Target analysis and suspect screening of UV filters, parabens and other chemicals used in personal care products in human cord blood: Prenatal exposure by mother-fetus transfer

A novel approach for unveiling co-occurrence patterns of UV filter mixtures in sunscreens: Prioritization for hazard and risk assessment

In recent years, concerns regarding the toxicity of organic UV filters in sunscreen products have increased. While sunscreen products contain multiple UV filters in combination, current understanding on their co-occurrence patterns and mixture toxicities is still limited. This study utilized a public database, "Hwahae", and analyzed 2183 sunscreen products marketed in South Korea as of 2019, using an association rule mining (ARM) to elucidate their co-occurrence patterns. We identified twenty-two UV filters in the sunscreen products, with titanium dioxide (TiO2) being the most prevalent (68 %), followed by ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC, 60 %) and ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS, 49 %). Sunscreen products typically contained a median of five UV filters per product. Usage patterns of UV filter mixtures varied by the target user group of the product, i.e., general, susceptible, and male users. EHMC and EHS were commonly combined in most products, except those marketed for susceptible users. For susceptible users, inorganic UV filters such as TiO2 and zinc oxide (ZnO) were dominantly used. Combinations of UV filters that provide protection against different types of UV light, e.g., butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (BMDBM) for UVA, and octocrylene (OCT), EHS, or homosalate (HS) for UVB, were also frequently used together, with high lift values. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that ARM approach can be useful to identify major combinations of UV filters present in sunscreen products, and prioritize the UV filter combinations requiring safety assessment and regulatory attention.

Organic Sunscreens-Is Their Placenta Permeability the Only Issue Associated with Exposure During Pregnancy? In Silico Studies of Sunscreens' Placenta Permeability and Interactions with Selected Placental Enzymes

One of the functions of placenta is to protect the fetus against harmful xenobiotics. Protective mechanisms of placenta are based on enzymes, e.g., antioxidant enzymes from the glutathione S-transferases group (GST) or human N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2). Many organic sunscreens are known to cross biological barriers-they are detected in mother's milk, semen, umbilical cord blood or placental tissues. Some organic sunscreens are able to cross the placenta and to interfere with fetal development; they are known or suspected endocrine disruptors or neurotoxins. In this study, 16 organic sunscreens were investigated in the context of their placenta permeability and interactions with gluthatione S-transferase and human N-acetyltransferase 2 enzymes present in the human placenta. Binary permeability models based on discriminant analysis and artificial neural networks proved that the majority of studied compounds are likely to cross the placenta by passive diffusion. Molecular docking analysis suggested that some sunscreens show stronger affinity for glutathione S-transferase and human N-acetyltransferase 2 that native ligands (glutathione and Coenzyme A for GST and NAT2, respectively)-it is therefore possible that they are able to reduce the enzyme's protective activity. It was established that sunscreens bind to the studied enzymes mainly by alkyl, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals, π-π, π-alkyl and π-sulfur interactions. To conclude, sunscreens may become stressors affecting humans by different mechanisms and at different stages of development.

Genetic Evidence for Estrogenic Effects of Benzophenone-2 on Zebrafish Neurodevelopment and Its Signaling Mechanism

Estrogens play a crucial role in regulating various biological responses during the early stages of neurodevelopment. Benzophenone-2 (BP2), a widely used organic ultraviolet (UV) filter, has been proven as an estrogenic compound, whereas the estrogenic effects of BP2 on neurodevelopment remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated the neurodevelopmental toxicity of BP2 by exposing zebrafish embryos from 2 to 120 h postfertilization (hpf) at environmentally relevant concentrations. We demonstrated that early life exposure to BP2 induced multiple concentration-dependent impairments in the nervous system, including hypoactivity, abnormal brain morphology, impaired neurocyte proliferation, shortened axon, and increased neurocyte apoptosis. Moreover, metabolomic profiling revealed a decrease in dopamine (DA) and its metabolites in BP2-treated larvae. Using E2 treatment and morpholino knockdown assays, we provided strong genetic evidence that the BP2-induced behavioral disorders were associated with estrogen-dependent signaling, especially estrogen receptors 2a and 2b (esr2). Subsequently, transcriptomic profiling indicated that the activation of esr2 further inhibited the expression of LIM homeobox transcription factor 1 β a (lmx1ba), which is vital for normal neurodevelopment. Consistently, the overexpression of lmx1ba and inhibition of esr2 obviously alleviated BP2-caused neurotoxicity, uncovering a seminal role of esr2 and lmx1ba in BP2-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity. Our findings provide the first evidence in fish that BP2 can induce neurodevelopmental deficits and brain dysfunction and offer novel insights into the mechanisms of toxicity of BP2 as well as other emerging benzophenones.

