Toxic potential of paracetamol to freshwater organisms: a headache to environmental regulators?

Effects of acetaminophen exposure on behavior and erythrocyte nuclear morphology of juvenile Oreochromis niloticus

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment can have undesirable effects on nontarget animals, including fish. The present experiment assessed the effects of subchronic exposure to waterborne acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol) (APAP) on selected behavioral aspects (physical avoidance response, ventilation rate, and food detection rate) and erythrocyte nuclear abnormality (ENA) in juvenile Oreochromis niloticus. Two groups of fish were exposed to APAP dissolved in aged municipal water (T1: 2 mg/L and T2: 10 mg/L) for 8 weeks in three replicates (n = 7 fish per tank), alongside a control group (C) without APAP. APAP-exposed fish spent significantly (p < .05) longer time to detect food (T1: 32.6 ± 4.55 s and T2: 39.6 ± 4.66 s) compared to the control group (19.9 ± 2.46 s). Both APAP-exposed groups exhibited attenuated physical avoidance responses (76.7%, 68.7%, and 87.3% in T1, T2, and C, respectively) and a lower mean ventilation rate compared to the control group (194.5 ± 15.5, 179.1 ± 11.6, and 233.2 ± 19.0 per min in T1, T2, and C, respectively). The frequency occurrence of ENA types such as bi-nucleated, notched nuclei, lobed nuclei, and blebbed nuclei (except micronuclei) was significantly higher (p < .05) in APAP-exposed groups compared to the control, with more pronounced effects in the T2 group. The study concludes that APAP exposure prompts significant alterations in behavior and erythrocyte nuclear morphology, emphasizing the value of monitoring and regulating the entry of pharmaceuticals, including APAP, into aquatic environments to prevent unintended effects on non-target organisms like Oreochromis niloticus.

Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Ecotoxicological Impacts and the Use of Agro-Industrial Waste for Their Removal from Aquatic Environments

Medicines are pharmaceutical substances used to treat, prevent, or relieve symptoms of different diseases in animals and humans. However, their large-scale production and use worldwide cause their release to the environment. Pharmaceutical molecules are currently considered emerging pollutants that enter water bodies due to inadequate management, affecting water quality and generating adverse effects on aquatic organisms. Hence, different alternatives for pharmaceuticals removal from water have been sought; among them, the use of agro-industrial wastes has been proposed, mainly because of its high availability and low cost. This review highlights the adverse ecotoxicological effects related to the presence of different pharmaceuticals on aquatic environments and analyzes 94 investigations, from 2012 to 2024, on the removal of 17 antibiotics, highlighting sulfamethoxazole as the most reported, as well as 6 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as diclofenac and ibuprofen, and 27 pharmaceutical drugs with different pharmacological activities. The removal of these drugs was evaluated using agro-industrial wastes such as wheat straw, mung bean husk, bagasse, bamboo, olive stones, rice straw, pinewood, rice husk, among others. On average, 60% of the agro-industrial wastes were transformed into biochar to be used as a biosorbents for pharmaceuticals removal. The diversity in experimental conditions among the removal studies makes it difficult to stablish which agro-industrial waste has the greatest removal capacity; therefore, in this review, the drug mass removal rate (DMRR) was calculated, a parameter used with comparative purposes. Almond shell-activated biochar showed the highest removal rate for antibiotics (1940 mg/g·h), while cork powder (CP) (10,420 mg/g·h) showed the highest for NSAIDs. Therefore, scientific evidence demonstrates that agro-industrial waste is a promising alternative for the removal of emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals substances.

A Novel Method for the Assessment of Feeding Rate as a Phenotypic Endpoint for the Impact of Pollutants in Daphnids

Traditional approaches for monitoring aquatic pollution primarily rely on chemical analysis and the detection of pollutants in the aqueous environments. However, these methods lack realism and mechanistic insight and, thus, are increasingly supported by effect-based methods, which offer sensitive endpoints. In this context, daphnids, a freshwater species used extensively in molecular ecotoxicology, offer fast and noninvasive approaches to assess the impact of pollutants. Among the phenotypic endpoints used, feeding rate is a highly sensitive approach because it provides evidence of physiological alterations even in sublethal concentrations. However, there has been no standardized method for measuring feeding rate in daphnids, and several approaches follow different protocols. There is a diversity among tests employing large volumes, extensive incubation times, and high animal densities, which in turn utilize measurements of algae via fluorescence, radiolabeling, or counting ingested cells. These tests are challenging and laborious and sometimes require cumbersome instrumentation. In the present study, we optimized the conditions of a miniaturized fast, sensitive, and high-throughput assay to assess the feeding rate based on the ingestion of fluorescent microparticles. The protocol was optimized in neonates in relation to the concentration of microplastic and the number of animals to increase reproducibility. Daphnids, following exposures to nonlethal concentrations, were incubated with microplastics; and, as filter feeders, they ingest microparticles. The new approach revealed differences in the physiology of daphnids in concentrations below the toxicity limits for a range of pollutants of different modes of action, thus proving feeding to be a more sensitive and noninvasive endpoint in pollution assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2211-2221. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Assessing the pharmaceutical residues as hotspots of the main rivers of Catalonia, Spain

The global increase in pharmaceutical consumption, driven by factors such as aging populations and chronic diseases, has raised concerns regarding the environmental impact of pharmaceutical contaminants. Europe, and more specifically Catalonia (Spain), exhibits high pharmaceutical consumption rates, potentially exacerbating environmental contamination. Pharmaceuticals enter rivers through various pathways, persisting after wastewater treatment plants and posing risks to aquatic organisms and human health. Llobregat and Besòs Rivers in Catalonia, crucial water sources, demonstrate detectable pharmaceutical levels, necessitating comprehensive analysis. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) proves effective in detecting pharmaceutical residues, facilitating their risk assessment. This paper reviews the occurrence, fate, and risks associated with 78 pharmaceuticals and metabolite in Llobregat and Besòs Rivers, using LC-MS/MS for analysis. Understanding pharmaceutical impacts on Catalonian River ecosystems is essential for developing mitigation strategies.

Ecologically sustainable removal of pharmaceuticals: A mechanistic study of bismuth sulfide-graphene oxide/silver nanocomposite

Bismuth sulfide nanoparticles (BiS NPs) were synthesized via the hydrothermal method, and reduced graphene oxide(rGO) and silver nanoparticles (Ag), which acted as substrates, have prepared using the chemical reduction method. The synthesized nanoparticles have been characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. Commercially available paracetamol-500 mg (PAM) and aspirin-300 mg (ASP) were selected for photodegradation under visible light using the as-prepared composites in an aqueous solution. Photoluminescence spectroscopy was used to detect PAM and ASP using the photo-excited electron transfer (PET) process, and the limit of detection (LOD) has obtained for PAM(8.70 ppm) and ASP(4.43 ppm) with a sensitivity of 0.9954 and 0.8002, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to analyze the before and after degradation products and to confirm the disintegrated products such as -COOH and -CH- both before and after disintegration.. The experimental data were found to fit well with the Freundlich isotherm, suggesting that the as-prepared nanocomposites exhibited a heterogeneous nature for PAM (5119 mg/L), and the pseudo-first-order kinetic model suggests ASP (1030 mg/L) with R2 values of 0.9119 and 0.7075. The risk assessment analysis of PAM was 9.823 μg/L(RQ > 1) and that of ASP was 0.2106 μg/L(RQ < 1), indicating that PAM has a higher potential risk than ASP. The demographic data of the participants indicated that PAM was the most stockpiled medicine at home; this work also encompasses the action of a single PAM and ASP tablet toward the environment, if it is accidently disposed of improperly could create massive water/soil pollution; hence, the care/duty of each person should follow the proper disposal of medical waste because we cannot replace this environment.

