The therapeutic potential of polymersomes loaded with 225Ac evaluated in 2D and 3D in vitro glioma models

Targeted Alpha Therapy for Glioblastoma: Review on In Vitro, In Vivo and Clinical Trials

Glioblastoma (GB), a prevalent and highly malignant primary brain tumour with a very high mortality rate due to its resistance to conventional therapies and invasive nature, resulting in 5-year survival rates of only 4-17%. Despite recent advancements in cancer management, the survival rates for GB patients have not significantly improved over the last 10-20 years. Consequently, there exists a critical unmet need for innovative therapies. One promising approach for GB is Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT), which aims to selectively deliver potentially therapeutic radiation doses to malignant cells and the tumour microenvironment while minimising radiation exposure to surrounding normal tissue with or without conventional external beam radiation. This approach has shown promise in both pre-clinical and clinical settings. A review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines across Medline, SCOPUS, and Embase, identifying 34 relevant studies out of 526 initially found. In pre-clinical studies, TAT demonstrated high binding specificity to targeted GB cells, with affinity rates between 60.0% and 84.2%, and minimal binding to non-targeted cells (4.0-5.6%). This specificity significantly enhanced cytotoxic effects and improved biodistribution when delivered intratumorally. Mice treated with TAT showed markedly higher median survival rates compared to control groups. In clinical trials, TAT applied to recurrent GB (rGB) displayed varying success rates in extending overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival. Particularly effective when integrated into treatment regimens for both newly diagnosed and recurrent cases, TAT increased the median OS by 16.1% in newly diagnosed GB and by 36.4% in rGB, compared to current standard therapies. Furthermore, it was generally well tolerated with minimal adverse effects. These findings underscore the potential of TAT as a viable therapeutic option in the management of GB.

Development of 225Ac-doped biocompatible nanoparticles for targeted alpha therapy

Targeted alpha therapy (TAT) relies on chemical affinity or active targeting using radioimmunoconjugates as strategies to deliver α-emitting radionuclides to cancerous tissue. These strategies can be affected by transmetalation of the parent radionuclide by competing ions in vivo and the bond-breaking recoil energy of decay daughters. The retention of α-emitting radionuclides and the dose delivered to cancer cells are influenced by these processes. Encapsulating α-emitting radionuclides within nanoparticles can help overcome many of these challenges. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles are a biodegradable and biocompatible delivery platform that has been used for drug delivery. In this study, PLGA nanoparticles are utilized for encapsulation and retention of actinium-225 ([225Ac]Ac3+). Encapsulation of [225Ac]Ac3+ within PLGA nanoparticles (Zave = 155.3 nm) was achieved by adapting a double-emulsion solvent evaporation method. The encapsulation efficiency was affected by both the solvent conditions and the chelation of [225Ac]Ac3+. Chelation of [225Ac]Ac3+ to a lipophilic 2,9-bis-lactam-1,10-phenanthroline ligand ([225Ac]AcBLPhen) significantly decreased its release (< 2%) and that of its decay daughters (< 50%) from PLGA nanoparticles. PLGA nanoparticles encapsulating [225Ac]AcBLPhen significantly increased the delivery of [225Ac]Ac3+ to murine (E0771) and human (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells with a concomitant increase in cell death over free [225Ac]Ac3+ in solution. These results demonstrate that PLGA nanoparticles have potential as radionuclide delivery platforms for TAT to advance precision radiotherapy for cancer. In addition, this technology offers an alternative use for ligands with poor aqueous solubility, low stability, or low affinity, allowing them to be repurposed for TAT by encapsulation within PLGA nanoparticles.

Evaluation of the theranostic potential of [64Cu]CuCl2 in glioblastoma spheroids

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma is an extremely aggressive malignant tumor with a very poor prognosis. Due to the increased proliferation rate of glioblastoma, there is the development of hypoxic regions, characterized by an increased concentration of copper (Cu). Considering this, 64Cu has attracted attention as a possible theranostic radionuclide for glioblastoma. In particular, [64Cu]CuCl2 accumulates in glioblastoma, being considered a suitable agent for positron emission tomography. Here, we explore further the theranostic potential of [64Cu]CuCl2, by studying its therapeutic effects in advanced three-dimensional glioblastoma cellular models. First, we established spheroids from three glioblastoma (T98G, U373, and U87) and a non-tumoral astrocytic cell line. Then, we evaluated the therapeutic responses of spheroids to [64Cu]CuCl2 exposure by analyzing spheroids' growth, viability, and cells' proliferative capacity. Afterward, we studied possible mechanisms responsible for the therapeutic outcomes, including the uptake of 64Cu, the expression levels of a copper transporter (CTR1), the presence of a cancer stem cell population, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