Understudied and underestimated impacts of organic UV filters on terrestrial ecosystems

Organic UV filters (OUVFs) are vital components in various personal care products (PCPs) and commercial goods, with the annual consumption estimated at 10,000 tons. Consequently, the unavoidable use of OUVFs in PCPs and other unregulated commercial applications could present a considerable risk to human and environmental health. These chemical entities enter terrestrial ecosystems through wastewater discharge, agriculture, atmospheric deposition, and recreational activities. Compared to aqueous ecosystems, the effects of OUVFs on terrestrial environments should be more studied and potentially underestimated. The present review addresses the abovementioned gap by summarizing 189 studies conducted between 2006 and 2024, focusing on the analytical measures, occurrence, and ecotoxicological effects of OUVFs on terrestrial ecosystems. These studies underscore the harmful effects of certain OUVFs on the development, reproduction, and endocrine systems of terrestrial organisms, highlighting the necessity for comprehensive toxicological assessments to understand their impacts on non-target species in terrestrial ecosystems. Besides, by underscoring the ecological effects of OUVFs, this review aims to guide future research and inform regulatory measures to mitigate the risks posed by these widespread contaminants. Meanwhile, interdisciplinary research is essential, integrating environmental science, toxicology, ecology, and chemistry to tackle OUVF challenges in terrestrial ecosystems.

Organic Sunscreens and Their Products of Degradation in Biotic and Abiotic Conditions-In Silico Studies of Drug-Likeness and Human Placental Transport

A total of 16 organic sunscreens and over 160 products of their degradation in biotic and abiotic conditions were investigated in the context of their safety during pregnancy. Drug-likeness and the ability of the studied compounds to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and cross the human placenta were predicted in silico using the SwissADME software (for drug-likeness and oral absorption) and multiple linear regression and "ARKA" models (for placenta permeability expressed as fetus-to-mother blood concentration in the state of equilibrium), with the latter outperforming the MLR models. It was established that most of the studied compounds can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The drug-likeness of the studied compounds (expressed as a binary descriptor, Lipinski) is closely related to their ability to cross the placenta (most likely by a passive diffusion mechanism). The organic sunscreens and their degradation products are likely to cross the placenta, except for very bulky and highly lipophilic 1,3,5-triazine derivatives; an avobenzone degradation product, 1,2-bis(4-tert-butylphenyl)ethane-1,2-dione; diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate; and dimerization products of sunscreens from the 4-methoxycinnamate group.

Dynamic impact of different human activities on the distribution of organic ultraviolet absorbers in coastal aquatic environments: A case study in Beibu Gulf, South China Sea

The increasing environmental concern surrounding organic ultraviolet absorbers (OUVAs) has prompted heightened attention, particularly their presence in personal care products (organic ultraviolet filters, OUVFs) and industrial products (organic ultraviolet stabilizers, OUVSs). This study investigates the impact of human activities and environmental factors on the occurrence, spatiotemporal distribution, and ecological risk of eight commonly utilized OUVFs and OUVSs in the coastal region of Beibu Gulf, South China Sea. The study area is characterized by multiple functional zones with distinct human activities. Results reveal elevated concentrations of OUVAs during summer compared to winter, attributed to increased residential usage, tourist activities, industrial releases, and intensified ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Interestingly, the proportion of OUVFs increases during summer, while OUVSs decrease. Correlation analysis between OUVAs and sampling sites reveals that tourism and domestic wastewater are the main contributors to OUVF contamination in summer, whereas mariculture and port trade significantly impact OUVS contamination in winter. The ecological risk assessment indicates predominantly low or medium risk levels for most OUVAs in both local seawater and freshwater ecosystems. Nevertheless, OUVFs, with a particular focus on 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), and OUVSs, specifically 2-(2-hydroxy-5-methylphenyl) benzotriazole (UV-P), exhibit a heightened risk compared to alternative substances. These findings provide crucial insights into the development of targeted mitigation strategies for OUVAs, taking into account the varying contamination levels of OUVFs and OUVSs resulting from diverse human activities, aiming to protect the health of aquatic ecosystems in diverse functional zones.