Effect of paracetamol on the storage cells of Hypsibius exemplaris—ultrastructural analysis

Tardigrades in their natural environment are exposed to various environmental toxicants, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or antipyretics such as paracetamol. This drug can enter the animal’s body through the body wall or the digestive system with food and can affect the biology of organisms. In this paper, we report for the first time the effects of paracetamol on tardigrade storage cells. We analyzed the effects of short-term (7 days) and long-term (28 days) exposure of Hypsibius exemplaris storage cells to three paracetamol concentrations (0.2 µgxL−1, 230 µgxL−1, 1 mgxL−1). Our results showed that increasing paracetamol concentration and incubation time increases the number of damaged mitochondria in storage cells, and autophagy is activated and intensified. Moreover, the relocation of some organelles and cell deformation may indicate cytoskeleton damage.

Tracing COVID-19 drugs in the environment: Are we focusing on the right environmental compartment?

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to over 770 million confirmed cases, straining public healthcare systems and necessitating extensive and prolonged use of synthetic chemical drugs around the globe for medical treatment and symptom relief. Concerns have arisen regarding the massive release of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites into the environment, particularly through domestic sewage. While discussions surrounding this issue have primarily centered on their discharge into aquatic environments, particularly through treated effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), one often overlooked aspect is the terrestrial environment as a significant receptor of pharmaceutical-laden waste. This occurs through the disposal of sewage sludge, for instance, by applying biosolids to land or non-compliant disposal of sewage sludge, in addition to the routine disposal of expired and unused medications in municipal solid wastes. In this article, we surveyed sixteen approved pharmaceuticals for treating COVID-19 and bacterial co-infections, along with their primary metabolites. For this, we delved into their physiochemical properties, ecological toxicities, environmental persistence, and fate within municipal WWTPs. Emphasis was given on lipophilic substances with log Kow >3.0, which are more likely to be found in sewage sludge at significant factions (25.2%-75.0%) of their inputs in raw sewage and subsequently enter the terrestrial environment through land application of biosolids, e.g., 43% in the United States and as high as 96% in Ireland or non-compliant practices of sewage sludge disposal in developing communities, such as open dumping and land application without prior anaerobic digestion. The available evidence underscores the importance of adequately treating and disposing of sewage sludge before its final disposal or land application in an epidemic or pandemic scenario, as mismanaged sewage sludge could be a significant vector for releasing pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites into the terrestrial environment.

Effects of haloperidol on peripheral erythrocytes and brain neurotransmitter levels of juvenile African Sharptooth Catfish Clarias gariepinus

OBJECTIVE

The study investigated the effects of haloperidol on peripheral erythrocytes and brain neurotransmitter levels of juvenile African Sharptooth Catfish Clarias gariepinus.

METHODS

Juveniles were exposed to different concentrations of haloperidol (0.12, 0.24, and 0.48 mg/L) for 15 days and subsequently withdrawn from the drug for 5 days. Blood samples from the fish on days 1, 5, 10, and 15 and after the 5-day withdrawal period were analyzed for mutagenic changes, after which the fish were sacrificed. The brain was sampled for serotonergic and dopaminergic analyses.

RESULT

There was formation of micronuclei in the peripheral fish blood, which increased as the duration and concentrations of the drug increased. The drug significantly reduced the serotonin activity but increased dopamine activity. Some of the studied parameters, however, recovered from the effects of the drug after the 5-day withdrawal period.

CONCLUSION

Haloperidol is toxic to fish, and its use in the environment should be guarded to avoid adverse impacts on nontarget species like fish.

Tracking contaminants of concern in wet-weather sanitary sewer overflows

Four representative sites in the greater city of Sydney, Australia, were selected for a study of the wet-weather overflow of sanitary (separate to stormwater) sewerage systems. Water samples were collected by autosamplers from up to eight wet weather overflow events over 16 months and from companion receiving water sites. The objective was to identify the risks posed by sewage contaminants to aquatic biota in the receiving waters, to aid in prioritising management actions. Twelve organic contaminants were identified in influents across the four sites under rainfall ingress diluted conditions, with measurements showing that the highest concentrations were restricted to the anti-inflammatory acetaminophen and the diabetes medication metformin. Lesser contaminants included theobromine, ibuprofen, sucralose, and three benzotriazoles (mainly 1-H benzotriazole). An assessment of the toxicity of the identified organic chemicals indicated that none appeared to pose concerns for ecosystem health before wet-weather ingress dilution, and this was even less likely after dilution in the receiving waters. Metal concentrations were low; however, ammonia concentrations in the influent did pose a risk to ecosystem health, although receiving water dilution diminished this risk at four of the five receiving water locations studied.

Deep Eutectic Solvent-Assisted Synthesis of a Strontium Tungstate Bifunctional Catalyst: Investigation on the Electrocatalytic Determination and Photocatalytic Degradation of Acetaminophen and Metformin Drugs

In this work, we propose a modified solid-state approach for the sustainable preparation of a SrWO₄ bifunctional catalyst using thymol-menthol-based natural deep eutectic green solvents (NADESs). Various spectroscopic and morphological techniques analyzed the as-synthesized SrWO₄ particles. Acetaminophen (ATP) and metformin (MTF) were selected as the model drug compounds. The electrochemical detection and photocatalytic degradation of ATP and MTF upon ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) light irradiation in the presence of as-prepared SrWO₄ particles as an active catalyst are examined. The present study displayed that the proposed catalyst SrWO₄ has enhanced catalytic activity in achieving the optimum experimental conditions, and linear ranges of ATP = 0.01-25.90 μM and MTF = 0.01-25.90 μM, a lower limit of detection (LOD) value (ATP = 0.0031 μM and MTF = 0.008 μM), and higher sensitivity toward ATP and MTF determination were obtained. Similarly, the rate constant was found to be k = ATP = 0.0082 min^-1 and MTF = 0.0296 min^-1 according to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood model, benefitting from the excellent synergistic impact of the SrWO₄ catalyst toward the photocatalytic degradation of the drug molecule. Hence, this work offers innovative insights into the applicability of the as-prepared SrWO₄ bifunctional catalyst as an excellent functional material for the remediation of emerging pollutants in water bodies with a recovery range of 98.2-99.75%.

Paracetamol ecotoxicological bioassay using the bioindicators Lens culinaris Med. and Pisum sativum L

Paracetamol is one of the most widely used drugs worldwide, yet its environmental presence and hazardous impact on non-target organisms could rapidly increase. In this study, the possible cytotoxic effects of paracetamol were evaluated using two bioindicator plants Lens culinaris and Pisum sativum. Concentrations of 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 50, 25, 5, 1 mg L-1, and a control (distilled water) were used for a total of 10 treatments, which were subsequently applied on seeds of Lens culinaris Med. and Pisum sativum L.; after 72 h of exposure, root growth, mitotic index, percentage of chromosomal abnormalities, and the presence of micronucleus were evaluated. The cytotoxic effect of paracetamol on L. culinaris and P. sativum was demonstrated, reporting the inhibition of root growth, the presence of abnormalities, and a significant micronucleus index at all concentrations used, which shows that this drug has a high degree of toxicity.

Acetaminophen induced antioxidant and detoxification responses in a stygobitic crustacean

A variety of veterinary and human medicinal products (VHMPs) are found in groundwater, an often-neglected habitat inhabited by species with unique traits, stygobitic species. It is crucial to understand the effect of VHMPs on stygobitic species because they may respond differently to stressors than surface species. Our hypothesis is that groundwater species may be more susceptible to environmental contaminants due to less plasticity in their detoxification response and acquisition of energy because subterranean habitats are more stable and isolated from anthropogenic activities. We performed a battery of biomarkers associated with important physiological functions on the stygobitic asellid crustacean Proasellus lusitanicus, after a 14-day exposure to acetaminophen, a commonly used pharmaceutical and pollutant of groundwaters. Our results show an decrease in total glutathione levels and an increase in glutathione S-transferase activity, suggesting a successful detoxification response. This helps explaining why acetaminophen did not cause oxidative damage, as well as had no effect cholinesterase activity nor in aerobic production of energy. This study shows the remarkable capacity of P. lusitanicus to tolerate sublethal concentrations of VHMP acetaminophen. Most ecotoxicological studies on stygobitic species focused on the lethal effects of these compound. The present study focus on consequences at sublethal concentrations. Future studies should assess the stress levels induced to better predict and estimate the impacts of contaminants on groundwater ecosystems.