RESULTS

Results revealed that [64Cu]CuCl2 is able to significantly reduce spheroids' growth and viability, while also affecting cells' proliferation capacity. The uptake of 64Cu, the presence of cancer stem-like cells and the production of ROS were in accordance with the therapeutic response. However, expression levels of CTR1 were not in agreement with uptake levels, revealing that other mechanisms could be involved in the uptake of 64Cu.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results further support [64Cu]CuCl2 potential as a theranostic agent for glioblastoma, unveiling potential mechanisms that could be involved in the therapeutic response.

Integration of organoids in peptide drug discovery: Rise of the high‐throughput screening

Organoids are three‐dimensional cell aggregates with near‐physiologic cell behaviors and can undergo long‐term expansion in vitro. They are amenable to high‐throughput drug screening processes, which renders them a viable preclinical model for drug development. The procedure of organoid‐based high‐throughput screening has been extensively employed to discover small‐molecule drugs, encompassing the steps of generating organoids, examining efficient drugs in organoid cultures, and data assessment. Compared to small molecules, peptides are more straightforward to synthesize, can be modified chemically, and demonstrate high target specificity and low cytotoxicity. Therefore, they have emerged as promising carriers to deliver drugs to disease‐associated targets and could be efficient therapeutic drugs for various diseases. To date, organoids have been used to evaluate the efficacy of certain peptide agents; however, no organoid‐based high‐throughput screening of peptide drugs has been reported. Given the advantages of peptide drugs, there is an urgent need to establish organoid‐based peptide high‐throughput screening platforms. In this review, we discuss the typical approach of screening small‐molecular drugs with the use of organoid cultures, as well as provide an overview of the studies that have incorporated organoids in peptide research. Drawing on the knowledge from small molecular screens, we explore the difficulties and potential avenues for creating new platforms to identify peptide agents using organoid models.

A review of recent advancements in Actinium-225 labeled compounds and biomolecules for therapeutic purposes

In nuclear medicine, cancers that cannot be cured or can only be treated partially by traditional techniques like surgery or chemotherapy are killed by ionizing radiation as a form of therapeutic treatment. Actinium-225 is an alpha-emitting radionuclide that is highly encouraging as a therapeutic approach and more promising for targeted alpha therapy (TAT). Actinium-225 is the best candidate for tumor cells treatment and has physical characteristics such as high (LET) linear energy transfer (150 keV per μm), half-life (t1/2  = 9.92d), and short ranges (400-100 μm) which prevent the damage of normal healthy tissues. The introduction of various new radiopharmaceuticals and radioisotopes has significantly assisted the advancement of nuclear medicine. Ac-225 radiopharmaceuticals continuously demonstrate their potential as targeted alpha therapeutics. 225 Ac-labeled radiopharmaceuticals have confirmed their importance in medical and clinical areas by introducing [225 Ac]Ac-PSMA-617, [225 Ac]Ac-DOTATOC, [225 Ac]Ac-DOTA-substance-P, reported significantly improved response in patients with prostate cancer, neuroendocrine, and glioma, respectively. The development of these radiopharmaceuticals required a suitable buffer, incubation time, optimal pH, and reaction temperature. There is a growing need to standardize quality control (QC) testing techniques such as radiochemical purity (RCP). This review aims to summarize the development of the Ac-225 labeled compounds and biomolecules. The current state of their reported resulting clinical applications is also summarized as well.