Biotransformation pathways of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) during acidogenesis and methanogenesis of anaerobic digestion

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) exhibit varying biodegradability during the acidogenic and methanogenic phases of anaerobic digestion. However, there is limited information regarding the end products generated during these processes. This work investigates the biotransformation products (BTPs) generated in a two-phase (TP) acidogenic-methanogenic (Ac-Mt) bioreactor using advanced suspect and nontarget strategies. Fourteen BTPs were confidently identified from ten parent PPCPs including carbamazepine (CBZ), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU), acetaminophen (ACT), metoprolol (MTP), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), ciprofloxacin (CIP), methylparaben (MPB) and propylparaben (PPB). These BTPs were linked with oxidation reactions such as hydroxylation, demethylation and epoxidation. Their generation was related to organic acid production, since all metabolites were detected during acidogenesis, with some being subsequently consumed during methanogenesis, e.g., aminothiophenol and kynurenic acid. Another group of BTPs showed increased concentrations under methanogenic conditions, e.g., hydroxy-diclofenac and epoxy-carbamazepine. The most PPCPs showed high removal efficiencies (> 90 %) - SMX, CIP, NPX, MTP, ACT, MPB, PPB, while DCF, CBZ and IBU demonstrated higher persistence - DCF (42 %); CBZ (40 %), IBU (47 %). The phase separation of anaerobic digestion provided a deeper understanding of the biotransformation pathways of PPCPs, in addition to enhancing the biodegradability of the most persistent compounds, i.e., DCF, CBZ and IBU.

Toxic Beauty: Parabens and benzophenone-type UV Filters linked to increased non-alcoholic fatty liver disease risk

The prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has increased concomitantly with heightened exposure to environmental chemicals, such as benzophenone-type ultraviolet (BP-type UV) filters and parabens, which are prevalent in personal care products. This study aimed to investigate the potential link between the exposure to these chemicals and the risk of developing NAFLD. We conducted a case-control study involving 228 participants from South China, encompassing individuals diagnosed with NAFLD and healthy controls. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for the presence of 11 parabens and 8 BP-type UV filters. The findings revealed significantly elevated concentrations of several parabens and BP-type UV filters in the blood of patients with NAFLD compared with the healthy cohort. Notably, methylparaben (MeP), ethylparaben (EtP), isopropylparaben (iPrP), butylparaben (BuP), isobutylparaben (iBuP), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (3,4-DHB), total parabens (Σparabens), BP1, BP3, BP4, and 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OH-BP) were identified as significant predictors of NAFLD prevalence. Through multiple regression analyses, the blood levels of iBuP, Σparabens, and BP4 were found to be significantly associated with elevated triglycerides (TG) (β = 0.59 mmol/L, 95% CI = 0.11-1.59), total bilirubin (TBIL) (β = 2.81 μmol/L, 95% CI = 0.46-15.6) or direct bilirubin (DBIL) (β = 1.89 μmol/L, 95% CI = 0.47-10.2), and reduced globulins (GLB) (β = -0.29 g/L, 95% CI = -0.07 to -5.45), respectively, which are indicators of liver damage. Moreover, TBIL and DBIL were found to mediate 26.7% and 24.6% of the increase in NAFLD prevalence associated with Σparabens, respectively. In conclusion, this study offers pioneering insights into human exposure to parabens and BP-type UV filters as well as their hepatotoxic potential.

