Immunotoxicity responses to polystyrene nanoplastics and their related mechanisms in the liver of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

Combined exposure of polystyrene nanoplastics and silver nanoparticles exacerbating hepatotoxicity in zebrafish mediated by ferroptosis pathway through increased silver accumulation

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are extensively utilized for their antibacterial properties, leading to their release into the environment and subsequent bioaccumulation and biomagnification within the food chain. Polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs), as emerging pollutants, act as carriers for contaminants and alter their transformation processes. However, the toxicological effects and underlying mechanisms associated with the coexistence of these pollutants remain largely unexplored. Herein, the hepatotoxic effects and underlying mechanisms of acute combined exposure to PSNPs and AgNPs were explored using zebrafish as a model organism. After exposed to PSNPs and AgNPs, the larvae (120 hours post-fertilization) exhibited lipid metabolism disorders, increased oxidative stress, hepatomegaly, and liver dysfunction, with these effects being more pronounced than those observed with AgNPs exposure alone. This increase in hepatic toxicity may be due to the enhanced accumulation of AgNPs under combined exposure. Mechanistic investigations revealed that co-exposure led to a significant elevation in malondialdehyde and Fe2 + levels, a loss of mitochondrial cristae and a decrease in membrane potential, along with the abnormal expression of ferroptosis-related genes, which are hallmark indicators of ferroptosis. Furthermore, the introduction of the ferroptosis inhibitor deferoxamine alleviated all observed hepatotoxic phenotypes, thereby confirming that PS+AgNPs co-exposure induced liver injury through the ferroptosis pathway.

Effect of polystyrene nanoplastics on the intestinal histopathology, oxidative stress, and microbiota of Acrossocheilus yunnanensis

Even though extensive research exists on the negative impact of nanoplastics on fish, their effect on the microbiota and intestinal health of freshwater fish remains unclear. This study investigated the impact of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on the microbiota, oxidative stress, and intestinal morphology of the Acrossocheilus yunnanensis (A. yunnanensis) freshwater fish species. The findings demonstrated that PS-NPs induced structural changes (e.g., epithelial rupture and microvilli damage) in the intestinal tissue of A. yunnanensis. Meanwhile, they increased the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the intestine, but did not significantly cause changes in the activities of catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes. The microbiome results indicated that PS-NPs increased gut microbial community diversity and Proteobacteria abundance while decreasing the Fusobacteriota content. Furthermore, PS-NPs significantly improved multiple microbial functions such as amino acid and lipid transfer and metabolism, as well as energy generation and conversion. Overall, this study revealed that PS-NPs caused oxidative stress and microbiota dysbiosis in A. yunnanensis, possibly causing intestinal epithelial damage. This research elucidates the mechanism underlying PS-NP toxicity to freshwater fish and its subsequent impact.

Unveiling the toxicity of micro-nanoplastics: A systematic exploration of understanding environmental and health implications

The surge in plastic production has spurred a global crisis as plastic pollution intensifies, with microplastics and nanoplastics emerging as notable environmental threats. Due to their miniature size, these particles are ubiquitous across ecosystems and pose severe hazards as they are ingested and bioaccumulate within organisms. Although global plastic production has reached an alarming 400.3 MTs, recycling efforts remain limited, with only 18.5 MTs being recycled. Currently, out of the total plastic waste, 49.6 % is converted into energy, 27 % is recycled, and 23.5 % is recovered as material, indicating a need for better waste management practices to combat the escalating pollution levels. Research studies on micro-nanoplastics have primarily concentrated on their environmental presence and laboratory-based toxicity studies. This review critically examines the sources and detection methods for micro-nanoplastics, emphasising their toxicological effects and ecological impacts. Organisms like zebrafish and rats serve as key models for studying these particle's bioaccumulative potential, showcasing adverse effects that extend to DNA damage, oxidative stress, and cellular apoptosis. Studies reveal that micro-nanoplastics can permeate biological barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, neurological imbalance, cardiac, respiratory, and dermatological disorders. These health risks, particularly relevant for humans, underscore the urgency for broader, real-world studies beyond controlled laboratory conditions. Additionally, the review discusses innovative energy-harvesting technologies as sustainable alternatives for plastic waste utilisation, particularly valuable for energy-deficient regions. These strategies aim to simultaneously address energy demands and mitigate plastic waste. This approach aligns with global sustainability goals, providing a promising avenue for both pollution reduction and energy generation. The review calls for further research to enhance detection techniques, assess long-term environmental impacts, and explore sustainable solutions that integrate energy recovery with pollution mitigation, especially in regions most affected by both energy shortages and increased plastic waste.

Polystyrene nanoplastics cause developmental abnormalities, oxidative damage and immune toxicity in early zebrafish development

Aquatic organisms are increasingly affected by polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs), which have the potential to disrupt development, induce oxidative stress, and impair immune function. This study examined the effects of PSNPs on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos exposed to 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/mL from 2 to 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). The findings indicated that developmental abnormalities occurred in a dose-dependent manner, including delayed hatching, decreased survival rates, reduced body length, smaller eye diameter, and enlarged yolk sac area. PSNPs accumulated in the chorion and yolk sac as early as 6 hpf and were detected in vital tissues, such as the eyes, heart, yolk sac, liver, pancreas, intestine, neuromasts, and tail, immediately after hatching. By 120 hpf, PSNPs significantly reduced swimming distance and velocity. Exposure to PSNPs induced oxidative damage evidenced by altered expression of antioxidant-related genes (CAT1, GPX1A, SOD1, NRF2, KEAP1, HSP70, MT), disrupting cellular homeostasis and causing structural and organ defects. Immune toxicity was marked by dysregulated expression of immune-related genes (IL-1β, IL-6, NF-κB, TNF-α, C3B, TLR-1, TLR-3, TLR-4), indicating inflammation and innate immune activation triggered by oxidative damage. This study highlights the interconnected impacts of developmental abnormalities, oxidative damage, and immune toxicity caused by PSNPs exposure, highlighting the systemic impacts of nanoplastics contamination in aquatic environments.

Nanoplastic-induced antibody liquid-liquid phase separation: Insights into potential immunotoxic implications

The increasing environmental prevalence of micro/nano plastics (MNPs) has raised significant concerns regarding their potential impact on human health, particularly in terms of immunotoxicity. However, the direct effects of MNPs on immune molecules, especially how they may influence protein liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS)-a critical process implicated in various aspects of immune function-remain largely unexplored. This study addresses this gap by investigating the effects of polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) with different surface modifications and sizes on LLPS in immunoglobulin Y (IgY) antibodies, critical components of the avian immune system. Our findings reveal that PS-COOH NPs uniquely induce LLPS in IgY in a size-dependent manner, while PS-NH2 and unmodified PS NPs do not. Furthermore, NP-induced LLPS disrupts IgY's antigen-binding capability, potentially impairing immune responses. Notably, the IgY-Fc fragment shows a greater tendency for LLPS than the full-length antibody, suggesting broader implications for immune receptor interactions. These findings underscore the significant roles of nanoparticle surface chemistry, size, and antigen interactions in modulating LLPS. This study pioneers the exploration of MNPs-induced LLPS as a potential mechanism of immunotoxicity, providing crucial insights into the health risks posed by environmental MNPs and informing strategies for mitigation.

Distinctive lipidomic responses induced by polystyrene micro- and nano-plastics in zebrafish liver cells

Despite growing awareness of the size-dependent toxicity caused by micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) in fish, the modulation of the liver lipidome as a function of particle size has not been thoroughly investigated. This study explores the subcellular and molecular responses induced by polystyrene microplastics (MPs, 1 µm) and nano-plastics (NPs, 52 nm) in zebrafish liver (ZFL) cells, with a focus on the modulation of the cell's lipidome and gene expression profiles. Both particle sizes are readily internalized by ZFL cells; however, NPs had a more pronounced impact compared to MPs. Lipidomic analysis revealed that MPs decreased polyunsaturated phospholipids, while NPs increased ether-linked phosphatidylcholines (PC-Ps/PCOs). Gene expression analysis showed that high concentrations of MPs down-regulated the expression of fatty acid synthesis related genes, and significantly downregulated the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (mtp) gene, indicating a perturbation in lipid storage metabolism, which was not observed for NP exposure. In contrast, NPs induced a dose-dependent accumulation of lipids, suggesting increased lipid droplet formation and an activation of ceramide-mediated apoptosis pathway. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of MNP toxicity and emphasize the importance of considering particle size when assessing environmental and health risks. Furthermore, this study highlights the potential of lipidomics for elucidating the mechanisms underlying MNP toxicity, prompting further research into of the long-term consequences of exposure.