Three-Dimensional In Vitro Tumor Spheroid Models for Evaluation of Anticancer Therapy: Recent Updates

Advanced tissue engineering processes and regenerative medicine provide modern strategies for fabricating 3D spheroids. Several different 3D cancer models are being developed to study a variety of cancers. Three-dimensional spheroids can correctly replicate some features of solid tumors (such as the secretion of soluble mediators, drug resistance mechanisms, gene expression patterns and physiological responses) better than 2D cell cultures or animal models. Tumor spheroids are also helpful for precisely reproducing the three-dimensional organization and microenvironmental factors of tumors. Because of these unique properties, the potential of 3D cell aggregates has been emphasized, and they have been utilized in in vitro models for the detection of novel anticancer drugs. This review discusses applications of 3D spheroid models in nuclear medicine for diagnosis and therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell and photodynamic therapy and also discusses the establishment of the anticancer activity of nanocarriers.

Mathematical Modeling of In Vivo Alpha Particle Generators and Chelator Stability

Background: Targeted α particle therapy using long-lived in vivo α particle generators is cytotoxic to target tissues. However, the redistribution of released radioactive daughters through the circulation should be considered. A mathematical model was developed to describe the physicochemical kinetics of 212Pb-labeled pharmaceuticals and its radioactive daughters. Materials and Methods: A bolus of 212Pb-labeled pharmaceuticals injected in a developed compartmental model was simulated. The contributions of chelated and free radionuclides to the total released energy were investigated for different dissociation fractions of 212Bi for different chelators, for example, 36% for DOTA. The compartmental model was applied to describe a 212Bi retention study and to assess the stability of the 212Bi-1,4,7,10-tetrakis(carbamoylmethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (212Bi-DOTAM) complex after β- decay of 212Pb. Results: The simulation of the injection showed that α emissions contribute 75% to the total released energy, mostly from 212Po (72%). The simulation of the 212Bi retention study showed that (16 ± 5)% of 212Bi atoms dissociate from the 212Bi-DOTAM complexes. The fractions of energies released by free radionuclides were 21% and 38% for DOTAM and DOTA chelators, respectively. Conclusion: The developed α particle generator model allows for simulating the radioactive kinetics of labeled and unlabeled pharmaceuticals being released from the chelating system due to a preceding disintegration.

Biomaterial-based in vitro 3D modeling of glioblastoma multiforme

Adult-onset brain cancers, such as glioblastomas, are particularly lethal. People with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) do not anticipate living for more than 15 months if there is no cure. The results of conventional treatments over the past 20 years have been underwhelming. Tumor aggressiveness, location, and lack of systemic therapies that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier are all contributing factors. For GBM treatments that appear promising in preclinical studies, there is a considerable rate of failure in phase I and II clinical trials. Unfortunately, access becomes impossible due to the intricate architecture of tumors. In vitro, bioengineered cancer models are currently being used by researchers to study disease development, test novel therapies, and advance specialized medications. Many different techniques for creating in vitro systems have arisen over the past few decades due to developments in cellular and tissue engineering. Later-stage research may yield better results if in vitro models that resemble brain tissue and the blood-brain barrier are used. With the use of 3D preclinical models made available by biomaterials, researchers have discovered that it is possible to overcome these limitations. Innovative in vitro models for the treatment of GBM are possible using biomaterials and novel drug carriers. This review discusses the benefits and drawbacks of 3D in vitro glioblastoma modeling systems.

Nanomaterials Based on Functional Polymers for Sensitizing Cancer Radiotherapy

Despite being the mainstay treatment for many types of cancer in clinic, radiotherapy is undertaking great challenges in overcoming a series of limitations. Radiosensitizers are promising agents capable of depositing irradiation energy and generating free radicals to enhance the radiosensitivity of tumor cells. Combining radiosensitizers with functional polymer-based nanomaterials holds great potential to improve biodistribution, circulation time, and stability in vivo. The derived polymeric nano-radiosensitizers can significantly improve the efficiency of tumor targeting and radiotherapy, and reduce the side effect to healthy tissues. In this review, we provide an overview of functional polymer-based nanomaterials for radiosensitization in recent years. Particular emphases are given to the action mechanisms, drug loading methods, targeting efficiencies, the impact on therapeutic effects and biocompatibility of various radiosensitizing polymers, which are classified as polymeric micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanospheres, nanoscale coordination polymers, polymersomes, and nanogels. The challenges and outlooks of polymeric nano-radiosensitizers are also discussed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Tumor grafted - chick chorioallantoic membrane as an alternative model for biological cancer research and conventional/nanomaterial-based theranostics evaluation