Parabens effects on female reproductive health - Review of evidence from epidemiological and rodent-based studies

Parabens have been used as antimicrobial preservatives since the 1920s. The prevalent use of parabens increases their detection in the environment and in women's biological samples including reproductive tissues. Recent studies suggest parabens may alter endocrine function and thus female reproductive health may be affected. In this literature review, we summarize findings on parabens and female reproduction while focusing on epidemiological and rodent-based studies. The topics reviewed include paraben effects on cyclicity, pregnancy, newborn and pubertal development, reproductive hormones, and ovarian and uterine specific outcomes. Overall, the scientific literature on paraben effects on female reproduction is limited and with some conflicting results. Yet, some epidemiological and/or rodent-based experimental studies report significant findings in relation to paraben effects on cyclicity, fertility, gestation length, birth weight, postnatal development and pubertal onset, hormone levels, and hormone signaling in reproductive tissues. Future epidemiological and experimental studies are needed to better understand paraben effects on female reproduction while focusing on human related exposures including mixtures, physiologic concentrations of parabens, and multi-generational studies.

Maternal concentrations of environmental phenols during early pregnancy and behavioral problems in children aged 4 years from the Shanghai Birth Cohort

BACKGROUND

Prenatal exposure to environmental phenols such as bisphenol (BPs), paraben (PBs), benzophenone (BzPs), and triclosan (TCS) is ubiquitous and occurs in mixtures. Although some of them have been suspected to impact child behavioral development, evidence is still insufficient, and their mixed effects remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To explore the association of prenatal exposure to multiple phenols with child behavioral problems.

METHOD

In a sample of 600 mother-child pairs from the Shanghai Birth Cohort, we quantified 18 phenols (6 PBs, 7 BPs, 4 BzPs, and TCS) in urine samples collected during early pregnancy. Parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires were utilized to evaluate child behavioral difficulties across four subscales, namely conduct, hyperactivity/inattention, emotion, and peer relationship problems, at 4 years of age. Multivariable linear regression was conducted to estimate the relationships between single phenolic compounds and behavioral problems. Additionally, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression was employed to examine the overall effects of the phenol mixture. Sex-stratified analyses were also performed.

RESULTS

Our population was extensively exposed to 10 phenols (direction rates >50 %), with low median concentrations (1.00 × 10-3-6.89 ng/mL). Among them, single chemical analyses revealed that 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone (BP1), TCS, and methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate (MeP) were associated with increased behavior problems, including hyperactivity/inattention (BP1: β = 0.16; 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 0.04, 0.30), emotional problems (BP1: β = 0.11; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.20; TCS: β = 0.08; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.14), and peer problems (MeP: β = 0.10; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.18); however, we did not identify any significant association with conduct problems. Further phenol mixture analyses in the WQS model yielded similar results. Stratification for child sex showed stronger positive associations in boys.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that maternal phenol levels during early pregnancy, specifically BP1, TCS, and MeP, are associated with high behavioral problem scores in 4-year-old children.

A high-throughput method for the determination of 14 UV-filters in human plasma by LC-MS/MS: Minimize interferences from proteins and phospholipids in the matrix

Accurate monitoring of UV-filters exposure levels in human plasma is a challenge because of the significant differences in the physicochemical properties of UV-filters, as well as the matrix effect caused by abundant proteins and phospholipids in plasma. Therefore, an effective and rapid method for simultaneous determination of 14 UV-filters in human plasma using protein precipitation-solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed. Acetonitrile with 0.1 % formic acid and 10 % isopropanol (v/v) were used as mobile phases. A gradient elution on an ACQUITY UPLC BEH-C18 column at 30 °C and 0.3 mL/min flow rate was applied for separation. The electrospray ionization positive or negative modes were selected to determine the corresponding analyte to increase selectivity and sensitivity. Results showed that acetonitrile-tetrahydrofuran (v/v, 8:2) as the extraction solvent can effectively precipitate protein in plasma and improve the solubility of UV-filters. The HybridSPE cartridge improved the removal efficiency of phospholipids, while 1 mL of methanol elution increased the extraction recoveries of targets. Fourteen UV-filters achieved good linearities, low detection limits (0.050 to 0.10 μg/L) and quantification limits (0.10 to 1.0 μg/L). Method accuracy and precision, extraction recoveries, and storage stabilities of all analytes met the criterion of 80-120 %. Moreover, this method was successfully applied for the determination of UV-filters in plasma randomly collected from adults. Nine of 14 UV-filters were determined and their concentrations were distributed widely, suggesting a big variation of individual UV-filters exposure.

