NC), discovered by Wilhelm His 150 years ago, gives rise to a multipotent migratory embryonic cell population that generates a remarkably diverse and important array of cell types during the development of the vertebrate embryo. These cells originate in the neural plate border (NPB), which is the ectoderm between the neural plate and the epidermis. They give rise to the neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, melanocytes, chondrocytes, smooth muscle cells, odontoblasts and neuroendocrine cells, among others. Neurocristopathies are a class of congenital diseases resulting from the abnormal induction, specification, migration, differentiation or death of NC cells (NCCs) during embryonic development and have an important medical and societal impact. In general, congenital defects affect an appreciable percentage of newborns worldwide. Some of these defects are caused by teratogens, which are agents that negatively impact the formation of tissues and organs during development. In this review, we will discuss the teratogens linked to the development of many birth defects, with a strong focus on those that specifically affect the development of the NC, thereby producing neurocristopathies. Although increasing attention is being paid to the effect of teratogens on embryonic development in general, there is a strong need to critically evaluate the specific role of these agents in NC development. Therefore, increased understanding of the role of these factors in NC development will contribute to the planning of strategies aimed at the prevention and treatment of human neurocristopathies, whose etiology was previously not considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Cerrizuela
- Área Biología Experimental, Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO, CONICET-UNT), Tucumán, Argentina.,Instituto de Biología "Dr. Francisco D. Barbieri", Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Guillermo A Vega-Lopez
- Área Biología Experimental, Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO, CONICET-UNT), Tucumán, Argentina.,Instituto de Biología "Dr. Francisco D. Barbieri", Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Manuel J Aybar
- Área Biología Experimental, Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO, CONICET-UNT), Tucumán, Argentina.,Instituto de Biología "Dr. Francisco D. Barbieri", Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
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43
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Pegge J, Tatsinkam AJ, Rider CC, Bell E. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans regulate BMP signalling during neural crest induction. Dev Biol 2019; 460:108-114. [PMID: 31883440 PMCID: PMC7196931 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling is key to many developmental processes, including early regionalisation of the ectoderm. The neural crest is induced here by a combination of BMP and Wnt signals from nearby tissues with many secreted factors contributing to its initial specification at the neural plate border. Gremlin 1 (Grem1) is a secreted BMP antagonist expressed in the neural crest in Xenopus laevis but its function here is unknown. As well as binding BMPs, Grem1 has been shown to interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), a family of cell surface macromolecules that regulate a diverse array of signalling molecules by affecting their availability and mode of action. This study describes the impact of HSPGs on the function of Grem1 in neural crest induction. It shows for the first time that Grem1 is required for neural crest development in a two-step process comprising an early HSPG-independent, followed by a late HSPG-dependent phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Pegge
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Arnold Junior Tatsinkam
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Christopher C Rider
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Esther Bell
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London, SE1 1UL, UK.
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Britton G, Heemskerk I, Hodge R, Qutub AA, Warmflash A. A novel self-organizing embryonic stem cell system reveals signaling logic underlying the patterning of human ectoderm. Development 2019; 146:dev.179093. [PMID: 31519692 DOI: 10.1242/dev.179093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
During development, the ectoderm is patterned by a combination of BMP and WNT signaling. Research in model organisms has provided substantial insight into this process; however, there are currently no systems in which to study ectodermal patterning in humans. Further, the complexity of neural plate border specification has made it difficult to transition from discovering the genes involved to deeper mechanistic understanding. Here, we develop an in vitro model of human ectodermal patterning, in which human embryonic stem cells self-organize to form robust and quantitatively reproducible patterns corresponding to the complete medial-lateral axis of the embryonic ectoderm. Using this platform, we show that the duration of endogenous WNT signaling is a crucial control parameter, and that cells sense relative levels of BMP and WNT signaling in making fate decisions. These insights allowed us to develop an improved protocol for placodal differentiation. Thus, our platform is a powerful tool for studying human ectoderm patterning and for improving directed differentiation protocols.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Britton
- Systems Synthetic and Physical Biology Program, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Idse Heemskerk
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Rachel Hodge
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Amina A Qutub
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Aryeh Warmflash
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA .,Department of Bioengineering, Rice University Houston, Houston, TX 77005, USA
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45