Introduction: Advancements in cancer management and treatment are associated with strong preclinical research data, in which reliable cancer models are demanded. Indeed, inconsistent preclinical findings and stringent regulations following the 3Rs principle of reduction, refinement, and replacement of conventional animal models currently pose challenges in the development and translation of efficient technologies. The chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) is a system for the evaluation of treatment effects on the vasculature, therefore suitable for studies on angiogenesis. Apart from vascular effects, the model is now increasingly employed as a preclinical cancer model following tumor-grafting procedures.Areas covered: The broad application of CAM tumor model is highlighted along with the methods for analyzing the neoplasm and vascular system. The presented and cited investigations focus on cancer biology and treatment, encompassing both conventional and emerging nanomaterial-based modalities.Expert opinion: The CAM tumor model finds increased significance given the influences of angiogenesis and the tumor microenvironment in cancer behavior, then providing a qualified miniature system for oncological research. Ultimately, the establishment and increased employment of such a model may resolve some of the limitations present in the standard preclinical tumor models, thereby redefining the preclinical research workflow.

Nanoradiopharmaceuticals Based on Alpha Emitters: Recent Developments for Medical Applications

The application of nanotechnology in nuclear medicine offers attractive therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. Indeed, nanoparticles-conjugated targeted alpha-particle therapy (TAT) would be ideal for localized cell killing due to high linear energy transfer and short ranges of alpha emitters. New approaches in radiolabeling are necessary because chemical radiolabeling techniques are rendered sub-optimal due to the presence of recoil energy generated by alpha decay, which causes chemical bonds to break. This review attempts to cover, in a concise fashion, various aspects of physics, radiobiology, and production of alpha emitters, as well as highlight the main problems they present, with possible new approaches to mitigate those problems. Special emphasis is placed on the strategies proposed for managing recoil energy. We will also provide an account of the recent studies in vitro and in vivo preclinical investigations of α-particle therapy delivered by various nanosystems from different materials, including inorganic nanoparticles, liposomes, and polymersomes, and some carbon-based systems are also summarized.

In vitro biomimetic models for glioblastoma-a promising tool for drug response studies

The poor response of glioblastoma to current treatment protocols is a consequence of its intrinsic drug resistance. Resistance to chemotherapy is primarily associated with considerable cellular heterogeneity, and plasticity of glioblastoma cells, alterations in gene expression, presence of specific tumor microenvironment conditions and blood-brain barrier. In an attempt to successfully overcome chemoresistance and better understand the biological behavior of glioblastoma, numerous tri-dimensional (3D) biomimetic models were developed in the past decade. These novel advanced models are able to better recapitulate the spatial organization of glioblastoma in a real time, therefore providing more realistic and reliable evidence to the response of glioblastoma to therapy. Moreover, these models enable the fine-tuning of different tumor microenvironment conditions and facilitate studies on the effects of the tumor microenvironment on glioblastoma chemoresistance. This review outlines current knowledge on the essence of glioblastoma chemoresistance and describes the progress achieved by 3D biomimetic models. Moreover, comprehensive literature assessment regarding the influence of 3D culturing and microenvironment mimicking on glioblastoma gene expression and biological behavior is also provided. The contribution of the blood-brain barrier as well as the blood-tumor barrier to glioblastoma chemoresistance is also reviewed from the perspective of 3D biomimetic models. Finally, the role of mathematical models in predicting 3D glioblastoma behavior and drug response is elaborated. In the future, technological innovations along with mathematical simulations should create reliable 3D biomimetic systems for glioblastoma research that should facilitate the identification and possibly application in preclinical drug testing and precision medicine.

Tailoring the Radionuclide Encapsulation and Surface Chemistry of La(223Ra)VO4 Nanoparticles for Targeted Alpha Therapy