Development and evaluation of a comprehensive workflow for suspect screening of exposome-related xenobiotics and phase II metabolites in diverse human biofluids

Suspect and non-target screening (SNTS) methods are being promoted in order to decode the human exposome since a wide chemical space can be analysed in a diversity of human biofluids. However, SNTS approaches in the exposomics field are infra-studied in comparison to environmental or food monitoring studies. In this work, a comprehensive suspect screening workflow was developed to annotate exposome-related xenobiotics and phase II metabolites in diverse human biofluids. Precisely, human urine, breast milk, saliva and ovarian follicular fluid were employed as samples and analysed by means of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS). To automate the workflow, the "peak rating" parameter implemented in Compound Discoverer 3.3.2 was optimized to avoid time-consuming manual revision of chromatographic peaks. In addition, the presence of endogenous molecules that might interfere with the annotation of xenobiotics was carefully studied as the employment of inclusion and exclusion suspect lists. To evaluate the workflow, limits of identification (LOIs) and type I and II errors (i.e., false positives and negatives, respectively) were calculated in both standard solutions and spiked biofluids using 161 xenobiotics and 22 metabolites. For 80.3 % of the suspects, LOIs below 15 ng/mL were achieved. In terms of type I errors, only two cases were identified in standards and spiked samples. Regarding type II errors, the 7.7 % errors accounted in standards increased to 17.4 % in real samples. Lastly, the use of an inclusion list for endogens was favoured since it avoided 18.7 % of potential type I errors, while the exclusion list caused 7.2 % of type II errors despite making the annotation workflow less time-consuming.

Associations of personal care products use with reproductive outcomes of IVF/ICSI treatment

Introduction

Personal care products (PCPs) contain a number of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that could potentially affect the reproductive function in women of childbearing age. However, studies focused on the effects of PCPs use on reproductive outcomes are very limited. The current study aimed to explore the relationships between PCPs use patterns and reproductive outcomes in women undergoing in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (IVF/ICSI) treatment.

Methods

A total of 1500 women from the Tongji Reproductive and Environmental (TREE) study between December 2018 and January 2020 were included in this study. Participants provided characteristics of PCPs use within the previous three months. Retrieved oocyte number, mature oocyte number, two distinct pronuclei (2PN) zygote number, fertilization rate, cleavage rate, blastocyst formation rate, implantation, clinical pregnancy, miscarriage, and live birth were followed up as reproductive endpoints. Generalized linear regression model was utilized to assess the associations between various categories of PCPs use and reproductive endpoints of IVF/ICSI.

Results

After adjusting for relevant covariates, women who used skin care products ≥14 times per week had a reduction of 22.4% in the maturation rate (95% CI: -39.2%, -1.6%) compared to participants who did not use skin care products. After transferring fresh embryos, women who used cosmetics 1-2 times per week (adjusted OR = 2.2, 95% CI: 1.0, 4.8) or 3-7 times per week (adjusted OR = 2.5, 95% CI: 1.2, 5.2) had a higher possibility of miscarriage than those who did not use cosmetics. There was negative association between the use of gel or soap and the cleavage rate among women aged < 30 years old (P for interaction = 0.01). Among women with BMI ≥ 24 kg/m2, the use of gel or soap was negatively associated with the blastocyst formation rate (P for interaction = 0.04), while cosmetics use was negatively associated with the maturation rate (P for interaction = 0.001).

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that the use of PCPs in women of reproductive age have a potential adverse impact on IVF/ICSI outcomes, particularly skin care and cosmetic products.