Synergistic impact of temperature rises and ferric oxide nanoparticles on biochemical and oxidative stress biomarkers in Oreochromis niloticus: relevant environmental risk assessment under predicted global warming

Global warming and contamination of freshwater environments with nanoparticles (NPs) pose a global threat to biodiversity. Numerous studies demonstrated the effects of increasing temperatures and NPs separately, but their combined impact on aquatic life remains poorly understood or unstudied, particularly under predicted rising temperatures resulting from global warming (+ 2 and + 4 °C). So, the present study aims to determine how the temperature rises affect the toxicological characteristics of ferric oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs) on the prevalent freshwater fish, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish samples were randomly put into six glass aquaria groups: 0 mg/L Fe2O3 NPs and 25 mg/L Fe2O3 NPs groups at 30 °C, 32 °C, and 34 °C with duplicated aquaria per group for 4 days. Hydrodynamic size and zeta potential evaluations revealed that Fe2O3 NPs' aggregation in water decreases with high temperature. Additionally, increasing the temperature and exposure to Fe2O3 NPs led to a significant rise in total proteins, albumin, globulin, plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST), plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT), plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine, and uric acid. We also noticed alterations in the amounts of malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione reduced (GSH), and catalase (CAT) in the fish's liver and gills. Finally, our findings indicated that Fe2O3 NPs' toxicity in fish escalated with increasing temperature, peaking at 34 °C due to particle property changes caused by temperature elevation. Therefore, it should not ignore the impact of the projected global increasing temperatures on NPs toxicity in freshwater habitats.

Maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics induces sex-specific kidney injury in offspring

Maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) during pregnancy and lactation has been linked to adverse effects on offspring kidney development, with sex-specific outcomes. This study investigated the impact of maternal PS-NPs exposure on kidney weight, histology, transcriptomics, and functional pathways in offspring mice. Offspring exposed to PS-NPs exhibited significantly lower body weight (P < 0.05) and an increased kidney-to-body weight ratio (P < 0.05), particularly in males. Histological analysis revealed a reduction in glomerular number in PS-NP-treated groups. Transcriptome profiling identified 758 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in male and 101 DEGs in female offspring, with males showing a more pronounced alteration in gene expression. KEGG pathway enrichment highlighted disruptions in immune response, cell cycle regulation, and metabolism, with males exhibiting more extensive pathway changes than females. Additionally, PS-NPs exposure increased renal fibrosis (P < 0.05), with molecular analyses confirming sex-specific gene expression patterns linked to fibrosis and apoptosis. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed enhanced macrophage infiltration and cleaved caspase-3 expression, indicating heightened immune and apoptotic responses in males. Further investigation identified small molecules BI-D1870 and Resatorvid as potential therapeutic agents, reducing fibrosis, inflammation, and apoptosis in male and female offspring, respectively. These findings demonstrate that maternal PS-NPs exposure induces sex-specific kidney injury in offspring, disrupting key biological processes and pathways. The study underscores the need for targeted therapeutic interventions to mitigate these effects and highlights potential compounds for future treatment.

Zebrafish and Drosophila as Model Systems for Studying the Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics ‐ A Systematic Review

Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are byproducts of plastics created to benefit humanity, but improper disposal and inadequate recycling have turned them into a global menace that we can no longer conceal. As they interact with all living organisms, including humans, their mechanism of interaction and their perilous impact must be meticulously investigated. To uncover the secrets of MNPs, there must be model systems that exist to interlink the two major scenarios: they must represent the environmental impact and be relevant to humans. Therefore, zebrafish and Drosophila are perfect to describe these two cases, as they are well studied and relatable to humans. In this review, 39% zebrafish studies reported higher mortality and hatching rates at greater MNP concentrations, severe oxidative stress as seen by raised malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. About 50% of studies showed severe neurotoxic behavior with drop of locomotor activity, suggesting neurotoxicity. MNPs have a significant impact on fertility rate of Drosophila. More than half of the studies revealed genotoxicity in Drosophila as observed by wing spot assays and modified genomic expressions associated with stress and detoxification processes. These findings emphasize the potential of MNPs to bioaccumulate, impair physiological systems, and cause oxidative and neurobehavioral damage. This study underscores the importance for thorough risk evaluations of MNPs and their environmental and health consequences.

Apoptosis, MAPK signaling pathway affected in tilapia liver following nano-microplastics and sulfamethoxazole acute co-exposure

Studies showed that toxicants that adhered to the surface of nano-microplastics (NPs) have toxicological effects. Juvenile tilapia were divided into four groups namely the control group (A), 100 ng·L-1 sulfamethoxazole (SMZ) group (B), 75 nm NPs group (C) and SMZ + 75 nm NPs group (D), and were exposed to an acute test for 2, 4 and 8 days. The hepatic histopathological changes, enzymatic activities, transcriptomics and proteomics analysis have been performed. The results showed that; the enzymatic activities of anti-oxidative enzymes (ROS, SOD, EROD), energy (ATP), lipid metabolism (TC, TG, FAS, LPL, ACC), pro-inflammatory factors (TNFα, IL-1β) and apoptosis (Caspase 3) have decreased significantly at 8 d. Hepatic histopathological results revealed the narrowed hepatic sinuses, displaced nucleus, and vacuoles under SMZ exposure. Transcriptome results demonstrated that endocytosis, MAPK signaling pathway, apoptosis, lysosome and herpes simplex infection were enriched in group C at 8 d. apaf1, casp3a, nfkbiaa (apoptosis, except for 8 d) were significantly increased, il1b and tgfb3, fgfr2 showed significant increase and decrease in group C/D. ctsd and ctsk associated with apoptosis have been especially significantly increased at 8 d, while MAPK signaling pathway, gadd45ga, gadd45gb/gadd45gg have been significantly decreased and increased, as well as map3k3/map3k2 significantly decreased at 8 d. Apoptosis and MAPK signaling pathway were affected and the synergistic effect was verified in tilapia liver following NPs and SMZ acute co-exposure.

Reversibility of polystyrene nanoplastics-induced disruption of testosterone biosynthesis in mice: The role of histone modifications

Nanoplastics (NPs) exposure could disrupt the synthesis of steroid hormones, thereby posing a potential threat to male reproductive health. However, the existing comprehension of the molecular mechanisms participating in this process remains limited, and the reversibility of NPs-triggered male reproductive toxicity is poorly understood. This investigation focused on the impact of histone modification on testosterone production in mice under long-term exposure to environmentally relevant doses of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs). The results showed 500 nm and 100 nm PS-NPs could accumulate in mouse testis, with a subsequent significant decrease following a period of self-recovery. The testosterone levels significantly increased after exposure to 500 nm and 100 nm PS-NPs, and the protein levels of CYP11A1, CYP17A1, and 17β-HSD were upregulated. Furthermore, PS-NPs exposure decreased the levels of multiple histone modifications (H3K9me1/2, H3K4me2/3, and H3K4/9ac) while increased H3K9me3 in mouse testis. Histone H3K9 methylation is linked with gene inhibition, whereas H3K4 methylation and H3K4/9 acetylation contribute to gene activation. ChIP analysis further confirmed that H3K9me2 was markedly decreased in the promoter regions of Cyp11a1 and Hsd17b. Additionally, H3K9me2 demethylase Jhdm2a was significantly increased. These findings suggested that low-level PS-NPs inhibited H3K9me2 through upregulating Jhdm2a, thereby activating key steroidogenic proteins CYP11A1 and 17β-HSD, ultimately promoting testosterone synthesis in mouse testis. Importantly, the changes in testosterone, steroidogenic proteins and histone modifications were effectively reversed upon the cessation of exposure to 500 nm and 100 nm PS-NPs. Collectively, these discoveries offer fresh perspectives on the epigenetic mechanisms underlying male reproductive endocrine disruption caused by PS-NPs, and contribute to assessing the human health hazards associated with exposure to environmental NPs.

Comparison of different fragmentation techniques for the production of true-to-life microplastics

Microplastics are small plastic particles found widely in the environment, posing significant challenges as diverse environmental contaminants. Their pervasive presence and potential impacts on ecosystems and human health underscore the importance of research in this field. However, working with microplastics in the laboratory and field can be challenging due to the difficulty in creating particles that are similar to those found in the environment. The advancement of research in this area is, therefore, dependent on the availability of reference materials or representative test materials that can simulate real-world conditions. One of the biggest challenges in creating more relevant test microplastics is investigating processes that can mimic as close as possible the environmental counterpart. To tackle this challenge, we have explored three distinct cryogenic grinding techniques for generating microplastics on a laboratory scale (ultracentrifugal mill, immersion blender, mixer mill). The resulting products were examined, and the advantages and limitations of the technologies were analyzed to gain deeper insights into the correlation between the various techniques utilized and the distinctive characteristics of the "true-to-life" microplastics produced. This allows us to tailor the production of test materials to the specific research questions they are intended to address. Furthermore, by understanding the characteristics of true-to-life microplastics, we can gain insights into their behavior under various environmental conditions. This knowledge can help in developing better methods for detecting and monitoring microplastics in the environment, as well as developing more effective mitigation strategies to reduce their impact.

