Synthesis and computer-aided SAR studies for derivatives of phenoxyalkyl-1,3,5-triazine as the new potent ligands for serotonin receptors 5-HT6

Organoselenium compounds beyond antioxidants

Organoselenium chemistry has become a significant field due to its role in synthesizing numerous biologically active and therapeutic compounds. In early phase, researchers focused on designing organoselenium compounds with antioxidant properties and were quite successful. In last two decades, synthetic chemists shifted their focus toward synthesis of organoselenium compounds with biological properties, moving beyond their traditional antioxidant properties. The review includes synthesis and study of organo-selenium compounds as anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, antidiabetic, antithyroid, anti-inflammatory therapies, contributing to disease treatment. This review covers the synthesis and medicinal applications of synthetic organoselenium compounds over the past 10 years, thus making it a valuable resource for researchers in the field of medicinal chemistry.

Discovery and Profiling of New Multimodal Phenylglycinamide Derivatives as Potent Antiseizure and Antinociceptive Drug Candidates

We developed a focused series of original phenyl-glycinamide derivatives which showed potent activity across in vivo mouse seizure models, namely, maximal electroshock (MES) and 6 Hz (using both 32 and 44 mA current intensities) seizure models. Following intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration, compound (R)-32, which was identified as a lead molecule, demonstrated potent protection against all seizure models with ED50 values of 73.9 mg/kg (MES test), 18.8 mg/kg (6 Hz, 32 mA test), and 26.5 mg/kg (6 Hz, 44 mA test). Furthermore, (R)-32 demonstrated efficacy in both the PTZ-induced kindling paradigm and the ivPTZ seizure threshold test. The expression of neurotrophic factors, such as mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (mBDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), in the hippocampus and/or cortex of mice, and the levels of glutamate and GABA were normalized after PTZ-induced kindling by (R)-32. Importantly, besides antiseizure activity, (R)-32 demonstrated potent antinociceptive efficacy in formalin-induced pain, capsaicin-induced pain, as well as oxaliplatin- and streptozotocin-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice (i.p.). No influence on muscular strength and body temperature in mice was observed. Pharmacokinetic studies and in vitro ADME-Tox data (i.e., high metabolic stability in human liver microsomes, a weak influence on CYPs, no hepatotoxicity, satisfactory passive transport, etc.) proved favorable drug-like properties of (R)-32. Thermal stability of (R)-32 shown in thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry gives the opportunity to develop innovative oral solid dosage forms loaded with this compound. The in vitro binding and functional assays indicated its multimodal mechanism of action. (R)-32, beyond TRPV1 antagonism, inhibited calcium and sodium currents at a concentration of 10 μM. Therefore, the data obtained in the current studies justify a more detailed preclinical development of (R)-32 for epilepsy and pain indications.

Selenium-containing compounds: a new hope for innovative treatments in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

Neurodegenerative diseases are challenging to cure. To date, no cure has been found for Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease, and current treatments are able only to slow the progression of the diseases and manage their symptoms. After an introduction to the complex biology of these diseases, we discuss the beneficial effect of selenium-containing agents, which show neuroprotective effects in vitro or in vivo. Indeed, selenium is an essential trace element that is being incorporated into innovative organoselenium compounds, which can improve outcomes in rodent or even primate models with neurological deficits. Herein, we critically discuss recent findings in the field of selenium-based applications in neurological disorders.

Novel Alaninamide Derivatives with Drug-like Potential for Development as Antiseizure and Antinociceptive Therapies─In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization

In the present study, a series of original alaninamide derivatives have been designed applying a combinatorial chemistry approach, synthesized, and characterized in the in vivo and in vitro assays. The obtained molecules showed potent and broad-spectrum activity in basic seizure models, namely, the maximal electroshock (MES) test, the 6 Hz (32 mA) seizure model, and notably, the 6 Hz (44 mA) model of pharmacoresistant seizures. Most potent compounds 26 and 28 displayed the following pharmacological values: ED50 = 64.3 mg/kg (MES), ED50 = 15.6 mg/kg (6 Hz, 32 mA), ED50 = 29.9 mg/kg (6 Hz, 44 mA), and ED50 = 34.9 mg/kg (MES), ED50 = 12.1 mg/kg (6 Hz, 32 mA), ED50 = 29.5 mg/kg (6 Hz, 44 mA), respectively. Additionally, 26 and 28 were effective in the ivPTZ seizure threshold test and had no influence on the grip strength. Moreover, lead compound 28 was tested in the PTZ-induced kindling model, and then, its influence on glutamate and GABA levels in the hippocampus and cortex was evaluated by the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. In addition, 28 revealed potent efficacy in formalin-induced tonic pain, capsaicin-induced pain, and oxaliplatin- and streptozotocin-induced peripheral neuropathy. Pharmacokinetic studies and in vitro ADME-Tox data proved favorable drug-like properties of 28. The patch-clamp recordings in rat cortical neurons showed that 28 at a concentration of 10 μM significantly inhibited fast sodium currents. Therefore, 28 seems to be an interesting candidate for future preclinical development in epilepsy and pain indications.

First-in-Class Selenium-Containing Potent Serotonin Receptor 5-HT6 Agents with a Beneficial Neuroprotective Profile against Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has a complex and not-fully-understood etiology. Recently, the serotonin receptor 5-HT6 emerged as a promising target for AD treatment; thus, here a new series of 5-HT6R ligands with a 1,3,5-triazine core and selenoether linkers was explored. Among them, the 2-naphthyl derivatives exhibited strong 5-HT6R affinity and selectivity over 5-HT1AR (13-15), 5-HT7R (14 and 15), and 5-HT2AR (13). Compound 15 displayed high selectivity for 5-HT6R over other central nervous system receptors and exhibited low risk of cardio-, hepato-, and nephrotoxicity and no mutagenicity, indicating its "drug-like" potential. Compound 15 also demonstrated neuroprotection against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity as well as antioxidant and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-like activity and regulated antioxidant and pro-inflammatory genes and NRF2 nuclear translocation. In rats, 15 showed satisfying pharmacokinetics, penetrated the blood-brain barrier, reversed MK-801-induced memory impairment, and exhibited anxiolytic-like properties. 15's neuroprotective and procognitive-like effects, stronger than those of the approved drug donepezil, may pave the way for the use of selenotriazines to inhibit both causes and symptoms in AD therapy.

Hydrophobicity modulation via the substituents at positions 2 and 4 of 1,3,5-triazine to enhance therapeutic ability against Alzheimer's disease for potent serotonin 5-HT6R agents

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder with a complex aetiology, is the most common memory dysfunction particularly affecting the elderly. Various protein targets have been classified to be involved in the AD treatment, including 5-HT6 receptor (5-HT6R). So far, the 5-HT6R ligands obtained by our research group have become a good basis for hydrophobicity modulation to give a chance for more effective action toward AD by additional influence on target enzymes, e.g. cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5). In the search for 5-HT6R agents with additional inhibitory action on the enzyme, a series of 25 new 1,3,5-triazines (7-31) as modifications of lead, 4-[1-(2,5-dichlorophenoxy)propyl]-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazine-2-amine (6), was rationally designed. Molecular modelling, synthesis, crystallographic studies, in vitro biological assays and behavioral studies in vivo were performed. The new triazines showed high affinity (Ki < 100 nM) and selectivity for 5-HT6R. The most effective one, 4-[1-(2,5-difluorophenoxy)propyl]-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazine-2-amine (8), exhibited the strong antagonistic action towards 5-HT6R (Ki = 5 nM, pKb = 8.16), had an impact on the memory processes in the Novel Object Recognition test and displayed anxiolytic-like activity in the Elevated Plus Maze test in rats. Moreover, it had the antiplatelet effect as well as very good permeability (PAMPA model), high metabolic stability (RLMs) and satisfactory safety in vitro. Although the CDK5 inhibitory effects in vitro for the tested compounds (8, 10, 14, 18, 26-31) missed the potency expected from in silico simulations, the novel antagonist (8) with a very satisfying pharmacological and ADMET profile can serve as a new lead structure in further searches for innovative therapy against AD with accompanying symptoms.