The development of targeted alpha therapy (TAT) as a viable cancer treatment requires innovative solutions to challenges associated with radionuclide retention to enhance local tumor cytotoxicity and to minimize off-target effects. Nanoparticles (NPs) with high encapsulation and high retention of radionuclides have shown potential in overcoming these issues. This article shows the influence of pH on the structure of lanthanum vanadate (LaVO4) NPs and its impact on the radiochemical yield of 223Ra and subsequent retention of its decay daughters, 211Pb and 211Bi. An acidic pH (4.9) results in a high fraction of La(223Ra)VO4 NPs with tetragonal structure (44.6–66.1%) and a 223Ra radiochemical yield <40%. Adjusting the pH to 11 yields >80% of La(223Ra)VO4 NPs with monoclinic structure and increases the 223Ra radiochemical yield >85%. The leakage of decay daughters from La(223Ra)VO4 NPs (pH 11) was <5% and <0.5% when exposed to deionized water and phosphate-buffered saline, respectively. Altering the surface chemistry of La(223Ra)VO4 NPs with carboxylate and phosphate compounds resulted in a threefold decrease in hydrodynamic diameter and a 223Ra radiochemical yield between 74.7% and 99.6%. These results show the importance of tailoring the synthesis parameters and surface chemistry of LaVO4 NPs to obtain high encapsulation and retention of radionuclides.

Three-Dimensional Cell Culture Systems in Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research

In preclinical cancer research, three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems such as multicellular spheroids and organoids are becoming increasingly important. They provide valuable information before studies on animal models begin and, in some cases, are even suitable for reducing or replacing animal experiments. Furthermore, they recapitulate microtumors, metastases, and the tumor microenvironment much better than monolayer culture systems could. Three-dimensional models show higher structural complexity and diverse cell interactions while reflecting (patho)physiological phenomena such as oxygen and nutrient gradients in the course of their growth or development. These interactions and properties are of great importance for understanding the pathophysiological importance of stromal cells and the extracellular matrix for tumor progression, treatment response, or resistance mechanisms of solid tumors. Special emphasis is placed on co-cultivation with tumor-associated cells, which further increases the predictive value of 3D models, e.g., for drug development. The aim of this overview is to shed light on selected 3D models and their advantages and disadvantages, especially from the radiopharmacist's point of view with focus on the suitability of 3D models for the radiopharmacological characterization of novel radiotracers and radiotherapeutics. Special attention is paid to pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) as a predestined target for the development of new radionuclide-based theranostics.

Encapsulation and retention of 225Ac, 223Ra, 227Th, and decay daughters in zircon-type gadolinium vanadate nanoparticles

Unwanted targeting of healthy organs caused by the relocation of radionuclides from the target site has been one of the limiting factors in the widespread application of targeted alpha therapy in patient regimens. GdVO4 nanoparticles (NPs) were developed as platforms to encapsulate α-emitting radionuclides 223Ra, 225Ac, and 227Th, and retain their decay daughters at the target site. Polycrystalline GdVO4 NPs with different morphologies and a zircon-type tetragonal crystal structure were obtained by precipitation of GdCl3 and Na3VO4 in aqueous media at room temperature. The ability of GdVO4 crystals to host multivalent ions was initially assessed using La, Cs, Bi, Ba, and Pb as surrogates of the radionuclides under investigation. A decrease in Ba encapsulation was obtained after increasing the concentration of surrogate ions, whereas the encapsulation of La cations in GdVO4 NPs was quantitative (∼100%). Retention of radionuclides was assessed in vitro by dialyzing the radioactive GdVO4 NPs against deionized water. While 227Th was quantitatively encapsulated (100%), a partial encapsulation of 223Ra (∼75%) and 225Ac (>60%) was observed in GdVO4 NPs. The maximum leakage of 221Fr (1st decay daughter of 225Ac) was 55.4 ± 3.6%, whereas for 223Ra (1st decay daughter of 227Th) the maximum leakage was 73.0 ± 4.0%. These results show the potential of GdVO4 NPs as platforms of α-emitting radionuclides for their application in targeted alpha therapy.

Nanoparticles in Targeted Alpha Therapy

Recent advances in the field of nanotechnology application in nuclear medicine offer the promise of better therapeutic options. In recent years, increasing efforts have been made on developing nanoconstructs that can be used as carriers for immobilising alpha (α)-emitters in targeted drug delivery. In this publication, we provide a comprehensive overview of available information on functional nanomaterials for targeted alpha therapy. The first section describes why nanoconstructs are used for the synthesis of α-emitting radiopharmaceuticals. Next, we present the synthesis and summarise the recent studies demonstrating therapeutic applications of α-emitting labelled radiobioconjugates in targeted therapy. Finally, future prospects and the emerging possibility of therapeutic application of radiolabelled nanomaterials are discussed.