Physiological impact of secondary nanoplastics on aquatic inhabitants in special reference to immunotoxicity

Nanoplastic (NP) pollution poses serious health hazards to aquatic ecosystems, impacting various physiological systems of aquatic organisms. This review examines the complex interplay between NPs and different physiological systems. In the digestive system, NPs downregulate the hsp70-like gene in Mytilus galloprovincialis, leading to decreased metabolic processes and impaired digestion. Neural system exposure to NPs induces abnormal expression of genes like neurogenin1, GFAP, FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene, GAP-43, synapsin IIa, apoptosis regulator a, Bcl2 and Caspase a, and apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase. These genes play a crucial role in neurodevelopment, synaptic function and apoptosis regulation, potentially impacting neurobiology and cancer biology. NPs also affect reproduction, including gametogenesis, spawning, fertilization, embryogenesis and larval survivability. In the respiratory system, treatment with these causes inflammation in the lungs and gills, resulting in respiratory dysfunction. Moreover, this review investigates the complex interaction between NPs and the immune systems of both invertebrates (e.g., molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms) and vertebrates (e.g., zebrafish). NPs-induced alterations in immune cell function heightened the susceptibility to pathogens and disrupted immune signalling pathways. Subcellular inflammatory responses have been characterized by the secretion of inflammation-promoting and chemotactic cytokines such as irg1l, interleukin 1, interferon, interleukin 6, C-C motif chemokine ligand 20a and tumour necrosis factor. The assessment of the combined effects of NPs and other xenobiotics highlighted their possible synergistic impacts on aquatic fauna and the environment. This comprehensive review emphasizes the urgent need for further research to understand the cumulative effects of NPs on organism health and fitness across multiple physiological systems.

Advancements in Assays for Micro- and Nanoplastic Detection: Paving the Way for Biomonitoring and Exposomics Studies

Although plastic pollution and exposure to plastic-related compounds have received worldwide attention, health risks associated with micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are largely unknown. Emerging evidence suggests MNPs are present in human biofluids and tissue, including blood, breast milk, stool, lung tissue, and placenta; however, exposure assessment is limited and the extent of human exposure to MNPs is not well known. While there is a critical need to establish robust and scalable biomonitoring strategies to assess human exposure to MNPs and plastic-related chemicals, over 10,000 chemicals have been linked to plastic manufacturing with no existing standardized approaches to account for even a fraction of these exposures. This review provides an overview of the status of methods for measuring MNPs and associated plastic-related chemicals in humans, with a focus on approaches that could be adapted for population-wide biomonitoring and integration with biological response measures to develop hypotheses on potential health effects of plastic exposures. We also examine the exposure risks associated with the widespread use of chemical additives in plastics. Despite advancements in analytical techniques, there remains a pressing need for standardized measurement protocols and untargeted, high-throughput analysis methods to enable comprehensive MNP biomonitoring to identify key MNP exposures in human populations. This review aims to merge insights into the toxicological effects of MNPs and plastic additives with an evaluation of analytical challenges, advocating for enhanced research methods to fully assess, understand, and mitigate the public health implications of MNPs.

Metabolomics reveals the toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics in the gills of Acrossocheilus yunnanensis

Although the ecotoxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NP) to fish has been widely reported, their impact on the metabolic processes in fish gills and the underlying mechanisms remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of PS-NP on the morphology, oxidative stress, and metabolism of Acrossocheilus yunnanensis gills using conventional physicochemical indicators and metabolomics analysis. The results showed that PS-NP caused oxidative stress, and resulted in gill tissue lesions (e.g., proliferation and sloughing of gill epithelial cells). Metabolomics results showed that PS-NP exposure induced 75-164 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) in fish gills, and they were mainly related to lipid metabolism. DEMs induced by high concentration of PS-NP compared with low concentration of PS-NP were not only significantly enriched in glycerophospholipid metabolism, but also in sphingolipid metabolism, nucleic acid metabolism, and a variety of signaling pathways. In conclusion, the results of this work suggest that PS-NP cause disruption of phospholipid metabolism mainly by disrupting the integrity of gill tissue, which provides a new perspective for understanding the impact mechanism of PS-NP on fish gills. Given that fish play essential roles in maintaining ecological balance, the adverse effects of PS-NP on fish gills could ultimately disrupt the stability and health of the aquatic ecosystem.

Immunotoxic response of bio-based plastic on early life stage zebrafish (Danio rerio): A safe alternative to petroleum-based plastics?

Bio-based plastics are marketed as environmentally friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics, although they require specific composting conditions for degradation, which leads to their accumulation in the environment and potential risks to aquatic organisms. We hypothesized that the accumulation of bio-based plastics may induce immunotoxic responses in fish. Our research focused on the accumulation and immunotoxicity of 80 nm polylactic acid (PLA) and polystyrene (PS) (0.1-10 mg/L) on early life stage zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed for 7 days. Compared to PS, there was a higher accumulation of PLA in larvae. Exposure to PLA resulted in a significant increase in neutrophils and macrophages, while immune protein levels such as Complement 3 (C3), Immunoglobulin M (IgM), and C-reactive protein (CRP) were significantly reduced. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tnf-α and il-6, were significantly elevated in PLA treatments. Additionally, PLA-exposed zebrafish were more susceptible to infection by Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Interestingly, at the same concentration, exposures to PS did not induce significant changes in macrophages or immune protein levels, C3 and IgM. This suggests that PLA has a greater immunotoxic response relative to PS. Our research findings contradict the popular belief that bio-based plastics are non-toxic and harmless, which may have potential risk to aquatic organisms.

Nanoplastics and bisphenol A exposure alone or in combination induce hepatopancreatic damage and disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism in the Portunus trituberculatus

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely found endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC). Nanoplastics (NPs) represent a novel environmental pollutant, and the combined toxicity of these pollutants on the hepatopancreas of marine arthropods is understudied. To investigate the potential risks associated with co-exposure to BPA and NPs on the hepatopancreas, Portunus trituberculatus was treated with 100 μg/L BPA, 104 particles/L NPs, and a combination of 100 μg/L BPA + 104 particles/L NPs for 21 days, respectively. Histological observation demonstrated that co-exposure severely damaged both hepatopancreas tissue and mitochondrial structure. Transcriptome analysis revealed that 1498 transcripts were differentially expressed under different exposure conditions, and these transcripts are involved in biological processes such as cellular processes and carbohydrate metabolism. BPA and NPs co-exposure modulate pyruvic acid (PA) levels by increasing the activity of pyruvate kinase (PK), leading to changes in glycogen and glucose (GLU) content within tissues, thus affecting glycolysis. The dysregulation of the CHI3L1, ACSS2 and ACYP2 genes induced by BPA and NPs co-exposure may collectively regulate the process of carbohydrate metabolism. Notably, the downregulation of the VPS4 gene and the upregulation of the GBA1, Pin1 and CCND2 gene may affect the cell cycle, potentially impacting cell proliferation after BPA and NPs co-exposure. These data indicate that co-exposure to BPA and NPs is more significantly cytotoxic and leads to changes in carbohydrate metabolism, cell proliferation, and histological damage in the hepatopancreas of P. trituberculatus. This knowledge emphasizes the need for proactive measures to mitigate the adverse effects of these environmental pollutants on human and ecological health while also providing valuable insights into the relevant molecular mechanisms.

Systemic toxicity of biodegradable polyglycolic acid microplastics on the gut-liver-brain axis in zebrafish

Polyglycolic acid (PGA), a novel type of hazardous biodegradable plastic, is gradually being widely used in the biomedical and food packaging industries. However, the long-term ecological effects of PGA degradation to microplastics (MPs) in aquatic organisms remain unknown. The gut-liver-brain axis regulates the exchange of information between the gut, liver, and brain, and is a key target for tissue damage caused by pollutants. Adult zebrafish were exposed to 1 or 100 mg/L PGA MP suspension for 28 d. PGA affects the intestinal vascular barrier through gene expression downstream of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, increasing intestinal permeability and disrupting the environment of intestinal microbial diversity. This, in turn, promoted the accumulation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Disturbance of the intestinal microbiota balance and its metabolites are transferred to the liver and brain through the gut-liver-brain axis, causing disorders in hepatic lipid metabolism and synthesis. Behavioural experiments showed that long-term exposure to PGA MP caused anxiety-like behaviour and cognitive impairment, which may be related to the disruption of the gut-liver-brain axis, thus inducing inflammation and disrupting the normal functioning of the body. In summary, this study evaluated the safety of the new degradable plastic, PGA, but its ecological risks still require attention.