Synthesis, computational and experimental pharmacological studies for (thio)ether-triazine 5-HT6R ligands with noticeable action on AChE/BChE and chalcogen-dependent intrinsic activity in search for new class of drugs against Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is becoming a growing problem increasing at a tremendous rate. Serotonin 5-HT6 receptors appear to be a particularly attractive target from a therapeutic perspective, due to their involvement not only in cognitive processes, but also in depression and psychosis. In this work, we present the synthesis and broad biological characterization of a new series of 18 compounds with a unique 1,3,5-triazine backbone, as potent 5-HT6 receptor ligands. The main aim of this research is to compare the biological activity of the newly synthesized sulfur derivatives with their oxygen analogues and their N-demethylated O- and S-metabolites obtained for the first time. Most of the new triazines displayed high affinity (Ki < 200 nM) and selectivity towards 5-HT6R, with respect to 5-HT2AR, 5-HT7R, and D2R, in the radioligand binding assays. For selected, active compounds crystallographic studies, functional bioassays, and ADME-Tox profile in vitro were performed. The exciting novelty is that the sulfur derivatives exhibit an agonistic mode of action contrary to all other compounds obtained to date in this chemical class herein and previously reported. Advanced computational studies indicated that this intriguing functional shift might be caused by presence of chalcogen bonds formed only by the sulfur atom. In addition, the N-demethylated derivatives have emerged highly potent antioxidants and, moreover, show a significant improvement in metabolic stability compared to the parent structures. The cholinesterase study present micromolar inhibitory AChE and BChE activity for both 5-HT6 agonist 19 and potent antagonist 5. Finally, the behavioral experiments of compound 19 demonstrated its antidepressant-like properties and slight ability to improve cognitive deficits, without inducing memory impairments by itself. Described pharmacological properties of both compounds (5 and 19) allow to give a design clue for the development of multitarget compounds with 5-HT6 (both agonist and antagonist)/AChE and/or BChE mechanism in the group of 1,3,5-triazine derivatives.

New Triazine Derivatives as Serotonin 5-HT6 Receptor Ligands

Since the number of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) continues to rise, new and effective drugs are urgently needed to not only slow down the progression of the disease, but to stop or even prevent its development. Serotonin 5-HT₆ receptor (5-HT₆R) ligands are still a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of AD. 1,3,5-Triazine derivatives, as novel structures lacking an indole or a sulfone moiety, have proven to be potent ligands for this receptor. In present work, new derivatives of the compound MST4 (4-((2-isopropyl-5-methylphenoxy)methyl)-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine), the potent 5-HT₆R antagonist (K_i = 11 nM) with promising ADMET and in vivo properties, were designed. The synthesized compounds were tested for their affinity towards 5-HT₆R and other receptor (off)targets (serotonin 5-HT_2A, 5-HT₇ and dopamine D₂). Based on the new results, 4-(2-tert-butylphenoxy)-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine (3) was selected for extended in vitro studies as a potent and selective 5-HT₆R ligand (K_i = 13 nM). Its ability to permeate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its hepatotoxicity were evaluated. In addition, X-ray crystallography and solubility studies were also performed. The results obtained confirm that 6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine derivatives, especially compound 3, are promising structures for further pharmacological studies as 5-HT₆R ligands.

Seleno-vs. thioether triazine derivatives in search for new anticancer agents overcoming multidrug resistance in lymphoma

Lymphomas are still difficult to treat even with modern therapies as, among others, multidrug resistance (MDR) is often counteracting a successful cancer therapy. P-gp/ABC-transporters are well-known for their crucial role in the main tumour MDR mechanism, eliminating drugs and cytotoxic substances from the cancer cell by efflux, and their modulators are promising for innovative therapy, but none has been approved in the pharmaceutical market yet. Herein, we have designed, synthesised and analysed 30 novel seleno- and thioether 1,3,5-triazine derivatives conducting comprehensive studies to evaluate their potential application in human JURKAT lymphoma cells. Among the new compounds, four (11, 12, 13 and 23) were much more effective than the reference inhibitor verapamil, being potent ABCB1 inhibitors already at 2 μM, while 5 and 15 showed very potent ABCB1 inhibitory activity only at 20 μM. Results of P-gp ATPase assays, supported with docking studies, indicated the competitive substrate mode of modulating action for 15, while ABCB1, ABCC1 and ABCG2 genes expression induction by 15 with q-PCR was confirmed. All compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic and antiproliferative properties in both sensitive (PAR) and resistant (MDR) mouse T-lymphoma cell lines, and compound 15, also considering its promising ABCB1 inhibition properties, was revealed to be the best compound in terms of its cytotoxic effect (IC₅₀: 16.73 μM) as well as concerning the antiproliferative effect (IC₅₀: 5.35 μM) in MDR cells. Regarding the mechanistic studies looking at the cell cycle, the thioether 15 and selenium derivatives 26 and 29 were significantly effective in the regulation of cell cycle-related genes alone or in co-treatment with doxorubicin counteracting Cyclin D1 and E1 expression and increasing p53 and p21 levels, shedding first light on their mechanism of action. In summary, we explored the chemical space of seleno- and thioether 1,3,5-triazine derivatives with interesting activity against lymphoma. Especially compound 15 is worthy of being studied deeper to evaluate its precise mode of action further as well it can be improved regarding its potency and drug-likeness.