Technical Note: The development of a multi-physics simulation tool to estimate the background dose by systemic targeted alpha therapy

PURPOSE

To predict biological effects of targeted alpha therapy (TAT) in preclinical studies, dosimetry calculations based on the micro-level distributions of emitters are essential. Due to the saturation of the tumor antigenic sites and bonding breaks by decay, some of Alpha-immuno-conjugate and decay daughters may inevitably be transported by convection and diffusion along with blood or lymphatic circulation. This results in highly nonuniform and unsteady distributions of irradiation sources. Since the micro-level distribution of emitters cannot be measured and obtained in patients with current technology, a modeling toolset to give more insight of the internal dose could be an alternative.

METHODS

A multi-physics model based on a Monte Carlo microdosimetry technique and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling was developed and applied to multiple internal irradiation sources. The CFD model tracks the path of the radionuclides and the dose model is capable of evaluating the time-dependent absorbed dose to the target.

RESULTS

The conceptual model is capable of handling complex nonuniform irradiation sources in vasculature. The results from the simulations indicate that the assumption of homogeneous and motionless distribution of the administered activity used in the conventional dose calculation tends to significantly underestimate or overestimate the absorbed dose to the vascular system in various scenarios.

CONCLUSION

Modeling the in vivo transport of radionuclides has the potential to improve the accuracy of TAT dose estimates. It could be the first step to develop a simulation tool set for assessing absorbed dose to tumor or normal tissues and predict the corresponding biological responses in the future.

Quantitative encapsulation and retention of 227Th and decay daughters in core-shell lanthanum phosphate nanoparticles

Targeted alpha therapy (TAT) offers great promise for treating recalcitrant tumors and micrometastatic cancers. One drawback of TAT is the potential damage to normal tissues and organs due to the relocation of decay daughters from the treatment site. The present study evaluates La(227Th)PO4 core (C) and core +2 shells (C2S) nanoparticles (NPs) as a delivery platform of 227Th to minimize systemic distribution of decay daughters, 223Ra and 211Pb. In vitro retention of decay daughters within La(227Th)PO4 C NPs was influenced by the concentration of reagents used during synthesis, in which the leakage of 223Ra was between 0.4 ± 0.2% and 20.3 ± 1.1% in deionized water. Deposition of two nonradioactive LaPO4 shells onto La(227Th)PO4 C NPs increased the retention of decay daughters to >99.75%. The toxicity of the nonradioactive LaPO4 C and C2S NP delivery platforms was examined in a mammalian breast cancer cell line, BT-474. No significant decrease in cell viability was observed for a monolayer of BT-474 cells for NP concentrations below 233.9 μg mL-1, however cell viability decreased below 60% when BT-474 spheroids were incubated with either LaPO4 C or C2S NPs at concentrations exceeding 29.2 μg mL-1. La(227Th)PO4 C2S NPs exhibit a high encapsulation and in vitro retention of radionuclides with limited contribution to cellular cytotoxicity for TAT applications.

Trastuzumab Conjugated Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Labeled with 225Ac as a Perspective Tool for Combined α-Radioimmunotherapy and Magnetic Hyperthermia of HER2-Positive Breast Cancer

It has been proven and confirmed in numerous repeated tests, that the use of a combination of several therapeutic methods gives much better treatment results than in the case of separate therapies. Particularly promising is the combination of ionizing radiation and magnetic hyperthermia in one drug. To achieve this objective, magnetite nanoparticles have been modified in their core with α emitter ²²⁵Ac, in an amount affecting only slightly their magnetic properties. By 3-phosphonopropionic acid (CEPA) linker nanoparticles were conjugated covalently with trastuzumab (Herceptin^®), a monoclonal antibody that recognizes ovarian and breast cancer cells overexpressing the HER2 receptors. The synthesized bioconjugates were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) measurement, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and application of ¹³¹I-labeled trastuzumab for quantification of the bound biomolecule. The obtained results show that one ²²⁵Ac@Fe₃O₄-CEPA-trastuzumab bioconjugate contains an average of 8–11 molecules of trastuzumab. The labeled nanoparticles almost quantitatively retain ²²⁵Ac (>98%) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and physiological salt, and more than 90% of ²²¹Fr and ²¹³Bi over 10 days. In human serum after 10 days, the fraction of ²²⁵Ac released from ²²⁵Ac@Fe₃O₄ was still less than 2%, but the retention of ²²¹Fr and ²¹³Bi decreased to 70%. The synthesized ²²⁵Ac@Fe₃O₄-CEPA-trastuzumab bioconjugates have shown a high cytotoxic effect toward SKOV-3 ovarian cancer cells expressing HER2 receptor in-vitro. The in-vivo studies indicate that this bioconjugate exhibits properties suitable for the treatment of cancer cells by intratumoral or post-resection injection. The intravenous injection of the ²²⁵Ac@Fe₃O₄-CEPA-trastuzumab radiobioconjugate is excluded due to its high accumulation in the liver, lungs and spleen. Additionally, the high value of a specific absorption rate (SAR) allows its use in a new very perspective combination of α radionuclide therapy with magnetic hyperthermia.