Hazardous effects of plastic microfibres from facial masks to aquatic animal health: Insights from zebrafish model

Facial masks are a source of plastic microfibres (PMFs) in the aquatic environment, an emerging risk factor for aquatic organisms. However, little is known concerning its impact during the early developmental stages of fish. Thus, the current study aimed to evaluate the potential interaction and developmental toxicity of PMFs derived from leachate of surgical masks (SC-Msk) and N-95 facial masks (N95-Msk) using a multi-biomarker approach in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio). PMFs from both facial masks were obtained and characterized by multiple techniques. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of PMFs from both facial masks (1000, 10,000, and 100,000 particle L-1), and the toxicity was analysed in terms of mortality, hatching rate, neurotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, morphological changes, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, cell viability, and behavioural impairments. The results showed that both facial masks can release PMFs, but the N95-Msk produced a higher concentration of PMFs than SC-Msk. Both PMFs can interact with zebrafish chorion and don't cause effects on embryo mortality and hatching; however, zebrafish embryos showed cardiotoxic effects, and larvae showed increased agitation, average speed, and distance travelled, indicating the behavioural impairments induced by PMFs derived from facial masks. Overall, results showed the risk of PMFs to the health of freshwater fish, indicating the need for greater attention to the disposal and ecotoxicological effects of facial masks on aquatic organisms.

Nano-Selenium Modulates NF-κB/NLRP3 Pathway and Mitochondrial Dynamics to Attenuate Microplastic-Induced Liver Injury

BACKGROUND

Microplastics (PS-MPs) are a new type of pollutant with definite hepatotoxicity. Selenium, on the other hand, has natural, protective effects on the liver.

OBJECTIVES/METHODS

The purpose of this experiment is to find out whether nano-selenium (SeNP) can alleviate liver damage caused by microplastics. Initially, we established through in vitro experiments that SeNP has the ability to enhance the growth of healthy mouse liver cells, while microplastics exhibit a harmful impact on normal mouse hepatocyte cell suspensions, leading to a decrease in cell count. Subsequently, through in vivo experiments on male ICR mice, we ascertained that SeNPs alleviated the detrimental impacts of PS-MPs on mouse liver.

RESULTS

SeNPs hinder the signaling pathway of NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles, which is crucial for reducing inflammation induced by PS-MPs. In terms of their mechanism, SeNPs hinder the abnormalities in mitochondrial fission, biogenesis, and fusion caused by PS-MPs and additionally enhance mitochondrial respiration. This enhancement is crucial in averting disorders in energy metabolism and inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

To summarize, the use of SeNPs hindered inflammation by regulating mitochondrial dynamics, thus relieving liver damage caused by PS-MPs in mice. The anticipated outcomes offer new research directions that can be referenced in terms of inflammatory injuries caused by PS-MPs.

Polystyrene nano-plastics impede skeletal muscle development and induce lipid accumulation via the PPARγ/LXRβ pathway in vivo and in vitro in mice

Nano-plastics (NPs) have emerged as a significant environmental pollutant, widely existing in water environment, and pose a serious threat to health and safety with the intake of animals. Skeletal muscle, a vital organ for complex life activities and functional demands, has received limited attention regarding the effects of NPs. In this study, the effects of polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs) on skeletal muscle development were studied by oral administration of different sizes (1 mg/kg) of PS-NPs in mice. The findings revealed that PS-NPs resulted in skeletal muscle damage and significantly hindered muscle differentiation, exhibiting an inverse correlation with PS-NPs particle size. Morphological analysis demonstrated PS-NPs caused partial disruption of muscle fibers, increased spacing between fibers, and lipid accumulation. RT-qPCR and western blots analyses indicated that PS-NPs exposure downregulated the expression of myogenic differentiation-related factors (Myod, Myog and Myh2), activated PPARγ/LXRβ pathway, and upregulated the expressions of lipid differentiation-related factors (SREBP1C, SCD-1, FAS, ACC1, CD36/FAT, ADIPOQ, C/EBPα and UCP-1). In vitro experiments, C2C12 cells were used to confirm cellular penetration of PS-NPs (0, 100, 200, 400 μg/mL) through cell membranes along with activation of PPARγ expression. Furthermore, to verify LXRβ as a key signaling molecule, silencing RNA transfection experiments were conducted, resulting in no increase in the expressions of PPARγ, LXRβ, SREBP1C, FAS, CD36/FAT, ADIPOQ, C/EBPα and UCP-1 even after exposure to PS-NPs. However, the expressions of SCD-1and ACC1 remained unaffected. The present study evidenced that exposure to PS-NPs induced lipid accumulation via the PPARγ/LXRβ pathway thereby influencing skeletal muscle development.

Toxic effects of microplastic and nanoplastic on the reproduction of teleost fish in aquatic environments

Microplastics and nanoplastics are widely present in aquatic environments and attract significant scholarly attention due to their toxicity, persistence, and ability to cross biological barriers, which pose substantial risks to various fish species. Microplastics and nanoplastics can enter fish through their digestive tract, gills and skin, causing oxidative damage to the body and adversely affecting their reproductive system. Given that fish constitute a crucial source of high-quality protein for humans, it is necessary to study the impact of microplastics on fish reproduction in order to assess the impact of pollutants on ecology, biodiversity conservation, environmental sustainability, and endocrine disruption. This review explores the reproductive consequences of microplastics and nanoplastics in fish, examining aspects such as fecundity, abnormal offspring, circadian rhythm, gonad index, spermatocyte development, oocyte development, sperm quality, ovarian development, and changes at the molecular and cellular level. These investigations hold significant importance in environmental toxicology.

Micro/nanoplastics impair the feeding of goldfish by disrupting the complicated peripheral and central regulation of appetite

The ubiquitous presence of plastic particles in water bodies poses a potential threat to aquatic species. Although numerous adverse effects of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have been documented, their effects on fish feeding, one of the most important behaviors of animals, are far from being fully understood. In this study, the effects of MPs and NPs (at environmentally realistic levels) on fish food consumption and feeding behavior were assessed using goldfish (Carassius auratus) and polystyrene (PS) particles as representatives. In addition, to reveal the potential mechanisms, the effects of MPs and NPs on peripheral and central regulation of appetite were evaluated by examining appetite-regulation related intestinal, serous, and hypothalamic parameters. The results obtained indicated that the 28-day MP- and NP-exposure significantly impaired goldfish feeding by disrupting peripheral and central appetite regulation. Based on differences observed in their effects on the abovementioned behavioral, histological, and physiological parameters, MPs and NPs may interfere with appetite regulation in a size-dependent manner. Blocking the gastrointestinal tract and causing histopathological and functional damage to inner organs may be the main routes through which MPs and NPs disrupt appetite regulation. Our findings suggested that plastic particles exposure may have far-reaching effects on fish species through impaired feeding, which warrants further attention.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals nanoplastics-induced apoptosis, autophagy and immune response in Litopenaeus vannamei

Increasing attention is being paid to the toxic physiological effects of nanoplastics (NPs) on aquatic organisms. However, few studies have systematically evaluated the regulatory mechanisms of NPs on immune response in crustaceans. In this study, a 28-day chronic exposure experiment was conducted in which shrimps were exposed to various 80-nm polystyrene NPs concentrations (0, 0.1, 1, 5 and 10 mg/L). Transcriptomic analysis was used to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of NPs in immune response of Litopenaeus vannamei. With increasing NPs concentration, the total hemocyte count (THC) content decreased, while phagocytosis rate (PR) and respiratory burst (RB) showed trends of first rising and then falling. High concentration (10 mg/L) of NPs caused the destruction of hepatopancreas tissue structure, the shedding of microvilli, the increase number of hepatocyte apoptosis and autophagy structure. With increasing NPs concentration, the lysozyme (Lys), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities first increased and then decrease, while contents of lipid peroxidation and malondialdehyde increased; the expression levels of Toll, MyD88, GPx, SOD, proPO, Lys, and ALF generally increased at first and then decreased. Transcriptional sequencing analysis showed that the pathway of differentially expressed genes in KEGG enrichment mainly included lysosome (ko04142), apoptosis (ko04210) pathways, indicating that the NPs mainly affected the immune regulatory mechanism. Further analysis by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) showed that the up-regulation pathways of NPs activation mainly included immune response-related pathways such as mitochondrial autophagy, DNA repair, autophagosomes signaling pathway. Our results indicated that NPs exposure induced oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy in shrimps. This study provides a basis for further understanding of the mechanisms of antioxidant immune regulation by NPs in shrimp and may serve as a reference for healthy ecological culture of shrimp.

Polystyrene nanoparticles with different particle sizes cause autophagy by ROS/ERS/FOXO1 axis in the Cyprinus carpio kidney affecting immunological function

Microplastic pollution poses challenges for ecosystems worldwide, and nanoplastics (NPs, 1-1000 nm) have been identified as persistent pollutants. However, although some studies have described the hazards of NPs to aquatic organisms, the toxicological processes of NPs in the common carp kidney and the biotoxicity of differently sized NPs remain unclear. In this study, we used juvenile common carp as an in vivo model that were constantly exposed to freshwater at 1000 μg/L polystyrene nanoparticle (PSNP) concentrations (50, 100, and 400 nm) for 28 days. Simultaneously, we constructed an in vitro model utilizing grass fish kidney cells (CIK) to study the toxicological effects of PSNPs of various sizes. We performed RT-PCR and Western blot assays on the genes involved in FOXO1, HMGB1, HIF-1α, endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and immunoreaction. According to these results, exposure to PSNPs increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and the carp kidneys experienced endoplasmic reticulum stress. Additionally, PSNPs promoted renal autophagy by activating the ROS/ERS/FOXO1 (ERS: endoplasmic reticulum stress) pathway, and it affected immunological function by stimulating the ROS/HMGB1/HIF-1α signaling pathway. This study provides new insights into the contamination hazards of NPs in freshwater environments, as well as the harm they pose to the human living environments. The relationship between particle size and the degree of damage caused by PSNPs to organisms is a potential future research direction.