Identification of Novel Dopamine D2 Receptor Ligands—A Combined In Silico/In Vitro Approach

Diseases of the central nervous system are an alarming global problem showing an increasing prevalence. Dopamine receptor D2 (D2R) has been shown to be involved in central nervous system diseases. While different D2R-targeting drugs have been approved by the FDA, they all suffer from major drawbacks due to promiscuous receptor activity leading to adverse effects. Increasing the number of potential D2R-targeting drug candidates bears the possibility of discovering molecules with less severe side-effect profiles. In dire need of novel D2R ligands for drug development, combined in silico/in vitro approaches have been shown to be efficient strategies. In this study, in silico pharmacophore models were generated utilizing both ligand- and structure-based approaches. Subsequently, different databases were screened for novel D2R ligands. Selected virtual hits were investigated in vitro, quantifying their binding affinity towards D2R. This workflow successfully identified six novel D2R ligands exerting micro- to nanomolar (most active compound KI = 4.1 nM) activities. Thus, the four pharmacophore models showed prospective true-positive hit rates in between 4.5% and 12%. The developed workflow and identified ligands could aid in developing novel drug candidates for D2R-associated pathologies.

New Phenylglycinamide Derivatives with Hybrid Structure as Candidates for New Broad-Spectrum Anticonvulsants

In the present study, a focused combinatorial chemistry approach was applied to merge structural fragments of well-known TRPV1 antagonists with a potent anticonvulsant lead compound, KA-104, that was previously discovered by our group. Consequently, a series of 22 original compounds has been designed, synthesized, and characterized in the in vivo and in vitro assays. The obtained compounds showed robust in vivo antiseizure activity in the maximal electroshock (MES) test and in the 6 Hz seizure model (using both 32 and 44 mA current intensities). The most potent compounds 53 and 60 displayed the following pharmacological profile: ED₅₀ = 89.7 mg/kg (MES), ED₅₀ = 29.9 mg/kg (6 Hz, 32 mA), ED₅₀ = 68.0 mg/kg (6 Hz, 44 mA), and ED₅₀ = 73.6 mg/kg (MES), ED₅₀ = 24.6 mg/kg (6 Hz, 32 mA), and ED₅₀ = 56.3 mg/kg (6 Hz, 44 mA), respectively. Additionally, 53 and 60 were effective in the ivPTZ seizure threshold and had no influence on the grip strength and body temperature in mice. The in vitro binding and functional assays indicated a multimodal mechanism of action for 53 and 60. These molecules, beyond TRPV1 antagonism, inhibited calcium currents and fast sodium currents in patch-clamp assays. Further studies proved beneficial in vitro ADME-Tox properties for 53 and 60 (i.e., high metabolic stability, weak influence on CYPs, no neurotoxicity, etc.). Overall, 53 and 60 seem to be interesting candidates for future preclinical development in epilepsy and pain indications due to their interaction with the TRPV1 channel.

Small molecule selenium-containing compounds: Recent development and therapeutic applications

Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient of organism and has important function. It participates in the functions of selenoprotein in several manners. In recent years, Se has attracted much attention because of its therapeutic potential against several diseases. Many natural and synthetic organic Se-containing compounds were studied and explored for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. Studies have showed that incorporation of Se atom into small molecules significantly enhanced their bioactivities. In this paper, according to different applications and structural characteristics, the research progress and therapeutic application of Se-containing compounds are reviewed, and more than 110 Se-containing compounds were selected as representatives which showed potent activities such as anticancer, antioxidant, antifibrolytic, antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and central nervous system related effects. This review is expected to provide a basis for further study of new promising Se-containing compounds.