Uptake and subcellular distribution of radiolabeled polymersomes for radiotherapy

Polymersomes have the potential to be applied in targeted alpha radionuclide therapy, while in addition preventing release of recoiling daughter isotopes. In this study, we investigated the cellular uptake, post uptake processing and intracellular localization of polymersomes. Methods: High-content microscopy was used to validate polymersome uptake kinetics. Confocal (live cell) microscopy was used to elucidate the uptake mechanism and DNA damage induction. Intracellular distribution of polymersomes in 3-D was determined using super-resolution microscopy. Results: We found that altering polymersome size and concentration affects the initial uptake and overall uptake capacity; uptake efficiency and eventual plateau levels varied between cell lines; and mitotic cells show increased uptake. Intracellular polymersomes were transported along microtubules in a fast and dynamic manner. Endocytic uptake of polymersomes was evidenced through co-localization with endocytic pathway components. Finally, we show the intracellular distribution of polymersomes in 3-D and DNA damage inducing capabilities of 213Bi labeled polymersomes. Conclusion: Polymersome size and concentration affect the uptake efficiency, which also varies for different cell types. In addition, we present advanced assays to investigate uptake characteristics in detail, a necessity for optimization of nano-carriers. Moreover, by elucidating the uptake mechanism, as well as uptake extent and geometrical distribution of radiolabeled polymersomes we provide insight on how to improve polymersome design.

Preclinical evaluation of binimetinib (MEK162) delivered via polymeric nanocarriers in combination with radiation and temozolomide in glioma

Background and purpose

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive subtype of malignant gliomas, with an average survival rate of 15 months after diagnosis. More than 90% of all GBMs have activating mutations in the MAPK/ERK pathway. Recently, we showed the allosteric MEK1/2 inhibitor binimetinib (MEK162) to inhibit cell proliferation and to enhance the effect of radiation in preclinical human GBM models. Because the free drug cannot pass the blood–brain barrier (BBB), we investigated the use of nanocarriers for transport of the drug through the BBB and its efficacy when combined with radiotherapy and temozolomide (TMZ) in glioma spheroids.

Methods

In vitro studies were performed using multicellular U87 human GBM spheroids. Polymeric nanocarriers (polymersomes) were loaded with MEK162. The interaction between nanocarrier delivered MEK162, irradiation and TMZ was studied on the kinetics of spheroid growth and on protein expression in the MAPK/ERK pathway. BBB passaging was evaluated in a transwell system with human cerebral microvascular endothelial (hCMEC/D3) cells.

Results

MEK162 loaded polymersomes inhibited spheroid growth. A synergistic effect was found in combination with fractionated irradiation and an additive effect with TMZ on spheroid volume reduction. Fluorescent labeled polymersomes were taken up by human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells and passed the BBB in vitro.

Conclusion

MEK162 loaded polymersomes are taken up by multicellular spheroids. The nanocarrier delivered drug reduced spheroid growth and inhibited its molecular target. MEK162 delivered via polymersomes showed interaction with irradiation and TMZ. The polymersomes crossed the in vitro BBB model and therewith offer exciting challenges ahead for delivery of therapeutics agents to brain tumours.