Drosophila melanogaster as a tractable eco-environmental model to unravel the toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics

Micro- and nanoplastics have emerged as pervasive environmental pollutants with potential ecotoxicological impacts on various organisms, including the model organismDrosophila melanogaster. Here we comprehensively synthesize current research on the adverse effects of micro- and nanoplastics onDrosophila, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the literature. Micro- and nanoplastics can lead to physical damage, oxidative stress, inflammation, genotoxicity, epigenetic changes, apoptosis, and necrosis inDrosophila. Exposure to plastic debris affects nutrient absorption, energy metabolism, and reproductive health, often in a sex-specific manner. For instance, male flies are generally more susceptible to the toxic effects of polystyrene microplastics than female flies, showing greater mortality and metabolic disruptions. Furthermore, the combined exposure of plastics with heavy metals can exacerbate toxic effects, leading to enhanced oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and gut damage. While antagonistic effects have been identified particularly with silver compounds, where polystyrene microplastics reduce the bioavailability and toxicity of silver. The adverse effects of plastic particles onDrosophiladepend on size, with smaller particles penetrating deeper into tissues and eliciting stronger toxic responses. The chemical composition of the plastics and the presence of additives also play crucial roles in determining toxicity levels. Chronic exposure to low levels can be as harmful as acute high-dose exposure, highlighting the need for comprehensive, long-term studies to fully understand the ecological and biological impacts of plastic pollution.

The effects of nanoplastics and microcystin-LR coexposure on Aristichthys nobilis at the early developmental stages

Nanoplastics (NPs) and microcystin-LR (MC-LR) are two common and harmful pollutants in water environments, especially at aquafarm where are full of plastic products and algae. It is of great significance to study the toxic effects and mechanisms of the NPs and/or MC-LR on fish at the early stage. In this study, the embryo and larvae of a filtering-feeding fish, Aristichthys nobilis, were used as the research objects. The results showed that the survival and hatching rates of the embryo were not significantly affected by the environmental concentration exposure of these two pollutants. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation displayed that NPs adhered to the surface of the embryo membrane. Transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses revealed that the NPs exposure activated neuromuscular junction development and skeletal muscle fiber in larvae, and affected C5-Branched dibasic acid metabolism. The metabolic and biosynthetic processes of zeaxanthin, xanthophyll, tetraterpenoid, and carotenoid were suppressed after the MC-LR exposure, which was harmful to the retinol metabolism of fish. Excessive production of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was detected under the MC-LR exposure. The MC-LR and NPs coexposure triggered primary immunodeficiency and adaptive immune response, leading to the possibility of reduced fitness of A.nobilis during the development. Collectively, our results indicate that environmental concentration NPs and MC-LR coexposure could cause toxic damage and enhance sick risk in A.nobilis, providing new insights into the risk of NPs and MC-LR on filtering-feeding fish.

Impact of sub-chronic polystyrene nanoplastics exposure on hematology, histology, and endoplasmic reticulum stress-related protein expression in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Nanoplastics (NPs) are one of the most hazardous marine litters, having the potential to cause far-reaching impacts on the environment and humankind. The effect of NPs on fish health has been studied, but their impact on the subcellular organelles remains unexplored. The present investigation studied the possible implications of polystyrene-nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on the hematology, tissue organization, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related proteins in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish were exposed to ∼100 nm PS-NPs at environmentally relevant (0.1 mg/L), and sublethal (1, 10 mg/L) concentrations for 14 days through water exposure. The growth performance and hematological parameters such as erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and leucocytes decreased, while thrombocytes increased with PS-NPs dose-dependently. The gills, liver, kidney, and heart tissues displayed increasing degrees of pathology with increased concentrations of PS-NPs. The gills showed severe epithelial hyperplasia and lamellar fusion. The liver had an abstruse cellular framework, membrane breakage, and vacuolation. While glomerular and tubular atrophy was the most prominent pathology in the kidney tissue, the heart displayed extensive myofibrillar loss and disorderly arranged cardiac cells. The ER-stress-related genes such as bip, atf6, ire1, xbp1, pkr, and apoptotic genes such as casp3a, and bax were over-expressed, while, the anti-apoptotic bcl2 was under-expressed with increasing concentrations of PS-NPs. Immunohistochemistry and blotting results of GRP78, CHOP, EIF2S, and ATF6 in gills, liver, kidney, and heart tissues affirmed the translation to ER stress proteins. The results revealed the sub-lethal adverse effects and the activation of the ER-stress pathway in fish with sub-chronic exposure to PS-NPs.

Exploring developmental toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPS): Insights from investigations using zebrafish embryos

Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) have received increasing attention due to their high detection rates in human matrices and adverse health implications. However, the toxicity of MNPs on embryo/fetal development following maternal exposure remains largely unexplored. Zebrafish, sharing genetic similarities with human, boast a shorter life cycle, rapid embryonic development, and the availability of many transgenic strains, is a suitable model for environmental toxicology studies. This review comprehensively explores the existing research on the impacts of MNPs on zebrafish embryo development. MNPs exposure induces a wide array of toxic effects, encompassing neurodevelopmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, gastrointestinal effects, microbiota dysbiosis, cardiac dysfunctions, vascular toxicity, and metabolic imbalances. Moreover, MNPs disrupt the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant capacity, culminating in oxidative damage and apoptosis. This study also offers insight into the current omics- and multi-omics based approaches in MNPs research, which greatly expedite the discovery of biochemical or metabolic pathways, and molecular mechanisms underlying MNPs exposure. Additionally, this review proposes a preliminary adverse outcome pathway framework to predict developmental toxicity caused by MNPs. It provides a comprehensive overview of pathways, facilitating a clearer understanding of the exposure and toxicity of MNPs, from molecular effects to adverse outcomes. The compiled data in this review provide a better understanding for MNPs effects on early life development, with the goal of increasing awareness about the risks posed to pregnant women by MNPs exposure and its potential impact on the health of their future generations.

Immunotoxicity of microplastics in fish

Plastic waste degrades slowly in aquatic environments, transforming into microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), which are subsequently ingested by fish and other aquatic organisms, causing both physical blockages and chemical toxicity. The fish immune system serves as a crucial defense against viruses and pollutants present in water. It is imperative to comprehend the detrimental effects of MPs on the fish immune system and conduct further research on immunological assessments. In this paper, the immune response and immunotoxicity of MPs and its combination with environmental pollutants on fish were reviewed. MPs not only inflict physical harm on the natural defense barriers like fish gills and vital immune organs such as the liver and intestinal tract but also penetrate cells, disrupting intracellular signaling pathways, altering the levels of immune cytokines and gene expression, perturbing immune homeostasis, and ultimately compromising specific immunity. Initially, fish exposed to MPs recruit a significant number of macrophages and T cells while activating lysosomes. Over time, this exposure leads to apoptosis of immune cells, a decline in lysosomal degradation capacity, lysosomal activity, and complement levels. MPs possess a small specific surface area and can efficiently bind with heavy metals, organic pollutants, and viruses, enhancing immune responses. Hence, there is a need for comprehensive studies on the shape, size, additives released from MPs, along with their immunotoxic effects and mechanisms in conjunction with other pollutants and viruses. These studies aim to solidify existing knowledge and delineate future research directions concerning the immunotoxicity of MPs on fish, which has implications for human health.

Vertebrate response to microplastics, nanoplastics and co-exposed contaminants: Assessing accumulation, toxicity, behaviour, physiology, and molecular changes

Pollution from microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) has gained significant public attention and has become a serious environmental problem worldwide. This review critically investigates MPs/NPs' ability to pass through biological barriers in vertebrate models and accumulate in various organs, including the brain. After accumulation, these particles can alter individuals' behaviour and exhibit toxic effects by inducing oxidative stress or eliciting an inflammatory response. One major concern is the possibility of transgenerational harm, in which toxic consequences are displayed in offspring who are not directly exposed to MPs/NPs. Due to their large and marked surface hydrophobicity, these particles can easily absorb and concentrate various environmental pollutants, which may increase their toxicity to individuals and subsequent generations. This review systematically provides an analysis of recent studies related to the toxic effects of MPs/NPs, highlighting the intricate interplay between co-contaminants in vitro and in vivo. We further delve into mechanisms of MPs/NPs-induced toxicity and provide an overview of potential therapeutic approaches to lessen the negative effects of these MPs/NPs. The review also emphasizes the urgency of future studies to examine the long-term effects of chronic exposure to MPs/NPs and their size- and type-specific hazardous dynamics, and devising approaches to safeguard the affected organisms.