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Angelopoulou E, Paudel YN, Piperi C. Emerging Pathogenic and Prognostic Significance of Paired Box 3 (PAX3) Protein in Adult Gliomas. Transl Oncol 2019; 12:1357-1363. [PMID: 31352198 PMCID: PMC6664158 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2019.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas present the most common type of brain tumors in adults, characterized by high morbidity and mortality. In search of potential molecular targets, members of paired box (PAX) family have been found expressed in neural crest cells, regulating their proliferation, apoptosis, migration and differentiation. Recently, PAX3 overexpression has been implicated in glioma tumorigenesis by enhancing proliferation, increasing invasiveness and inducing resistance to apoptosis of glioma cells, while maintaining brain glioma stem cells (BGSCs) stemness. Although the oncogenic potential of PAX3 in gliomas is still under investigation, experimental evidence suggests that PAX3 function is mainly mediated through the canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway as well as through its interaction with GFAP and p53 proteins. In addition, PAX3 may contribute to the chemoresistance of glioma cells and modulates the effectiveness of novel experimental therapies. Further evidence indicates that PAX3 may represent a novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for gliomas, facilitating personalized treatment. This review addresses the emerging role of PAX3 in glioma diagnosis, prognosis and treatment, aiming to shed more light on the underlying molecular mechanisms that could lead to more effective treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efthalia Angelopoulou
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Yam Nath Paudel
- Neuropharmacology Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Christina Piperi
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
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46
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Torroglosa A, Villalba-Benito L, Luzón-Toro B, Fernández RM, Antiñolo G, Borrego S. Epigenetic Mechanisms in Hirschsprung Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20133123. [PMID: 31247956 PMCID: PMC6650840 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20133123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hirschsprung disease (HSCR, OMIM 142623) is due to a failure of enteric precursor cells derived from neural crest (EPCs) to proliferate, migrate, survive or differentiate during Enteric Nervous System (ENS) formation. This is a complex process which requires a strict regulation that results in an ENS specific gene expression pattern. Alterations at this level lead to the onset of neurocristopathies such as HSCR. Gene expression is regulated by different mechanisms, such as DNA modifications (at the epigenetic level), transcriptional mechanisms (transcription factors, silencers, enhancers and repressors), postranscriptional mechanisms (3′UTR and ncRNA) and regulation of translation. All these mechanisms are finally implicated in cell signaling to determine the migration, proliferation, differentiation and survival processes for correct ENS development. In this review, we have performed an overview on the role of epigenetic mechanisms at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels on these cellular events in neural crest cells (NCCs), ENS development, as well as in HSCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Torroglosa
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Leticia Villalba-Benito
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Berta Luzón-Toro
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Raquel María Fernández
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Guillermo Antiñolo
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
| | - Salud Borrego
- Department of Maternofetal Medicine, Genetics and Reproduction, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBIS), University Hospital Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain.
- Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), 41013 Seville, Spain.
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47
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Lasser M, Pratt B, Monahan C, Kim SW, Lowery LA. The Many Faces of Xenopus: Xenopus laevis as a Model System to Study Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome. Front Physiol 2019; 10:817. [PMID: 31297068 PMCID: PMC6607408 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome (WHS) is a rare developmental disorder characterized by intellectual disability and various physical malformations including craniofacial, skeletal, and cardiac defects. These phenotypes, as they involve structures that are derived from the cranial neural crest, suggest that WHS may be associated with abnormalities in neural crest cell (NCC) migration. This syndrome is linked with assorted mutations on the short arm of chromosome 4, most notably the microdeletion of a critical genomic region containing several candidate genes. However, the function of these genes during embryonic development, as well as the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the disorder, are still unknown. The model organism Xenopus laevis offers a number of advantages for studying WHS. With the Xenopus genome sequenced, genetic manipulation strategies can be readily designed in order to alter the dosage of the WHS candidate genes. Moreover, a variety of assays are available for use in Xenopus to examine how manipulation of WHS genes leads to changes in the development of tissue and organ systems affected in WHS. In this review article, we highlight the benefits of using X. laevis as a model system for studying human genetic disorders of development, with a focus on WHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Lasser
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Benjamin Pratt
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Connor Monahan
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Seung Woo Kim
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Laura Anne Lowery
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
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48
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Polevoy H, Gutkovich YE, Michaelov A, Volovik Y, Elkouby YM, Frank D. New roles for Wnt and BMP signaling in neural anteroposterior patterning. EMBO Rep 2019; 20:embr.201845842. [PMID: 30936121 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201845842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