Biological intratumoral therapy for the high-grade glioma part II: vector- and cell-based therapies and radioimmunotherapy

Management of high-grade gliomas (HGGs) remains a complex challenge with an overall poor prognosis despite aggressive multimodal treatment. New translational research has focused on maximizing tumor cell eradication through improved tumor cell targeting while minimizing collateral systemic side effects. In particular, biological intratumoral therapies have been the focus of novel translational research efforts due to their inherent potential to be both dynamically adaptive and target specific. This two part review will provide an overview of biological intratumoral therapies that have been evaluated in human clinical trials in HGGs, and summarize key advances and remaining challenges in the development of these therapies as a potential new paradigm in the management of HGGs. Part II discusses vector-based therapies, cell-based therapies and radioimmunotherapy.

The in vivo fate of 225Ac daughter nuclides using polymersomes as a model carrier

Increasing attention is given to personalized tumour therapy, where α-emitters can potentially play an important role. Alpha particles are ideal for localized cell killing because of their high linear energy transfer and short ranges. However, upon the emission of an α particle the daughter nuclide experiences a recoil energy large enough to ensure decoupling from any chemical bond. These 'free' daughter nuclides are no longer targeted to the tumour and can accumulate in normal tissue. In this paper, we used polymersomes as model carrier to evaluate the retention of recoiling daughters of ²²⁵Ac in vivo, and assessed their suitability as therapeutic agents. Vesicles containing ²²⁵Ac were injected intravenously in healthy mice, and intratumourally in tumour-bearing mice, and the relocation of free ²¹³Bi was assessed in different organs upon the injection [²²⁵Ac]Ac-polymersomes. The therapeutic effect of ²²⁵Ac-containing vesicles was studied upon intratumoural injection, where treatment groups experienced no tumour-related deaths over a 115 day period. While polymersomes containing ²²⁵Ac could be suitable agents for long-term irradiation of tumours without causing significant renal toxicity, there is still a significant re-distribution of daughter nuclides throughout the body, signifying the importance of careful evaluation of the effect of daughter nuclides in targeted alpha therapy.

Elucidating the Influence of Tumor Presence on the Polymersome Circulation Time in Mice

The use of nanoparticles as tumor-targeting agents is steadily increasing, and the influence of nanoparticle characteristics such as size and stealthiness have been established for a large number of nanocarrier systems. However, not much is known about the impact of tumor presence on nanocarrier circulation times. This paper reports on the influence of tumor presence on the in vivo circulation time and biodistribution of polybutadiene-polyethylene oxide (PBd-PEO) polymersomes. For this purpose, polymersomes were loaded with the gamma-emitter 111In and administered intravenously, followed by timed ex vivo biodistribution. A large reduction in circulation time was observed for tumor-bearing mice, with a circulation half-life of merely 5 min (R2 = 0.98) vs 117 min (R2 = 0.95) in healthy mice. To determine whether the rapid polymersome clearance observed in tumor-bearing mice was mediated by macrophages, chlodronate liposomes were administered to both healthy and tumor-bearing mice prior to the intravenous injection of radiolabeled polymersomes to deplete their macrophages. Pretreatment with chlodronate liposomes depleted macrophages in the spleen and liver and restored the circulation time of the polymersomes with no significant difference in circulation time between healthy mice and tumor-bearing mice pretreated with clodronate liposomes (15.2 ± 1.2% ID/g and 13.6 ± 2.7% ID/g, respectively, at 4 h p.i. with p = 0.3). This indicates that activation of macrophages due to tumor presence indeed affected polymersome clearance rate. Thus, next to particle design, the presence of a tumor can also greatly impact circulation times and should be taken into account when designing studies to evaluate the distribution of polymersomes.

Review of Therapeutic Applications of Radiolabeled Functional Nanomaterials

In the last two decades, various nanomaterials have attracted increasing attention in medical science owing to their unique physical and chemical characteristics. Incorporating radionuclides into conventionally used nanomaterials can confer useful additional properties compared to the original material. Therefore, various radionuclides have been used to synthesize functional nanomaterials for biomedical applications. In particular, several α- or β-emitter-labeled organic and inorganic nanoparticles have been extensively investigated for efficient and targeted cancer treatment. This article reviews recent progress in cancer therapy using radiolabeled nanomaterials including inorganic, polymeric, and carbon-based materials and liposomes. We first provide an overview of radiolabeling methods for preparing anticancer agents that have been investigated recently in preclinical studies. Next, we discuss the therapeutic applications and effectiveness of α- or β-emitter-incorporated nanomaterials in animal models and the emerging possibilities of these nanomaterials in cancer therapy.