Piperazine, a Key Substructure for Antidepressants: Its Role in Developments and Structure-Activity Relationships

Depression is the single largest contributor to global disability with a huge economic and social burden on the world. There are a number of antidepressant drugs on the market, but treatment-resistant depression and relapse of depression in a large number of patients have increased problems for clinicians. One peculiarity observed in most of the marketed antidepressants is the presence of a piperazine substructure. Although piperazine is also used in the optimization of other pharmacological agents, it is almost extensively used for the development of novel antidepressants. One common understanding is that this is due to its favorable CNS pharmacokinetic profile; however, in the case of antidepressants, piperazine plays a much bigger role and is involved in specific binding conformations of these agents. Therefore, in this review, a critical analysis of the significance of the piperazine moiety in the development of antidepressants has been performed. An overview of current developments in the designing and synthesis of piperazine-based antidepressants (2015 onwards) along with SAR studies is also provided. The various piperazine-based therapeutic agents in early- or late-phase human testing for depression are also discussed. The preclinical compounds discussed in this review will help researchers understand how piperazine actually influences the design and development of novel antidepressant compounds. The SAR studies discussed will provide crucial clues about the structural features and optimizations required to enhance the efficacy and potency of piperazine-based antidepressants.

Chlorine substituents and linker topology as factors of 5-HT6R activity for novel highly active 1,3,5-triazine derivatives with procognitive properties in vivo

In the light of recent lines of evidence, 5-HT₆R ligands are a promising tool for future treatment of memory impairment. Hence, this study has supplied highly potent 5-HT₆R agents with procognitive effects, which represent an original chemical class of 1,3,5-triazines, different from widely studied sulfone and indole-like 5-HT₆R ligands. The new compounds were rationally designed as modifications of lead, 4-(1-(2-chlorophenoxy)ethyl)-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine (1), involving an introduction of: (i) two chlorines at benzene ring and (ii) varied linkers joining the triazine ring to aromatic ethers. Synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological tests and computer-aided SAR analysis for 19 new compounds were carried out. Most of the new triazines displayed high affinity (K_i < 100 nM) and selectivity towards 5-HT₆R, with respect to 5-HT_2AR, 5-HT₇R and D₂R. The crystallography-supported docking studies, including quantum-polarized ligand docking (QPLD), indicated that chlorine atoms may be involved in different type of halogen bonding, however, the linker properties seem to predominately affect the 5-HT₆R affinity. 4-[1-(2,5-Dichlorophenoxy)propyl]-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine (9), which displayed: the highest affinity (K_i = 6 nM), very strong 5-HT₆R antagonistic action (K_B = 27 pM), procognitive effects in vivo in novel object recognition (NOR) test in rats, a very good permeability in PAMPA model and satisfying safety in vitro, was identified as the most potent 1,3,5-triazine agent so far, useful as a new lead for further research.

The 1,3,5-Triazine Derivatives as Innovative Chemical Family of 5-HT6 Serotonin Receptor Agents with Therapeutic Perspectives for Cognitive Impairment

Among serotonin receptors, the 5-HT₆ subtype is the most controversial and the least known in the field of molecular mechanisms. The 5-HT₆R ligands can be pivotal for innovative treatment of cognitive impairment, but none has reached pharmacological market, predominantly, due to insufficient “druglikeness” properties. Recently, 1,3,5-triazine-piperazine derivatives were identified as a new chemical family of potent 5-HT₆R ligands. For the most active triazine 5-HT₆R agents found (1–4), a wider binding profile and comprehensive in vitro evaluation of their drug-like parameters as well as behavioral studies and an influence on body mass in vivo were investigated within this work. Results indicated the most promising pharmacological/druglikeness profiles for 4-((1H-indol-3-yl)methyl)-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine (3) and 4-((2-isopropyl-5-methylphenoxy)methyl)-6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-amine (4), which displayed a significant procognitive action and specific anxiolytic-like effects in the behavioral tests in vivo together with satisfied pharmaceutical and safety profiles in vitro. The thymol derivative (4) seems to be of higher importance as a new lead candidate, due to the innovative, non-indole and non-sulfone structure with the best 5-HT₆R binding properties.