Comparative effect of mesoporous carbon doping on the adsorption of pharmaceutical drugs in water: Theoretical calculations and mechanism study

In this study, mesoporous doped-carbons were synthesized from sucrose, a natural source, boric acid and cyanamide as precursors, generating B- or N-doped carbon. These materials were characterized by FTIR, XRD, TGA, Raman, SEM, TEM, BET, and XPS, confirming the preparation of a tridimensional doped porous structure. B-MPC and N-MPC showed a high surface specific area above 1000 m²/g. The effect of B and N doping on mesoporous carbon was evaluated on the adsorption of emerging pollutants from water. Diclofenac sodium and paracetamol were used in adsorption assays, reaching removal capacities of 78 and 101 mg.g^-1, respectively. Kinetic and isothermal studies indicate the chemical nature of adsorption controlled by external and intraparticle diffusion and multilayer formation due to strong adsorbent/adsorbate interactions. DFT-based calculations and adsorption assays infer that the main attractive forces are hydrogen bonds and Lewis acid-base interactions.

Occurrences of UV filters, endocrine disruptive chemicals, alkyl phenolic compounds, fragrances, and hormones in the wastewater and coastal waters of the Antarctica

We present a simplified status description of the prevalence and occurrences of organic micropollutants including endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDCs), therapeutic drugs, hormones, fragrances and ultraviolet (UV) filters in the wastewaters and the adjacent coastal oceans in the Northern and Southern Antarctica. Different treatment technologies adopted in the research stations and their efficacy in removing pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are reviewed. Till date, 56 PPCPs are reported in the wastewaters of Antarctic research stations, and 23 in the adjacent coastal waters and sea ice. The reported concentrations in the wastewaters are at the levels of μg L^-1 for UV filters, plasticizer Bisphenol A, metabolites, antibiotics, alkyl phenolic compounds, and stimulants. Concentrations in the coastal waters and sea ice are two orders of magnitude lower than the wastewaters because of dilution and degradation. It is apparent however, that the PPCP-laden effluents discharged from the research stations contaminate them. If left unchecked, pollution of the coastal waters and sea-ice can lead to toxic levels. Through this review, we have established widespread occurrence of PPCPs in the polar coastal oceans; this study will also provide the status quo for the researchers and policymakers to seriously consider the issue and initiate remedial action in the near future. The existing substantial gaps in understanding of the impact of PPCPs on the flora and fauna of Antarctica, and the ineffectiveness of the current treatment technologies adopted by the research stations are highly evident. Future-oriented polar research should focus on protecting the pristine ecosystem by utilizing climate-sensitive, cost-effective treatment technologies.

Freshwater crustacean exposed to active pharmaceutical ingredients: ecotoxicological effects and mechanisms

Concerns over the ecotoxicological effects of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) on aquatic invertebrates have been raised in the last decade. While numerous studies have reported the toxicity of APIs in invertebrates, no attempt has been made to synthesize and interpret this dataset in terms of different exposure scenarios (acute, chronic, multigenerational), multiple crustacean species, and the toxic mechanisms. In this study, a thorough literature review was performed to summarize the ecotoxicological data of APIs tested on a range of invertebrates. Therapeutic classes including antidepressants, anti-infectives, antineoplastic agents, hormonal contraceptives, immunosuppressants, and neuro-active drugs exhibited higher toxicity to crustaceans than other API groups. The species sensitivity towards APIs exposure is compared in D. magna and other crustacean species. In the case of acute and chronic bioassays, ecotoxicological studies mainly focus on the apical endpoints including growth and reproduction, whereas sex ratio and molting frequency are commonly used for evaluating the substances with endocrine-disrupting properties. The multigenerational and "Omics" studies, primarily transcriptomics and metabolomics, were confined to a few API groups including beta-blocking agents, blood lipid-lowing agents, neuroactive agents, anticancer drugs, and synthetic hormones. We emphasize that in-depth studies on the multigenerational effects and the toxic mechanisms of APIs on the endocrine systems of freshwater crustacean are warranted.

Presence and toxicity of drugs used to treat SARS-CoV-2 in Llobregat River, Catalonia, Spain

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a strain of coronavirus that causes COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), the respiratory illness responsible for the on-going COVID-19 pandemic. In March 2020, it was declared global pandemic, causing millions of deaths. An evident tendency of global pharmaceutical consumption due to COVID-19 pandemic should be seen worldwide, and this increase might suppose an environmental threat. Pharmaceuticals administrated at home or in pharmacies are excreted by faeces and urine after consumption, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not able to remove all pharmaceuticals residues that eventually will end up in the aquatic media (rivers and sea). For this reason, analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) have become prominent to identify and quantify pharmaceuticals residues in aquatic matrices. In view of the scarce data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals used as COVID-19 treatment, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the presence of these class of pharmaceuticals in river water which were dexamethasone, prednisone, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, remdesivir, ritonavir, lopinavir, acetaminophen, hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine and cloperastine, their toxicity in the aquatic environment using D. magna and to perform an exhaustive risk assessment in seven points of the Llobregat river basin. Dexamethasone, cloperastine and acetaminophen were the pharmaceuticals with higher concentrations, showing mean levels between 313 and 859 ng L-1.

Fate and effects of microplastics in combination with pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors in freshwaters: Insights from a microcosm experiment

Microplastic contamination of freshwater ecosystems has become an increasing environmental concern. To advance the hazard assessment of microplastics, we conducted a microcosm experiment in which we exposed a simplified aquatic ecosystem consisting of moss and caddisflies to microplastics (polyethylene, polystyrene and polypropylene) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (1H-benzotriazole, bisphenol A, caffeine, gemfibrozil, ketoprofen, methylparaben, estriol, diphenhydramine, tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate) over the course of 60 days. We monitored the flux of microplastics within the microcosm, as well as the metabolic and total protein variation of organisms. This study offers evidence highlighting the capacity of moss to act as a sink for free-floating microplastics in freshwater environments. Moss is also shown to serve as a source and pathway for microplastic particles to enter aquatic food webs via caddisflies feeding off of the moss. Although most ingested microparticles were eliminated between caddisflies life stages, a small fraction of microplastics was transferred from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystem by emergence. While moss exhibited a mild response to microplastic stress, caddisflies ingesting microplastics showed stress comparable to that caused by exposure to pharmaceuticals. The molecular responses that the stressors triggered were tentatively identified and related to phenotypic responses, such as the delayed development manifested through the delayed emergence of caddisflies exposed to stress. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the adverse effects of microplastics on aquatic species, compares the impacts of microplastics on freshwater biota to those of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds, and demonstrates the role aquatic organisms have in redistributing microplastics between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

First report on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in the coastal waters of Santa Catarina, Brazil, and its related ecological risk assessment

The worldwide occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic ecosystems is reason for public concern. These emerging micropollutants include a large and diverse group of organic compounds, with continuous input, high environmental persistence and potential threat to biota and human health. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the occurrence of twenty-seven PPCPs of various therapeutic classes (including cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine), in the coastal waters of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Water samples were taken in November 2020, during the low tide periods, at eight sampling points located along the coast of Santa Catarina, covering its entire geographical extension. Sampling was carried out in triplicate and at different depths of the water column. Nine compounds were detected through liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS): caffeine (12.58-119.80 ng/L), diclofenac (1.34-7.92 ng/L), atenolol (1.13-2.50 ng/L), losartan (0.43-3.20 ng/L), acetaminophen (0.21-10.04 ng/L), orphenadrine (0.07-0.09 ng/L), cocaine (0.02-0.17 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (0.01-1.1 ng/L) and carbamazepine (0.02-0.27 ng/L). The highest occurrence of these compounds was detected in the northern and central coastal region of Santa Catarina, namely in Penha and Palhoça cities. Moreover, the risk assessment showed that almost compounds (atenolol, benzoylecgonine, carbamazepine, cocaine and orphenadrine) presented no ecological risk in the recorded concentrations. However, a few compounds suggest low (caffeine and diclofenac) to moderate (acetaminophen and losartan) risk taking into consideration the acute and chronic effects for the three trophic levels (algae, crustacean and fish) tested. These compounds are usually found in areas with high population density, aggravated by tourism, because of the sanitary sewage and solid waste. Although in low concentrations, the occurrence of these chemical compounds can imply deleterious effects on the environmental health of Santa Catarina coastal zone, and therefore deserve more attention by the public authorities and environmental agencies.