Quantitative assessment and monitoring of microplastics and nanoplastics distributions and lipid metabolism in live zebrafish using hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering microscopy

Microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) pollutions pose a rising environmental threat to humans and other living species, given their escalating presence in essential resources that living subjects ingest and/or inhale. Herein, to elucidate the potential health implications of MP/NP, we report for the first time by using label-free hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) imaging technique developed to quantitatively monitor the bioaccumulation and metabolic toxicity of MP/NP within live zebrafish larvae during their early developmental stages. Zebrafish embryos are exposed to environmentally related concentrations (3-60 μg/ml) of polystyrene (PS) beads with two typical sizes (2 μm and 50 nm). Zebrafish are administered isotope-tagged fatty acids through microinjection and dietary intake for in vivo tracking of lipid metabolism dynamics. In vivo 3D quantitative vibrational imaging of PS beads and intrinsic biomolecules across key zebrafish organs reveals that gut and liver are the primary target organs of MP/NP, while only 50 nm PS beads readily aggregate and adhere to the brain and blood vessels. The 50 nm PS beads are also found to induce more pronounced hepatic inflammatory response compared to 2 μm counterparts, characterized by increased biogenesis of lipid droplets and upregulation of arachidonic acid detected in zebrafish liver. Furthermore, Raman-tagged SRS imaging of fatty acids uncovers that MP/NP exposure significantly reduces yolk lipid utilization and promotes dietary lipid storage in zebrafish, possibly associated with developmental delays and more pronounced food dilution effects in zebrafish larvae exposed to 2 μm PS beads. The hyperspectral SRS imaging in this work shows that MP/NP exposure perturbs the development and lipid metabolism in zebrafish larvae, furthering the understanding of MP/NP ingestions and consequent toxicity in different organs in living species.

Nanoplastic contamination: Impact on zebrafish liver metabolism and implications for aquatic environmental health

Nanoplastics (NPs) are increasingly pervasive in the environment, raising concerns about their potential health implications, particularly within aquatic ecosystems. This study investigated the impact of polystyrene nanoparticles (PSN) on zebrafish liver metabolism using liquid chromatography hybrid quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) based non-targeted metabolomics. Zebrafish were exposed to 50 nm PSN for 28 days at low (L-PSN) and high (H-PSN) concentrations (0.1 and 10 mg/L, respectively) via water. The results revealed significant alterations in key metabolic pathways in low and high exposure groups. The liver metabolites showed different metabolic responses with L-PSN and H-PSN. A total of 2078 metabolite features were identified from the raw data obtained in both positive and negative ion modes, with 190 metabolites deemed statistically significant in both L-PSN and H-PSN groups. Disruptions in lipid metabolism, inflammation, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and amino acid synthesis were identified. Notably, L-PSN exposure induced changes in DNA building blocks, membrane-associated biomarkers, and immune-related metabolites, while H-PSN exposure was associated with oxidative stress, altered antioxidant metabolites, and liver injury. For the first time, L-PSN was found depolymerized in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes. Utilizing an analytical approach to the adverse outcome pathway (AOP), impaired lipid metabolism and oxidative stress have been identified as potentially conserved key events (KEs) associated with PSN exposure. These KEs further induced liver inflammation, steatosis, and fibrosis at the tissue and organ level. Ultimately, this could significantly impact biological health. The study highlights the PSN-induced effects on zebrafish liver metabolism, emphasizing the need for a better understanding of the risks associated with NPs contamination in aquatic ecosystems.

Trophic transfer of micro- and nanoplastics and toxicity induced by long-term exposure of nanoplastics along the rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis)-marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) food chain

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are emerging pollutants in the ocean, but their transfer and toxicity along the food chains are unclear. In this study, a marine rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis)-marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) food chain was constructed to evaluate the transfer of polystyrene MPs and NPs (70 nm, 500 nm, and 2 μm, 2000 μg/L) and toxicity of 70 nm PS-NPs (0, 20, 200, and 2000 μg/L) on marine medaka after long-term food chain exposure. The results showed that the amount of 70 nm NPs accumulated in marine medaka was 1.24 μg/mg, which was significantly higher than that of 500 nm NPs (0.87 μg/mg) and 2 μm MP (0.69 μg/mg). Long-term food chain exposure to NPs caused microflora dysbiosis, resulting in activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, which induced liver inflammation. Moreover, NPs food chain exposure increased liver and muscle tissue triglyceride and lactate content, but decreased the protein, sugar, and glycogen content. NPs food chain exposure impaired reproductive function and inhibited offspring early development, which might pose a threat to the sustainability of marine medaka population. Overall, the study revealed the transfer of MPs and NPs and the effects of NPs on marine medaka along the food chain.

Microplastics induced endoplasmic reticulum stress to format an inflammation and cell death in hepatocytes of carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Microplastics (MPs) are a serious threat to the living environment of aquatic organisms. However, there are fewer studies on the toxicity of microplastics to freshwater organisms. This study aimed to establish a polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) model by feeding carp (Cyprinus carpio) PS-MP (1000 ng/L) particles 8 μm in size. HE staining revealed a mass of inflammatory cells infiltrated in the carp hepatopancreas. The activities of alkaline phosphatase (AKP), aspartate transaminase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and alanine transaminase (ALT) were strengthened considerably, suggesting that PS-MPs cause injury to the hepatopancreas of carp. Real-Time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting results indicated increased levels of glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), (PKR)-like ER kinase (PERK), eukaryotic translation initiation Factor 2α (EIF2α) and activating transcription Factor 4 (ATF4) genes and increased levels of inflammatory factors downstream of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERs) thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), interleukin-18 (IL-18), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and caspase 1. Increased expression of microtubule-associated protein-2 (LC3II), autophagy-related 5 (ATG5) and autophagy-related 12 (ATG12) genes revealed that PS-MPs promoted autophagy in carp hepatocytes. The enhanced expression of the Caspase 12, Caspase 3, and Bax genes suggested that PS-MPs led to the apoptosis of carp hepatocytes. These results suggest that PS-MPs result in serious injury to the hepatopancreas of carp. The present study of PS-MPs in freshwater fish from the aspect of endoplasmic reticulum stress was conducted to provide references and suggestions for toxicological studies of PS-MPs in freshwater environments.

A review of cumulative toxic effects of environmental endocrine disruptors on the zebrafish immune system: Characterization methods, toxic effects and mechanisms

Environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), are a type of exogenous organic pollutants, are ubiquitous in natural aquatic environments. Currently, in addition to neurological, endocrine, developmental and reproductive toxicity, ecotoxicology studies on immunotoxicity are receiving increasing attention. In this review, the composition of immune system of zebrafish, the common indicators of immunotoxicity, the immunotoxicity of EDCs and their molecular mechanism were summarized. We reviewed the immunotoxicity of EDCs on zebrafish mainly in terms of immune organs, immunocytes, immune molecules and immune functions, meanwhile, the possible molecular mechanisms driving these effects were elucidated in terms of endocrine disruption, dysregulation of signaling pathways, and oxidative damage. Hopefully, this review will provide a reference for further investigation of the immunotoxicity of EDCs.

Frontier of toxicology studies in zebrafish model

Based on the 87 original publications only from quartiles 1 and 2 of Journal Citation Report (JCR) collected by the major academic databases (Science Direct, Web of Science, PubMed, and Wiley) in 2022, the frontier of toxicology studies in zebrafish model is summarized. Herewith, a total of six aspects is covered such as developmental, neurological, cardiovascular, hepatic, reproductive, and immunizing toxicities. The tested samples involve chemicals, drugs, new environmental pollutants, nanomaterials, and its derivatives, along with those related mechanisms. This report may provide a frontier focus benefit to researchers engaging in a zebrafish model for environment, medicine, food, and other fields.

Mechanistic study of C5F10O-induced lung toxicity in rats: An eco-friendly insulating gas alternative to SF6

The global warming and other environmental problems caused by SF6 emissions can be reduced due to the widespread use of eco-friendly insulating gas, perfluoropentanone (C5F10O). However, there is an exposure risk to populations in areas near C5F10O equipment, so it is important to clarify its biosafety and pathogenesis before large-scale application. In this paper, histopathology, transcriptomics, 4D-DIA proteomics, and LC-MS metabolomics of rats exposed to 2000 ppm and 6000 ppm C5F10O are analyzed to reveal the mechanisms of toxicity and health risks. Histopathological shows that inflammatory cell infiltration, epithelial cell hyperplasia, and alveolar atrophy accompanied by alveolar wall thickening are present in both low-dose and high-dose groups. Analysis of transcriptomic and 4D-DIA proteomic show that Cell cycle and DNA replication can be activated by both 2000 ppm and 6000 ppm C5F10O to induce cell proliferation. In addition, it also leads to the activation of pathways such as Antigen processing and presentation, Cell adhesion molecules and Complement and coagulation cascades, T cell receptor signal path, Th1 and T cell receptor signal path, Th1 and Th2 cell differentiation, complement and coagulation cascades. Finally, LC-MS metabolomics analysis confirms that the metabolic pathways associated with glycerophospholipids, arachidonic acid, and linoleic acid are disrupted and become more severe with increasing doses. The mechanism of lung toxicity caused by C5F10O is systematically expounded based on the multi-omics analysis and provided biosafety references for further promotion and application of C5F10O.