During amphibian development, neural patterning occurs via a two-step process. Spemann's organizer secretes BMP antagonists that induce anterior neural tissue. A subsequent caudalizing step re-specifies anterior fated cells to posterior fates such as hindbrain and spinal cord. The neural patterning paradigm suggests that a canonical Wnt-signaling gradient acts along the anteroposterior axis to pattern the nervous system. Wnt activity is highest in the posterior, inducing spinal cord, at intermediate levels in the trunk, inducing hindbrain, and is lowest in anterior fated forebrain, while BMP-antagonist levels are constant along the axis. Our results in Xenopus laevis challenge this paradigm. We find that inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling or its downstream transcription factors eliminates hindbrain, but not spinal cord fates, an observation not compatible with a simple high-to-low Wnt gradient specifying all fates along the neural anteroposterior axis. Additionally, we find that BMP activity promotes posterior spinal cord cell fate formation in an FGF-dependent manner, while inhibiting hindbrain fates. These results suggest a need to re-evaluate the paradigms of neural anteroposterior pattern formation during vertebrate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Polevoy
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yoni E Gutkovich
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ariel Michaelov
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yael Volovik
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yaniv M Elkouby
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dale Frank
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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49
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Frank D, Sela-Donenfeld D. Hindbrain induction and patterning during early vertebrate development. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:941-960. [PMID: 30519881 PMCID: PMC11105337 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2974-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The hindbrain is a key relay hub of the central nervous system (CNS), linking the bilaterally symmetric half-sides of lower and upper CNS centers via an extensive network of neural pathways. Dedicated neural assemblies within the hindbrain control many physiological processes, including respiration, blood pressure, motor coordination and different sensations. During early development, the hindbrain forms metameric segmented units known as rhombomeres along the antero-posterior (AP) axis of the nervous system. These compartmentalized units are highly conserved during vertebrate evolution and act as the template for adult brainstem structure and function. TALE and HOX homeodomain family transcription factors play a key role in the initial induction of the hindbrain and its specification into rhombomeric cell fate identities along the AP axis. Signaling pathways, such as canonical-Wnt, FGF and retinoic acid, play multiple roles to initially induce the hindbrain and regulate Hox gene-family expression to control rhombomeric identity. Additional transcription factors including Krox20, Kreisler and others act both upstream and downstream to Hox genes, modulating their expression and protein activity. In this review, we will examine the earliest embryonic signaling pathways that induce the hindbrain and subsequent rhombomeric segmentation via Hox and other gene expression. We will examine how these signaling pathways and transcription factors interact to activate downstream targets that organize the segmented AP pattern of the embryonic vertebrate hindbrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale Frank
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, The Rappaport Family Institute for Research in the Medical Sciences, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 31096, Haifa, Israel.
| | - Dalit Sela-Donenfeld
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100, Rehovot, Israel.
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50
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Serrano F, Bernard WG, Granata A, Iyer D, Steventon B, Kim M, Vallier L, Gambardella L, Sinha S. A Novel Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neural Crest Model of Treacher Collins Syndrome Shows Defects in Cell Death and Migration. Stem Cells Dev 2019; 28:81-100. [PMID: 30375284 PMCID: PMC6350417 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2017.0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) is a transient multipotent cell population present during embryonic development. The NC can give rise to multiple cell types and is involved in a number of different diseases. Therefore, the development of new strategies to model NC in vitro enables investigations into the mechanisms involved in NC development and disease. In this study, we report a simple and efficient protocol to differentiate human pluripotent stem cells (HPSC) into NC using a chemically defined media, with basic fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and the transforming growth factor-β inhibitor SB-431542. The cell population generated expresses a range of NC markers, including P75, TWIST1, SOX10, and TFAP2A. NC purification was achieved in vitro through serial passaging of the population, recreating the developmental stages of NC differentiation. The generated NC cells are highly proliferative, capable of differentiating to their derivatives in vitro and engraft in vivo to NC specific locations. In addition, these cells could be frozen for storage and thawed with no loss of NC properties, nor the ability to generate cellular derivatives. We assessed the potential of the derived NC population to model the neurocristopathy, Treacher Collins Syndrome (TCS), using small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of TCOF1 and by creating different TCOF1+/- HPSC lines through CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The NC cells derived from TCOF1+/- HPSC recapitulate the phenotype of the reported TCS murine model. We also report for the first time an impairment of migration in TCOF1+/- NC and mesenchymal stem cells. In conclusion, the developed protocol permits the generation of the large number of NC cells required for developmental studies, disease modeling, and for drug discovery platforms in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Serrano
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - William George Bernard
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandra Granata
- Division of Clinical Neurosciences, Clifford Allbutt Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dharini Iyer
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ben Steventon
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Kim
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ludovic Vallier
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Laure Gambardella
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Sanjay Sinha
- Anne McLaren Laboratory, Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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