Ecotoxicological Consequences of the Abatement of Contaminants of Emerging Concern by Ozonation—Does Mixture Complexity Matter?

Ozonation has been used to degrade persistent water contaminants, namely, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). However, ozonation can lead to by-products that can be more toxic than the parent compounds. This work aims to assess whether the ecotoxicological effects of ozonation are modified as the initial matrix being treated increases in complexity, considering mixtures of 2, 3, 4 and 5 PPCPs. The following PPCPs were used: two parabens (metylparaben (MP) and propylparaben (PP)), paracetamol (PCT), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and carbamazepine (CBZ). The following model species were used to assess toxicity: the crustacean Daphnia magna, the microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata, the macrophyte Lemna minor and the watercress Lepidium sativum. There was a trend of increased toxicity with increasing mixture complexity of the untreated samples, except for D. magna. The same was observed after ozonation with the exception of the mixture MP+PP, which showed high toxicity to all the tested species, namely 100% immobilization of D. magna. The toxicity of SMX to the primary producers decreased pronouncedly after ozonation, except for L. minor. This study highlights the importance of considering the complexity of the matrix being treated and of using an ecotoxicological test battery with a wide diversity of species for assessing ozonation efficiency.

Effects of Extracellular Self- and Nonself-DNA on the Freshwater Microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and on the Marine Microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana

The role of extracellular DNA (exDNA) in soil and aquatic environments was mainly discussed in terms of source of mineral nutrients and of genetic material for horizontal gene transfer. Recently, the self-exDNA (conspecific) has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on the growth of that organism, while the same was not evident for nonself-exDNA (non conspecific). The inhibitory effect of self-exDNA was proposed as a universal phenomenon, although evidence is mainly reported for terrestrial species. The current study showed the inhibitory effect of self-exDNA also on photosynthetic aquatic microorganisms. We showed that self-exDNA inhibits the growth of the microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Nannochloropsis gaditana, a freshwater and a marine species, respectively. In addition, the study also revealed the phenotypic effects post self-exDNA treatments. Indeed, Chlamydomonas showed the formation of peculiar heteromorphic aggregates of palmelloid cells embedded in an extracellular matrix, favored by the presence of DNA in the environment, that is not revealed after exposure to nonself-exDNA. The differential effect of self and nonself-exDNA on both microalgae, accompanied by the inhibitory growth effect of self-exDNA are the first pieces of evidence provided for species from aquatic environments.

Assessment of Paracetamol Toxic Effects under Varying Seawater pH Conditions on the Marine Polychaete Hediste diversicolor Using Biochemical Endpoints

Simple Summary

Context of climate change is being widely studied, nevertheless its effects in the toxicity of other contaminants have been poorly study. Particularly, the effects of ocean acidification on the modulation of pharmaceutical absorption and consequent effects, have not been extensively addressed before. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of ocean acidification (specifically pH values of 8.2, 7.9, and 7.6) combined with paracetamol exposure (0, 30, 60, and 120 µg/L) on the polychaeta Hediste diversicolor. To do so, specific biomarkers were measured namely (CAT), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, as well as thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), were quantified to serve as ecotoxicological endpoints. Alterations of CAT, and GSTs activities, and TBARS levels indicate an alteration in redox balances. Differences in exposed pH levels indicate the possible modulation of the absorption of this pharmaceutical in ocean acidifications scenarios. Alterations in AChE were only observed following paracetamol exposure, not being altered by media pH. Hereby obtained results suggest that seawater acidification is detrimental to marine wildlife, since it may enhance toxic effects caused by environmental realistic concentrations of pharmaceuticals. This work is crucial to understand the potential effects of pharmaceuticals in a climate change scenario.

Abstract

Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels are likely to lower ocean pH values, after its dissolution in seawater. Additionally, pharmaceuticals drugs are environmental stressors due to their intrinsic properties and worldwide occurrence. It is thus of the utmost importance to assess the combined effects of pH decreases and pharmaceutical contamination, considering that their absorption (and effects) are likely to be strongly affected by changes in oceanic pH. To attain this goal, individuals of the marine polychaete Hediste diversicolor were exposed to distinct pH levels (8.2, 7.9, and 7.6) and environmentally relevant concentrations of the acidic drug paracetamol (PAR: 0, 30, 60, and 120 µg/L). Biomarkers such as catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, as well as peroxidative damage (through thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) quantification), were quantified to serve as ecotoxicological endpoints. Data showed a general increase in CAT and a decrease in GST activities (with significant fluctuations according to the tested conditions of PAR and pH). These changes are likely to be associated with alterations of the redox cycle driven by PAR exposure. In addition, pH levels seemed to condition the toxicity caused by PAR, suggesting that the toxic effects of this drug were in some cases enhanced by more acidic conditions. An inhibition of AChE was observed in animals exposed to the highest concentration of PAR, regardless of the pH value. Moreover, no lipid peroxidation was observed in most individuals, although a significant increase in TBARS levels was observed for polychaetes exposed to the lowest pH. Finally, no alterations of COX activities were recorded on polychaetes exposed to PAR, regardless of the pH level. The obtained results suggest that seawater acidification is detrimental to marine wildlife, since it may enhance toxic effects caused by environmental realistic concentrations of acidic drugs, such as PAR. This work was crucial to evidence that ocean acidification, in the context of a global change scenario of increased levels of both atmospheric and oceanic CO₂, is a key factor in understanding the putative enhanced toxicity of most pharmaceutical drugs that are of an acidic nature.

A multi-biomarker approach for the early assessment of the toxicity of hospital wastewater using the freshwater organism Daphnia magna

Hospital wastewater (HWW) contains different hazardous substances resulting from a combination of medical and non-medical activities of hospitals, including pharmaceutical residues. These substances may represent a threat to the aquatic environment if they do not follow specific treatment processes. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the effects of the untreated effluent collected from a general hospital in Mahdia City (Tunisia) on neonatal stages of the freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna. Test organisms were exposed to three proportions (3.12%, 6.25%, and 12.5% v/v) of HWW. After 48 h of exposure, a battery of biomarkers was measured, including the quantification of antioxidant enzymes [catalase (CAT) and total and selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (total GPx; Se-GPx)], phase II biotransformation isoenzymes glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), cyclooxygenases (COX) involved in the regulation of the inflammatory process, and total cholinesterases (ChEs) activities. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) was measured to estimate oxidative damage. The here-obtained results showed significant decreases of CAT and GSTs activities and also on LPO content in daphnids, whereas Se-GPx activity was significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner. Impairment of cholinesterasic and COX activities were also observed, with a significant decrease of ChEs and an increase of COX enzymatic activities. Considering these findings, HWW was capable of inducing an imbalance of the antioxidant defense system, but without resulting in oxidative damage in test organisms, suggesting that peroxidases and alternative detoxifying pathways were able to prevent the oxidant potential of several drugs, which were found in the tested effluents. In general, this study demonstrated the toxicity of hospital effluents, measured in terms of the potential impairment of key pathways, namely neurotransmission, antioxidant defense, and inflammatory homeostasis of crustaceans.