Molecular mechanisms of polystyrene nanoplastics and alpha-amylase interactions and their binding model: A multidimensional analysis

Plastic fragments are widely distributed in different environmental media and has recently drawn special attention due to its difficulty in degradation and serious health and environmental problems. Among, nanoplastics (NPs) are smaller in size, larger in surface/volume ratio, and more likely to easily adsorb ambient pollutants than macro plastic particles. Moreover, NPs can be easily absorbed by wide variety of organisms and accumulate in multiple tissues/organs and cells, thus posing a more serious threat to living organisms. Alpha-amylase (α-amylase) is a hydrolase, which can be derived from various sources such as animals, plants, and microorganisms. Currently, no studies have concentrated on the binding of NPs with α-amylase and their interaction mechanisms by employing a multidimensional strategy. Hence, we explored the interaction mechanisms of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) with α-amylase by means of multispectral analysis, in vitro enzymatic activity analysis, and molecular simulation techniques under in vitro conditions. The findings showed that PS-NPs had the capability to bind with the intrinsic fluorescence chromophores, leading to fluorescence changes of these specific amino acids. This interaction also caused the alterations in the micro-environment of the fluorophore residues mainly tryptophan (TRP) and tyrosine (TYR) residues of α-amylase. PS-NPs interaction promoted the unfolding and partial expansion of polypeptide chains and the loosening of protein skeletons, and destroyed the secondary structure (increased random coil contents and decreased α-helical contents) of this protein, forming a larger particle size of the PS-NPs-α-amylase complex. Moreover, the enzymatic activity of α-amylase in vitro was found to be inhibited in a concentration dependent manner, thereby impairing its physiological functions. Further molecular simulation found that PS-NPs had a higher tendency to bind to the active site of α-amylase, which is the cause for its structural and functional changes. Additionally, the hydrophobic force played a major role in mediating the binding interactions between PS-NPs and α-amylase. Taken together, our study indicated that PS-NPs interaction can initiate the abnormal physiological functions of α-amylase through PS-NPs-induced structural and conformational alternations.

Molecular mechanisms of nano-sized polystyrene plastics induced cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity in Eisenia fetida

Nanoplastics (NPs) are currently everywhere and environmental pollution by NPs is a pressing global problem. Nevertheless, until now, few studies have concentrated on the mechanisms and pathways of cytotoxic effects and immune dysfunction of NPs on soil organisms employing a multidimensional strategy. Hence, earthworm immune cells and immunity protein lysozyme (LZM) were selected as specific receptors to uncover the underlying mechanisms of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and immunotoxicity resulting from exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs), and the binding mechanisms of PS-NPs-LZM interaction. Results on cells indicated that when earthworm immune cells were exposed to high-dose PS-NPs, it caused a notable rise in the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress. PS-NPs exposure significantly decreased the cell viability of earthworm immune cells, inducing cytotoxicity through ROS-mediated oxidative stress pathway, and oxidative injury effects, including reduced antioxidant defenses, lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and protein oxidation. Moreover, PS-NPs stress inhibited the intracellular LZM activity in immune cells, resulting in impaired immune function and immunotoxicity by activating the oxidative stress pathway mediated by ROS. The results from molecular studies revealed that PS-NPs binding destroyed the LZM structure and conformation, including secondary structure changes, protein skeleton unfolding/loosening, fluorescence sensitization, microenvironment changes, and particle size changes. Molecular docking suggested that PS-NPs combined with active center of LZM easier and inhibited the protein function more, and formed a hydrophobic interaction with TRP 62, a crucial amino acid residue closely associated with the function and conformation of LZM. This is also responsible for LZM conformational changes and functional inhibition /inactivation. These results of this research offer a fresh outlook on evaluating the detriment of NPs to the immune function of soil organisms using cellular and molecular strategies.

Amitriptyline ecotoxicity in Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822) embryos - similar toxicity profile in the presence of nanoplastics

Interaction of nanoplastics (NPls) with other environmental contaminants could affect their uptake by the organisms and their toxicity. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the polystyrene NPls (44 nm) interaction with the antidepressant amitriptyline (AMI) and its toxicity to Danio rerio embryos. A similar toxicological profile for NPls + AMI exposure was found for most of the evaluated endpoints, comparing with AMI single exposure, showing that the presence of NPls did not modulate the AMI toxicity. However, the behavioral assessment showed a different pattern with hypoactivity for the NPls + AMI exposure (NPls - hyperactivity; AMI - no effect). Interaction effects between NPls and AMI were also found in the protein contents (antagonism) and in the total glutathione content (synergism). This study highlights the complexity and unpredictability of NPls interaction with pharmaceuticals, important for an accurate environmental risk assessment and for the developing of effective strategies and interventions against plastic pollution.

The uses of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an in vivo model for toxicological studies: A review based on bibliometrics

An in vivo model is necessary for toxicology. This review analyzed the uses of zebrafish (Danio rerio) in toxicology based on bibliometrics. Totally 56,816 publications about zebrafish from 2002 to 2023 were found in Web of Science Core Collection, with Toxicology as the top 6 among all disciplines. Accordingly, the bibliometric map reveals that "toxicity" has become a hot keyword. It further reveals that the most common exposure types include acute, chronic, and combined exposure. The toxicological effects include behavioral, intestinal, cardiovascular, hepatic, endocrine toxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, and reproductive and transgenerational toxicity. The mechanisms include oxidative stress, inflammation, autophagy, and dysbiosis of gut microbiota. The toxicants commonly evaluated by using zebrafish model include nanomaterials, arsenic, metals, bisphenol, and dioxin. Overall, zebrafish provide a unique and well-accepted model to investigate the toxicological effects and mechanisms. We also discussed the possible ways to address some of the limitations of zebrafish model, such as the combination of human organoids to avoid species differences.

Size-dependent toxicity of polystyrene microplastics on the gastrointestinal tract: Oxidative stress related-DNA damage and potential carcinogenicity

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have been generally regarded as emerging pollutants and received worldwide attention in recent years. Water and food consumption are the primary pathways for human exposure to MPs/NPs, thus gastrointestinal tracts may be susceptible to their toxicity. Although the recent report has indicated the presence of MPs/NPs in multiple human organs, little is known about their gastric effects. Therefore, this study focused on the adverse effects of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on gastric epithelium in vivo and in vitro. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) revealed the distribution of PS-MPs was associated with their particle sizes, and predominantly concentrated in gastric tissues. Gastric barrier injury and mitochondrial damage were observed in rats after exposure to PS-MPs. Compared with the larger ones, polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) more significantly reduced the activity of antioxidant enzymes while enhancing the level of MDA, 8-OhdG and γ-H2AX. Meanwhile, PS-MPs caused upregulation of β-catenin/YAP through redox-dependent regulation of nucleoredoxin (NXN) and dishevelled (Dvl). These findings supported the size-dependent effects of PS-MPs on oxidative stress and DNA damage. Moreover, the redox-dependent activation of the β-catenin/YAP cascade suggested a novel toxic mechanism for PS-MPs and implied the potential carcinogenic effects.

d-Tetramethrin causes zebrafish hepatotoxicity by inducing oxidative stress and inhibiting cell proliferation

d-Tetramethrin is one of the main components of mosquito control products, and is widely used for the control of dengue fever and insecticide production. Due to its widespread use, d-tetramethrin is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant and poses potential risks to human health. However, the effects of d-tetramethrin on liver morphology and function are not clearly established. In this study, we used zebrafish as an animal model to analyze the acute and chronic effects of d-tetramethrin exposure on the liver. We exposed zebrafish larvae and adults to different concentrations of d-tetramethrin and examined the impact of d-tetramethrin on lipid and glycogen metabolism, cellular properties, oxidative stress, cell proliferation, and apoptosis in the liver. We also analyzed transcriptional changes in genes related to apoptosis, inflammation, and cell proliferation using qPCR. Zebrafish exposed to d-tetramethrin exhibited severe liver damage, as evidenced by the presence of vacuoles and nuclear distortion in liver cells. The liver area in zebrafish larvae of the treatment group was significantly smaller than that of the control group. Significant lipid accumulation and decreased glycogen levels were observed in the livers of both zebrafish larvae and adults exposed to d-tetramethrin. Furthermore, d-tetramethrin exposure induced apoptosis and inflammation in zebrafish embryos. Additionally, d-tetramethrin caused liver damage, metabolic dysfunction, and impaired liver function. These results suggest that d-tetramethrin induces liver toxicity in zebrafish, by inducing oxidative stress and inhibiting cell proliferation.