Teratogenic effects induced by paracetamol, ciprofloxacin, and their mixture on Danio rerio embryos: Oxidative stress implications

Even though the toxic effects of paracetamol (PCM) and ciprofloxacin (CPX) have been deeply studied in the last decades, the impact of the PCM-CPX mixture may induce in aquatic organisms is poorly known. Thus, the objective of this work was to investigate the teratogenic effects and oxidative stress that PCM, CPX, and their mixture induce in Danio rerio embryos. Moreover, we aimed to determine whether the PCM-CPX mixture induces more severe effects on the embryos than the individual drugs. For this purpose, zebrafish embryos (4 hpf) were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of PCM, CPX, and their mixture until 96 hpf. In addition, at 72 hpf and 96 hpf, we also evaluated the oxidative stress biomarkers (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, lipid peroxidation, and hydroperoxides and carbonyl content) in the embryos. Our results demonstrated that PCM, CPX, and their mixture reduced the survival rate of embryos by up to 75%. In addition, both drugs, induced morphological alterations in the embryos, causing their death. The most observed malformations were: scoliosis, craniofacial malformations, hypopigmentation, growth retardation, pericardial edema. Concerning oxidative stress, our integrated biomarkers response (IBR) analysis demonstrated that PCM, CPX, and their mixture induce oxidative damage on the embryos. In conclusion, PCM, CPX, and their mixture can alter zebrafish embryonic development via an oxidative stress response.

Remediation of pharmaceuticals from contaminated water by molecularly imprinted polymers: a review

The release of pharmaceuticals into the environment induces adverse effects on the metabolism of humans and other living species, calling for advanced remediation methods. Conventional removal methods are often non-selective and cause secondary contamination. These issues may be partly solved by the use of recently-developped adsorbents such as molecularly imprinted polymers. Here we review the synthesis and application of molecularly imprinted polymers for removing pharmaceuticals in water. Molecularly imprinted polymers are synthesized via several multiple-step polymerization methods. Molecularly imprinted polymers are potent adsorbents at the laboratory scale, yet their efficiency is limited by template leakage and polymer quality. Adsorption performance of multi-templated molecularly imprinted polymers depends on the design of wastewater treatment plants, pharmaceutical consumption patterns and the population serviced by these wastewater treatment plants.

Pharmaceuticals Removal by Adsorption with Montmorillonite Nanoclay

The problem of purifying domestic and hospital wastewater from pharmaceutical compounds is becoming more and more urgent every year, because of the continuous accumulation of chemical pollutants in the environment and the limited availability of freshwater resources. Clay adsorbents have been repeatedly proposed as adsorbents for treatment purposes, but natural clays are hydrophilic and can be inefficient for catching hydrophobic pharmaceuticals. In this paper, a comparison of adsorption properties of pristine montmorillonite (MMT) and montmorillonite modified with stearyl trimethyl ammonium (hydrophobic MMT-STA) towards carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and paracetamol pharmaceuticals was performed. The efficiency of adsorption was investigated under varying solution pH, temperature, contact time, initial concentration of pharmaceuticals, and adsorbate/adsorbent mass ratio. MMT-STA was better than pristine MMT at removing all the pharmaceuticals studied. The adsorption capacity of hydrophobic montmorillonite to pharmaceuticals decreased in the following order: carbamazepine (97%) > ibuprofen (95%) > paracetamol (63-67%). Adsorption isotherms were best described by Freundlich model. Within the pharmaceutical concentration range of 10-50 µg/mL, the most optimal mass ratio of adsorbates to adsorbents was 1:300, pH 6, and a temperature of 25 °C. Thus, MMT-STA could be used as an efficient adsorbent for deconta×ating water of carbamazepine, ibuprofen, and paracetamol.

Dangerous connections: biochemical and behavioral traits in Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina exposed to ecologically relevant amounts of paracetamol

Exposure of nontarget organisms to therapeutic agents can cause distinct toxic effects, even at low concentrations. Paracetamol is a painkiller drug, widely used in human and veterinary therapies, being frequently found in the aquatic compartment in considerable amounts. Its toxicity has already been established for some species, but its full ecotoxicological potential is still not sufficiently described. To characterize the ecotoxicity of paracetamol, the present study evaluated several parameters, such as acute immobilization (EC₅₀ calculation), biochemical alterations, and behavioral effects, in two species of freshwater microcrustaceans of the genus Daphnia (D. magna and D. longispina). To increase the relevance of the data obtained, animals were exposed to levels of paracetamol similar to those already reported to occur in the wild. Data showed antioxidant responses in both species, namely an increase of catalase and GSTs activities in D. magna. On the contrary, effects of paracetamol on D. longispina included only an impairment of GSTs activity. Despite the absence of anticholinesterasic effects, behavioral modifications were also observed. This set of data indicates that realistic levels of paracetamol may trigger the activation of the antioxidant defense system of freshwater crustaceans, causing changes in behavioral traits (increase in swimming time, but with a reduction in swimming distance) of unknown etiology that are likely to affect normal life traits of wild populations.

Nano-adsorbents an effective candidate for removal of toxic pharmaceutical compounds from aqueous environment: A critical review on emerging trends

Advancements in medical research has resulted in the modernization of healthcare facilities, subsequently leading to a higher level of production and usage of pharmaceuticals to sustain better quality of life. Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) possess high genotoxicity and eco-toxicity thus presenting numerous side effects to living beings on long-term exposure. The fate and toxicity of PhACs were explored in detail, aiming to elucidate their occurrence and transmission in wastewater treatment systems (WWTPs). Adsorption of pharmaceutical compounds using Nano-adsorbents has gained momentum in recent years owing to their low-cost, high surface area and effectiveness. This review has been conducted in order to widen the utilization of Nano adsorbents in the adsorption of pharmaceutical compounds with a focus on the aqueous environment. The synthesis routes and properties of Nano-adsorbents for removal of PhACs were assessed in a comprehensive way. The recovery and reuse ability of nano-adsorbents also forms an integral part of its application in the removal of PhACs and has hence been delineated.

Effects of paracetamol on the polychaete Hediste diversicolor: occurrence of oxidative stress, cyclooxygenase inhibition and behavioural alterations

Pharmaceuticals are significant environmental stressors, since they are utilized around the world; they are usually released in to the aquatic system without adequate treatment and several non-target species can be harmed because of their intrinsic properties. Paracetamol is one of the most widely prescribed analgesics in human medical care. Consequently, this compound is systematically reported to occur in the wild, where it may exert toxic effects on non-target species, which are mostly uncharacterized so far. The objective of the present work was to assess the acute (control, 5, 25, 125, 625 and 3125 μg/L) and chronic (control, 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 μg/L) effects of paracetamol on behavioural endpoints, as well as on selected oxidative stress biomarkers [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GRed)] and the anti-inflammatory activity biomarker cyclooxygenase (COX), in the polychaete Hediste diversicolor (Annelida: Polychaeta). Exposure to paracetamol caused effects on behavioural traits, with increased burrowing time (96 h) and hypoactivity (28 days). In addition, exposure to paracetamol resulted also in significant increases of SOD activity, but only for intermediate levels of exposure, but for both acute and chronic exposures. Both forms of GPx had their activities significantly increased, especially after chronic exposure. Acutely exposed organisms had their GRed significantly decreased, while chronically exposed worms had their GRed activity augmented only for the lowest tested concentrations. Effects were also observed in terms of COX activity, showing that paracetamol absorption occurred and caused an inhibition of COX activity in both exposure regimes. It is possible to conclude that the exposure to concentrations of paracetamol close to the ones in the environment may be deleterious to marine ecosystems, endangering marine life by changing their overall redox balance, and the biochemical control of inflammatory intermediaries. Behaviour was also modified and the burrowing capacity was adversely affected. This set of effects clearly demonstrate that paracetamol exposure, under realistic conditions, it not exempt of adverse effects on marine invertebrates, such as polychaetes.

Survival and malformations rates, oxidative status in early life stages of Cyprinus carpio due to exposure to environmentally realistic concentrations of paracetamol

Paracetamol (PCM) is among the most consumed analgesic and antipyretic drugs worldwide. Due to its high consumption, this drug has been reported ubiquitously on different water bodies, posing a real threat to aquatic organisms. Until now, several studies have pointed out that PCM may induce oxidative stress, histological damage and developmental disorders on different aquatic species. Nonetheless, there is still a huge knowledge gap about the toxic effects that PCM may induce in species of commercial interest such as the common carp Cyprinus carpio. The aim of this study was to evaluate survival and malformation rates induced by PCM (0.5 μg/L - 3.5 μg/L) in early life stages of common carp. Furthermore, oxidative stress biomarkers were evaluated at 72 and 96 h post fecundation. PCM reduced the survival rate of the embryos of up to 90%, as concentration increased. LC₅₀ and EC_50m were 1.29 μg/L and 2.84 μg/L, respectively. Biomarkers of cellular oxidation and antioxidant enzymes were modified in a concentration-dependent way with respect to the control group (p < 0.05). The main developmental alterations observed were lordosis, scoliosis, craniofacial malformations, hypopigmentation, growth retardation, pericardial edema and rachyschisis. These data indicate that environmentally realistic concentrations of PCM could be hazardous and affects the development in early stages of C. carpio. Moreover, our findings also indicate that C. carpio embryos may be a useful in vivo model to evaluate embryonic and teratogenic effects of drugs such as PCM.

Degradation of pharmaceuticals in wastewater matrices through solar light-driven photocatalyst prepared from petrochemical waste

Pharmaceuticals, such as dipyrone (DIP), paracetamol (PCT), and propranolol (PPN), are widely used analgesics and beta-blockers with the greatest presence in wastewaters and, consequently, in natural waters. The present work evaluated solar light-driven photocatalyst from petrochemical industrial waste (PW) as a strategy for the degradation of three pharmaceuticals in different water matrices (distilled water-DW, simulated wastewater-SWW, and real hospital wastewater-RHWW). All experiments were carried out in a solar photo-reactor with a capacity of 1 L and the experimental condition employed was a catalyst concentration of 350 mg L^-1 at pH 5.0; these conditions were selected considering the Doehlert design validation spreadsheet and the desirability function. All materials prepared were conveniently characterized by zeta potential, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), diffuse reflectance ultraviolet-visible (DRUV), and infrared spectroscopy. According to the results of the characterization, significant differences have been observed between the PW and the photocatalyst such as vibrational modes, optical absorption gap, and acid-basic characteristics on the surface, which suggests the potential use of the photocatalyst in the degradation of contaminants of emerging concern. Based on pharmaceutical degradation, DIP showed the highest photosensitivity (87.5%), and therefore the highest photocatalytic degradation followed by PPN; both compounds achieved final concentrations below the limit of quantification of the chromatographic method in DW. However, PCT was the most recalcitrant pharmaceutical in all matrices. Radicals from chromophoric natural organic matter (NOM) could improve PCT degradation in the SWW matrix (56%). Nevertheless, the results in RHWW showed a matrix effect with decreased the oxidation percentages (DIP-99%; PPN-71%; PCT-17%); hence, the addition of an oxidant such as H₂O₂ was studied as a pharmaceutical oxidation boost in RHWW. PPN was the molecule most sensitive to this strategy of oxidation (98%). Furthermore, 20 transformation products (TPs) generated throughout the treatment were identified by LC-QTOF MS using a customized TPs database. According to quantitative structure activity relationship (Q)SAR analysis, more than 75% of the TPs identified were not biodegradable. About 35% of them have oral toxicity characteristics indicated by Cramer's rules, and the DIP TPs represent high toxicity for different trophic levels.

Immunodetection of heat shock protein 70 and cell death in liver of a neotropical fish acutely and chronically exposed to acetaminophen and propranolol

The use of pharmaceutical drugs ends frequently in their inappropriate disposal and treatment at waste water treatment plants, which is the cause of their widespread presence in the environment. Yet, there is limited understanding or knowledge of their effects to non-target aquatic organisms. The drugs acetaminophen (analgesic and antipyretic) and propranolol (β-blocker) are widely found in the aquatic environment, where they can interact with non-target exposed organisms, causing adverse effects. Heat shock proteins (namely HSP70) are molecular chaperones which help to refold misfolded cellular proteins, and the increase in their in vivo levels indicates a change in the cell to counteract the proteotoxic effects of the triggered stress, namely which is consequent to exposure to toxicants. The objective of this study was to quantify the levels of liver HSP70 proteins in individuals of the neotropical fish species Phalloceros harpagos, acutely and chronically exposed to concentrations of acetaminophen and propranolol, in the range of those already determined to occur in the wild. Fish acutely exposed to acetaminophen (concentrations of 8, 80, 800, and 8000 μg L^-1) and to propranolol (levels of 1, 10, and 1000 μg L^-1) evidenced increased intensity of HSP70 immunolabeling in liver cells. Similarly, animals chronically exposed to propranolol, at concentrations of 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 μg L^-1, showed a comparable trend. This finding suggests the triggering of a cytoprotective effect that was effective in preventing cell death in exposed groups in relation to the control group. In contrast, chronic exposure to acetaminophen caused a decrease in HSP70 labeling intensity in fish hepatocytes (animals exposed to 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 μg L^-1), with no induction of DNA fragmentation in the nuclei of hepatocytes of these fish. Some of the hepatic HSP70 responses observed in this study were obtained at levels already reported to occur in the wild. Finally, this study showed how levels of acetaminophen at microliter concentration can exert side effects on non-target organisms after chronic exposure, suggesting that environmentally exposed organisms may be subjected to adverse conditions that modify the typical response pattern of HSP70 levels.

A SPE-HPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of prioritised pharmaceuticals and EDCs with high environmental risk potential in freshwater

This work describes the development, optimisation and validation of an analytical method for the rapid determination of 17 priority pharmaceutical compounds and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Rather than studying compounds from the same therapeutic class, the analyses aimed to determine target compounds with the highest risk potential (with particular regard to Scotland), providing a tool for further monitoring in different water matrices. Prioritisation was based on a systematic environmental risk assessment approach, using consumption data; wastewater treatment removal efficiency; environmental occurrence; toxicological effects; and pre-existing regulatory indicators. This process highlighted 17 compounds across various therapeutic classes, which were then quantified, at environmentally relevant concentrations, by a single analytical methodology. Analytical determination was achieved using a single-step solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The fully optimised method performed well for the majority of target compounds, with recoveries >71% for 15 of 17 analytes. The limits of quantification for most target analytes (14 of 17) ranged from 0.07 ng/L to 1.88 ng/L in river waters. The utility of this method was then demonstrated using real water samples associated with a rural hospital/setting. Eight compounds were targeted and detected, with the highest levels found for the analgesic, paracetamol (at up to 105,910 ng/L in the hospital discharge). This method offers a robust tool to monitor high priority pharmaceutical and EDC levels in various aqueous sample matrices.

Mycoremediation of acetaminophen: Culture parameter optimization to improve efficacy

Untreated pharmaceutical pollution and their possibly toxic metabolites, resulting from overloaded wastewater treatment processes, end up in aquatic environments and are hazardous to the ecosystem homeostasis. Biological wastewater remediation could supplement traditional methods and overcome the release of these biologically active compounds in the environment. Mycoremediation is especially promising due to the unspecific nature of fungi to decompose compounds through exoenzymes and the uptake of compounds as nutrients. In the present study, we improved on the previous advances made using the fungus Mucor hiemalis to remediate one of the most commonly occurring pharmaceuticals, acetaminophen (APAP), at higher concentrations. The limitation of nitrogen, adjustment of pH, and comparison to, as well as co-cultivation with the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, were tested. Nitrogen limitation did not significantly improve the APAP remediation efficiency of M. hiemalis. Maintaining the pH of the media improved the remediation restraint of 24 h previously observed. The APAP remediation efficiency of P. chrysosporium was far superior to that of M. hiemalis, and co-cultivation of the two resulted in a decreased remediation efficiency compared to P. chrysosporium in single.

Paracetamol Sensing with a Pencil Lead Electrode Modified with Carbon Nanotubes and Polyvinylpyrrolidone

The determination of paracetamol is a common need in pharmaceutical and environmental samples for which a low-cost, rapid, and accurate sensor would be highly desirable. We develop a novel pencil graphite lead electrode (PGE) modified with single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) polymer (PVP/SWCNT/PGE) for the voltammetric quantification of paracetamol. The sensor shows remarkable analytical performance in the determination of paracetamol at neutral pH, with a limit of detection of 0.38 μM and a linear response from 1 to 500 μM using square-wave voltammetry (SWV), which are well suited to the analysis of pharmaceutical preparations. The introduction of the polymer PVP can cause dramatic changes in the sensing performance of the electrode, depending on its specific architecture. These effects were investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicate that the co-localization and dispersion of PVP throughout the carbon nanotubes on the electrode are key to its superior electrochemical performance, facilitating the electrical contact between the nanotubes and with the electrode surface. The application of this sensor to commercial syrup and tablet preparations is demonstrated with excellent results.

Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in a beach area of Guarujá, São Paulo State, Brazil, under the influence of urban surface runoff

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in water resources is widely documented in Europe, North America and Asia. However, in South America, these studies are still incipient. The objective of this study was to screen and identify the presence of pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic classes, including illicit drugs such as cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine, in urban drainage channels that flow into the bathing waters of Guarujá city, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Moreover, the ecological potential risks to the aquatic biota were also assessed. The water samples were collected from four beaches of Guarujá in two different points: in the urban drainage channels and in the nearby coast line. A total of 16 compounds were detected using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry: carbamazepine (0.1-8.0 ng/L), caffeine (33.5-6550.0 ng/L), cocaine (0.2-30.3 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (0.9-278.0 ng/L), citalopram (0.2-0.4 ng/L), acetaminophen (18.3-391.0 ng/L), diclofenac (0.9-79.8 ng/L), orphenadrine (0.2-1.5 ng/L), atenolol (0.1-140.0 ng/L), propranolol (limit of detection: LOD-0.9 ng/L), enalapril (2.2-3.8 ng/L), losartan (3.6-548.0 ng/L), valsartan (19.8-798.0 ng/L), rosuvastatin (2.5-38.5 ng/L), chlortalidone (0.1-0.4 ng/L) and clopidogrel (0.1-0.2 ng/L). The hereby data also showed that five of these compounds, namely caffeine, acetaminophen, diclofenac, losartan and valsartan, could raise moderate to severe risks to aquatic organisms (algae, crustaceans and fishes). This study is the first report of the occurrence of several pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in urban drainage channels that flow to the bathing waters in South America, and it is the first quantification of rosuvastatin, chlortalidone and clopidogrel in environmental marine waters of Latin America.

Ecotoxicological evaluation of fungicides used in viticulture in non-target organisms

The effect of fungicides, commonly used in vine cultures, on the health of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems has been poorly studied. The objective of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of three viticulture fungicides (myclobutanil, cymoxanil, and azoxystrobin) on non-target organisms, the bacteria Rhodopirellula rubra, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, and Arthrobacter sp., the microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata, and the macrophyte Lemna minor. Fungicide toxicity was performed in acute cell viability assay for bacteria; 72-h and 7-day growth inhibition tests for R. subcapitata and L. minor, respectively. Contents of photosynthetic pigments and lipid peroxidation in L. minor were evaluated. Arthrobacter sp. and P. putida showed resistance to these fungicides. Even though azoxystrobin affected R. rubra and E. coli cell viability, this effect was due to the solvent used, acetone. Cell viability decrease was obtained for R. rubra exposed to cymoxanil and E. coli exposed to myclobutanil (30 min of exposure at 10 mg/L and 240 min of exposure at 46 mg/L, respectively). R. subcapitata showed about 10-fold higher sensitivity to azoxystrobin (EC_50-72h = 0.25 mg/L) and cymoxanil (EC_50-72h = 0.36 mg/L) than L. minor to azoxystrobin and myclobutanil (EC_50-72h = 1.53 mg/L and EC_50-72h = 1.89 mg/L, respectively). No lipid peroxidation was observed in L. minor after fungicide exposure, while changes of total chlorophyll were induced by azoxystrobin and myclobutanil. Our results showed that non-target aquatic organisms of different trophic levels are affected by fungicides used in viticulture.

Toxicity of the Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen and naproxen towards freshwater invertebrates: A review

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) represent one of the main therapeutic classes of molecules contaminating aquatic ecosystems worldwide. NSAIDs are commonly and extensively used for their analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties to cure pain and inflammation in human and veterinary therapy. After use, NSAIDs are excreted in their native form or as metabolites, entering the aquatic ecosystems. A number of monitoring surveys has detected the presence of different NSAIDs in freshwater ecosystems in the ng/L - μg/L concentration range. Although the concentrations of NSAIDs in surface waters are low, the high biological activity of these molecules may confer them a potential toxicity towards non-target aquatic organisms. The present review aims at summarizing toxicity, in terms of both acute and chronic toxicity, induced by the main NSAIDs detected in surface waters worldwide, namely acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), paracetamol (PCM), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU) and naproxen (NPX), both singularly and in mixture, towards freshwater invertebrates. Invertebrates play a crucial role in ecosystem functioning so that NSAIDs-induced effects may result in hazardous consequences to the whole freshwater trophic chain. Acute toxicity of NSAIDs occurs only at high, unrealistic concentrations, while sub-lethal effects arise also at low, environmentally relevant concentrations of all these drugs. Thus, further studies represent a priority in order to improve the knowledge on NSAID toxicity and mechanism(s) of action in freshwater organisms and to shed light on their real ecological hazard towards freshwater communities.

Electro-oxidation of secondary effluents from various wastewater plants for the removal of acetaminophen and dissolved organic matter

Electro-oxidation of acetaminophen (ACT) in three different doped secondary effluents collected from a conventional Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plant (MWWTP), a MWWTP using a membrane bioreactor (WWTP MBR) and a lab-scale MBR treating source-separated urine (Urine MBR) was investigated by electro-Fenton (EF) coupled with anodic oxidation (AO) using sub-stoichiometric titanium oxide anode (Ti₄O₇). After 8 h of treatment, 90 ± 15%, 76 ± 3.8% and 46 ± 1.3% of total organic carbon removal was obtained for MWWTP, MWWTP-MBR and Urine-MBR respectively, at a current intensity of 250 mA, pH of 3 and [Fe²⁺] = 0.2 mM. Faster degradation of ACT was observed in the WWTP MBR because of the lower amount of competitive organic matter, however, >99% degradation of ACT was obtained after 20 min for all effluents. The acute toxicity of the treated effluent was measured using Microtox® tests. Results showed an initial increase in toxicity, which could be assigned to formation of more toxic by-products than parent compounds. From 3D excitation and emission matrix fluorescence (3DEEM), different reactivity was observed according to the nature of the organic matter. Particularly, an increase of low molecular weight organic compounds fluorescence was observed during Urine MBR treatment. This could be linked to the slow decrease of the acute toxicity during Urine MBR treatment and ascribed to the formation and recalcitrance of toxic organic nitrogen and chlorinated organic by-products. By comparison, the acute toxicity of other effluents decreased much more rapidly. Finally, energy consumption was calculated according to the objective to achieve (degradation, absence of toxicity, mineralization).

Toxicity of NSAID drug (paracetamol) to nontarget organism-Nostoc muscorum

Due to many folds increase in application of human and veterinary medicines, pharmaceuticals, a new category of pollutants, have emerged in our environment. They exist as residues in rivers, sewage effluents, streams, surface, ground, and potable water. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one such drug that is used as an antipyretic and analgesic medicine. It is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) and is easily available in the market because no medical prescription is necessary for its purchase and use. Paracetamol remains physiologically active even after their expiry period. Their detection in the environment in bioactive form has resulted in adverse effects on nontarget species. To determine the effect of paracetamol on aquatic photosynthetic organic (Cyanobacteria-Nostoc muscorum), present study was performed. Paracetamol (25 mg/L, 50 mg/L, 75 mg/L, 100, 125, and 150 mg/L) exposure showed toxic responses on the test organism by generating oxidative stress (MDA, H₂O_2, O₂^.-). Paracetamol caused a significant decrease in growth of cyanobacteria and showed EC₅₀ 113.68 mg/L after the 6th day of treatment. Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoid, and phycobiliprotein) decreased with paracetamol increase. Antioxidant enzymatic (SOD, CAT, APX, GST, and GR) and osmolyte (Proline) also increased with increase in paracetamol to counteract the oxidative stress.