Potential nervous threat of nanoplastics to Monopterus albus: Implications from a metabolomics study

Nanoplastics, as a new class of environmental pollutants, have been frequently detected in environmental media and organisms. Monopterus albus (M. albus) is an important economic aquatic product with a high dietary consumption. However, the potential biological effects of nanoplastics on M. albus remain unknown. In this study, the effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) at different concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 mg/L) on M. albus were investigated using an untargeted metabolomics approach. The results showed that 59, 44, 24, and 31 individual differential metabolites and 16, 9, 6, and 2 significant differential metabolic pathways were significantly changed in 0.5, 1, 5, and 10 mg/L respectively, indicating the greater effect of PS-NPs at the relatively low concentrations. After further analysis, there are four same significant differential metabolic pathways for the 0.5 and 1 mg/L groups, i.e., ABC transporters, cAMP signaling pathway, Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, and Synaptic vesicle cycle. In addition, there was one mutual differential metabolic pathway (Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction) among the four groups, indicative of the probably universal nervous influence of nanoplastics on M. albus. In a word, the current work suggests that PS-NPs might affect the nervous systems of M. albus through disturbing their liver metabolism, and nanoplastics at relatively low concentrations may possess a greater effect, which provides significant information for assessing the toxic effect and exposure risk of nanoplastics to organisms in aquatic environment.

Recalling the reported toxicity assessment of deoxynivalenol, mitigating strategies and its toxicity mechanisms: Comprehensive review

Mycotoxins frequently contaminate a variety of food items, posing significant concerns for both food safety and public health. The adverse consequences linked to poisoning from these substances encompass symptoms such as vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, the potential for cancer development, impairments to the immune system, disruptions in neuroendocrine function, genetic damage, and, in severe cases, fatality. The deoxynivalenol (DON) raises significant concerns for both food safety and human health, particularly due to its potential harm to vital organs in the body. It is one of the most prevalent fungal contaminants found in edible items used by humans and animals globally. The presence of harmful mycotoxins, including DON, in food has caused widespread worry. Altered versions of DON have arisen as possible risks to the environment and well-being, as they exhibit a greater propensity to revert back to the original mycotoxins. This can result in the buildup of mycotoxins in both animals and humans, underscoring the pressing requirement for additional investigation into the adverse consequences of these modified mycotoxins. Furthermore, due to the lack of sufficient safety data, accurately evaluating the risk posed by modified mycotoxins remains challenging. Our review study delves into conjugated forms of DON, exploring its structure, toxicity, control strategies, and a novel animal model for assessing its toxicity. Various toxicities, such as acute, sub-acute, chronic, and cellular, are proposed as potential mechanisms contributing to the toxicity of conjugated forms of DON. Additionally, the study offers an overview of DON's toxicity mechanisms and discusses its widespread presence worldwide. A thorough exploration of the health risk evaluation associated with conjugated form of DON is also provided in this discussion.

Nanoplastics induce neuroexcitatory symptoms in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae through a manner contrary to Parkinsonian's way in proteomics

Although nanoplastics (NPs) can penetrate the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the brain, the neurotoxicity of these particles and the mechanisms associated with their unique physio-chemical properties have yet to be sufficiently ascertained. In this study, we assessed the neuroexcitatory symptoms of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae treated with polystyrene (PS) NPs based on an examination of locomotory behaviour, dopamine levels, and acetylcholinesterase activity. We found that PS NPs caused oxidative stress and inhibited atoh1a expression in the cerebellum of Tg(atoh1a:dTomato) transgenic zebrafish larvae, thereby indicating damage to the central nervous system. In contrast to the Parkinson's disease (PD) like effects induced by most types of nanoparticles, such as graphene oxide, we established that PS NPs influenced the neuronal proteomic profiles of zebrafish larvae in a manner contrary to the molecular pathways characteristic of PD-like effects, which could be explained by the molecular dynamic simulation. Unlike graphene oxide nanoparticles that promote significant change in the internal structure of neuroproteins, the complex macromolecular polymers of PS NPs promoted the coalescence and increased expression of neuroproteins, thereby plausibly contributing to the neuroexcitatory symptoms observed in treated zebrafish larvae. Consequently, compared with traditional nanoparticles, we believe that the unique physio-chemical properties of NPs could be a potential factor contributing to their toxicity.

Polystyrene nanobeads exacerbate chronic colitis in mice involving in oxidative stress and hepatic lipid metabolism

BACKGROUND

Nanoplastics (NPs) are omnipresent in our lives as a new type of pollution with a tiny size. It can enter organisms from the environment, accumulate in the body, and be passed down the food chain. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a nonspecific intestinal inflammatory disease that is recurrent and prevalent in the population. Given that the intestinal features of colitis may affect the behavior and toxicity of NPs, it is imperative to clarify the risk and toxicity mechanisms of NPs in colitis models.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, mice were subjected to three cycles of 5-day dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) exposures, with a break of 7 to 11 days between each cycle. After the first cycle of DSS exposure, the mice were fed gavagely with water containing 100 nm polystyrene nanobeads (PS-NPs, at concentrations of 1 mg/kg·BW, 5 mg/kg·BW and 25 mg/kg·BW, respectively) for 28 consecutive days. The results demonstrated that cyclic administration of DSS induced chronic inflammation in mice, while the standard drug "5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA)" treatment partially improved colitis manifestations. PS-NPs exacerbated intestinal inflammation in mice with chronic colitis by activating the MAPK signaling pathway. Furthermore, PS-NPs aggravated inflammation, oxidative stress, as well as hepatic lipid metabolism disturbance in the liver of mice with chronic colitis.

CONCLUSION

PS-NPs exacerbate intestinal inflammation and injury in mice with chronic colitis. This finding highlights chronically ill populations' susceptibility to environmental hazards, which urgent more research and risk assessment studies.

The hepatotoxicity assessment of micro/nanoplastics: A preliminary study to apply the adverse outcome pathways

Plastic pollution has become a significant global problem over the years, leading to the continuous decomposition and accumulation of micro/nanoplastics (MNPLs) in the environment. As a result, human exposure to these MNPLs is inevitable. The liver, in particular, is highly susceptible to potential MNPL toxicity. In this study, we systematically reviewed the current literature on MNPLs-induced hepatotoxicity and collected data on toxic events occurring at different biological levels. Then, to better understand the cause-mechanism causality, we developed an Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework for MNPLs-induced hepatotoxicity. The AOP framework provided insights into the mechanism of MNPL-induced hepatotoxicity and highlighted potential health risks such as liver dysfunction and inflammation, metabolism disorders and liver fibrosis. Moreover, we discussed the potential application of emerging toxicological models in the hepatotoxicity study. Liver organoids and liver-on-chips, which can simulate the structure and function of the liver in vitro, offer a promising alternative platform for toxicity testing and risk assessment. We proposed combining the AOP framework with these emerging toxicological models to improve our understanding of the hepatotoxic effects of MNPLs. Overall, this study performed a preliminary exploration of novel toxicological methodologies to assess the hepatotoxicity of MNPLs, providing a deeper understanding of environmental toxicology.

The organism fate of inland freshwater system under micro-/nano-plastic pollution: A review of past decade

Micro- and nano-plastics (MPs/NPs) are characterized by their small size and extensive surface area, making them global environmental pollutants with adverse effects on organisms at various levels, including organs, cells, and molecules. Freshwater organisms, such as microalgae, emerging plants, zooplankton, benthic species, and fish, experience varying impacts from MPs/NPs, which are prevalent in both terrestrial and aquatic inland environments. MPs/NPs significantly impact plant physiological processes, including photosynthesis, antioxidant response, energy metabolism, and nitrogen removal. Extended exposure and ingestion to MPs/NPs might cause metabolic and behavioral deviations in zooplankton, posing an extinction risk. Upon exposure to MPs/NPs, both benthic organisms and fish display behavioral and metabolic disturbances, due to oxidative stress, neural toxicity, intestinal damage, and metabolic changes. Results from laboratory and field investigations have confirmed that MPs/NPs can be transported across multiple trophic levels. Moreover, MPs/NPs-induced alterations in zooplankton populations can impede energy transfer, leading to food scarcity for filter-feeding fish, larvae of benthic organism and fish, thus jeopardizing aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, MPs/NPs can harm the nervous systems of aquatic organisms, influencing their feeding patterns, circadian rhythms, and mobility. Such behavioral alterations might also introduce unforeseen ecological risks. This comprehensive review aims to explore the consequences of MPs/NPs on freshwater organisms and their interconnected food webs. The investigation encompasses various aspects, including behavioral changes, alterations in physiology, impacts on metabolism, transgenerational effects, and the disruption of energy transfer within the ecosystem. This review elucidated the physiological and biochemical toxicity of MPs/NPs on freshwater organisms, and the ensuing risks to inland aquatic ecosystems.