Anti-inflammatory drugs in the marine environment: Bioconcentration, metabolism and sub-lethal effects in marine bivalves

Pharmaceuticals such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been found in the marine environment. Although there is a large body of evidence that pharmaceutical drugs exert negative impacts on aquatic organisms, especially in the freshwater compartment, only limited studies are available on bioconcentration and the effects of NSAIDs on marine organisms. Bivalves have a high ecological and socio-economic value and are considered good bioindicator species in ecotoxicology and risk assessment programs. Therefore, this review summarizes current knowledge on the bioconcentration and the effects of three widely used NSAIDs, diclofenac, ibuprofen and paracetamol, in marine bivalves exposed under laboratory conditions. These pharmaceutical drugs were chosen based on their environmental occurrence both in frequency and concentration that may warrant their inclusion in the European Union Watch List. It has been highlighted that ambient concentrations may result in negative effects on wild bivalves after long-term exposures. Also, higher trophic level organisms may be more impacted due to food-chain transfer (e.g., humans are shellfish consumers). Overall, the three selected NSAIDs were reported to bioconcentrate in marine bivalves, with recognized effects at different life-stages. Immune responses were the main target of a long-term exposure to the drugs. The studies selected support the inclusion of diclofenac on the European Union Watch List and highlight the importance of extending research for ibuprofen and paracetamol due to their demonstrated negative effects on marine bivalves exposed to environmental realistic concentrations, under laboratory conditions.

Innovative spherical biochar for pharmaceutical removal from water: Insight into adsorption mechanism

In this study, we developed an innovative spherical biochar with high porosity and excellent paracetamol (PRC) adsorption capacity. The optimal pyrolysis temperatures for the preparation of spherical biochar (derived from pure glucose) and non-spherical biochar (from pomelo peel wastes) were obtained at 900 °C and 700 °C, respectively. Various advanced techniques were applied to characterize the prepared biochars. Spherical and non-spherical biochars exhibited large specific surface area (1292 and 1033 m²/g) and high total pore volume (0.704 and 1.074 cm³/g), respectively. The adsorption behavior of PRC onto two biochars was conducted utilizing batch experiments. Results demonstrated that the adsorption process was slightly affected by the change of solution pH (2-11) and addition of NaCl (0.05-1.0 M) and was able to achieve fast equilibrium (∼120 min). The maximum adsorption capacity of spherical biochar (286 mg/g) for PRC was approximately double that of non-spherical biochar (147 mg/g). The signal of thermodynamic parameters was negative ΔG° and ΔH° values, but positive ΔS° value. The adsorption mechanism consisted of pore-filling, hydrogen bonding formations, n-π and π-π interactions, and van der Waals force. The adsorption capacities of two biochars were insignificantly dependent on different real water samples containing PRC. Consequently, the biochars can serve as a green and promising material for efficiently removing PRC from water.

Microwave-Assisted Degradation of Paracetamol Drug Using Polythiophene-Sensitized Ag-Ag2O Heterogeneous Photocatalyst Derived from Plant Extract

Ag-Ag2O nanoparticles were synthesized using Osmium sanctum plant extract. The nanoparticles were sensitized with polythiophene (PTh) and were characterized via scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray and elemental mapping, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared, and UV-vis spectroscopy analyses. The elemental mapping results revealed that the samples were composed of C, S, Ag, and O elements which were uniformly distributed in the nanohybrid. XRD analysis confirmed the crystalline nature of Ag-Ag2O nanoparticles, and the average particle size was found to be ranging between 36 and 40 nm. The optical band gap of Ag-Ag2O, PTh, and Ag-Ag2O/PTh was found to be 2.49, 1.1, 1.5, and 0.68 eV. The catalytic activity of Ag-Ag2O, PTh, and Ag-Ag2O/PTh was investigated by degrading paracetamol drug under microwave irradiation. Around 80% of degradation was achieved during 20 min irradiation. All degradation kinetics were fitted to the pseudo-first-order model. A probable degradation pathway for paracetamol degradation was proposed based on liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of degraded fragments.

Antioxidative and neurotoxicity effects of acute and chronic exposure of the estuarine polychaete Hediste diversicolor to paracetamol

The presence of anthropogenic drugs in the aquatic ecosystems is a reality nowadays, and a large number of studies have been reporting their putative toxic effects on wildlife. However, the majority of the studies published so far uses standard organisms, whose probability of becoming in contact with drugs in real scenarios of contamination is at least, low. The use of autochthonous organisms in ecotoxicity testing is thus mandatory, and the present study aimed to assess the feasibility of assessing oxidative based stress responses (enzymatic defenses, such as catalase, glutathione-s-transferases, and lipid peroxidation; neurotoxicity as an indirect outcome of oxidizing conditions) on a polychaete species, Hediste diversicolor, after being acutely and chronically exposed to the widely employed drug paracetamol. H. diversicolor showed to be responsive to paracetamol exposure. Data obtained after acute exposure to paracetamol showed that no antioxidant adaptive response was established, but cholinesterasic activity was enhanced. On the contrary, long term exposure of H. diversicolor individuals to paracetamol resulted in clear pro-oxidative effects, with catalase and cholinesterase inhibition, and a significant reduction in the levels of lipoperoxidation. Considering that some of the tested levels (especially those of the chronic test) were already reported in the wild, the here-obtained results are of high environmental significance. In addition, chronic exposure regime yielded more significant results, with important modification of more parameters, suggesting that realistic conditions of exposure are more suited for an integrated assessment of toxicity of drugs in aquatic organisms.

Effects of pH on salicylic acid toxicity in terms of biomarkers determined in the marine gastropod Gibbula umbilicalis

Alterations of the physical-chemical properties of the oceans due to anthropogenic activities are, at present, one of the most concerning environmental issues studied by researchers. One of these issues is ocean acidification, mainly caused by overproduction and release of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from anthropogenic sources. Another component of environmental degradation is related to the production and release of potential toxic compounds, namely active pharmaceutical ingredients, into the aquatic environment that, combined with oceanic acidification, can cause unpredictable and never before considered deleterious effects on non-target marine organisms. Regarding this issue, the hereby study used predictions of future ocean acidification to simulate realistic scenarios of environmental exposure to a common therapeutic drug, salicylic acid (SA), in the marine gastropod Gibbula umbilicalis under different pH values. This species was exposed to a range of pH values (8.2, 7.9 and 7.6), and to already reported environmentally realistic concentrations (5, 25 and 125 μg/L) of SA. To evaluate the effects of these environmental stressors, key physiological biomarkers (GSTs, CAT, TBARS, AChE and COX) and shell hardness (SH) were quantified. Results from the present study showed that CAT and GSTs activities were enhanced by SA under water acidification; increased lipid peroxidation was also observed in organisms exposed to SA in more acidic media. In addition, the hereby study demonstrated the neurotoxic effects of SA through the inhibition of AChE. Effects were also observed in terms of COX activity, showing that SA absorption may be affected by water acidification. In terms of SH, the obtained data suggest that SA may alter the physical integrity of shells of exposed organisms. It is possible to conclude that the combination of seawater acidification and exposure to toxic xenobiotics (namely to the drug SA) may be strenuous to marine communities, making aquatic biota more susceptible to xenobiotics, and consequently endangering marine life in an unpredictable extent.

Neurotoxic and respiratory effects of human use drugs on a Neotropical fish species, Phalloceros harpagos

Pharmaceutical drugs are usually and continuously carried to the aquatic environment in different ways. Thus, they are pseudo-persistent in the environment, and they may exert deleterious effects on aquatic organisms. The objective of the present study was to investigate the acute and chronic effects of two widely used pharmaceutical drugs, paracetamol (analgesic and antipyretic) and propranolol (β-blocker) on the activity of specific biomarkers (namely cholinesterase enzymes and lactate dehydrogenase) of the neotropical fish Phalloceros harpagos. The obtained results indicate an inhibition of the activity of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) after acute exposure to paracetamol, and an increase in cholinesterase activity in acutely propranolol-exposed fish. Chronic exposure to both drugs did not modify the enzymatic activities. Such short-term changes in enzymatic activities may be harmful to organisms, altering the preferential pathway of energy metabolism, and may induce behavioral changes that may compromise prey capture and predator escape, and in the longer term may induce population declines.