Breeding of ozone resistant rice: relevance, approaches and challenges

Impact of heat and ozone stress on rice growth and productivity: interactive and mitigating effects

Rising global temperatures promote the formation of surface ozone (O3), increasing the likelihood of simultaneous exposure to high temperature and O3 stress in crops. Although their individual effects have been studied extensively, the combined effects of heat and O3 stress on rice remain insufficiently understood. This study investigated the physiological and yield-related responses of rice (Oryza sativa L., cv. Sindongjin) to elevated temperature and O3. A temperature-gradient field chamber system was used to assess combined stress responses throughout the entire growing season under natural solar radiation and daylength over two years. Additional growth chamber experiments were conducted to evaluate stage-specific responses under controlled environmental conditions. Under ambient O3 condition, grain yield decreased by 23.1 % at +1.5 °C and 47.2 % at +3.0 °C. Elevated O3 alone reduced yield by 8.1 %, but no additional yield loss occurred under combined heat and O3 stress at +3.0 °C. Interestingly, O3 exposure appeared to partially mitigate heat-induced yield loss. Heat reduced anthocyanin accumulation and photosynthetic efficiency, whereas ozone enhanced anthocyanin levels and partially restored physiological function under combined conditions. The impact of stress varied across developmental stages, with the greatest yield losses occurring from meiosis to heading. These findings reveal complex interactions between temperature and O3 stress in rice and suggest that elevated O3 exposure can induce physiological responses that alleviate heat damage. The identified physiological and molecular responses provide actionable targets for improving rice resilience to concurrent heat and ozone stress, guiding both breeding and cultivation practices for climate adaptation.

Advances in ozone technology for preservation of grains and end products: Application techniques, control of microbial contaminants, mitigation of mycotoxins, impact on quality, and regulatory approvals

Ozone has emerged as a promising technology for preserving stored grains and end products. Its efficiency as a biocide and the absence of residues make it an attractive alternative to traditional chemical methods of food preservation. This study reviews recent advancements in ozone application techniques, including continuous flow treatments, closed-loop recirculation systems, and low-pressure application systems, as well as their impact on product quality. The study also examines the mechanisms of ozone action, its half-life in grain storage environments, and methods to ensure uniform gas distribution. The results of this study provide a foundation for understanding ozone reactions in various grain types and application systems, offering essential information for effectively sizing treatment systems, estimating ozone concentrations over time, and determining the quantity of products to be treated. A thorough comprehension of ozone behavior in porous environments, such as silos, and its stability under diverse environmental conditions is crucial for enhancing its applicability. While scientific evidence supports ozone's efficacy in controlling pests and microorganisms, further investigation is needed on its impact on the nutritional quality of grains and final products. Additionally, the review highlights the latest regulatory approvals for ozone use in the food industry, emphasizing the importance of compliance and safety. The findings underscore the need for continued technological development and economic analysis to evaluate the long-term viability of ozone applications in agriculture.

Understanding the impact of elevated CO2 and O3 on growth and yield in Indian wheat cultivars: Implications for food security in a changing climate

The pressing issue of increasing tropospheric ozone (O3) levels necessitates the development of effective stress management strategies for plant protection. While considerable research has elucidated the adverse impacts of O3, understanding the combined effects of O3 and CO2 requires further investigation. This study focuses on assessing the response of stomatal O3 flux under various O3 and CO2 treatments, individually and in combination, and their repercussions on physiological, growth, and yield attributes in two Indian wheat cultivars, HUW-55 and PBW-550, which exhibit varying levels of sensitivities against elevated O3. Results indicated significant alterations in stomatal O3 flux in both O3-sensitive and tolerant wheat cultivars across different treatments, influencing the overall yield outcomes. Particularly, the ECO2+EO3 treatment demonstrated more positive yield protection in the O3-sensitive cultivar PBW-550, compared to HUW-55 indicating enhanced allocation of photosynthates towards reproductive development in PBW-550, compared to the tolerant cultivar HUW-55, as evidenced by higher harvest index (HI). Furthermore, the study revealed a stronger correlation between yield response and stomatal O3 flux in PBW-550 (R2 = 0.88) compared to HUW-55 (R2 = 0.79), as indicated by a steeper regression slope for PBW-550. The research also confirmed the role of elevated CO2 in reducing stomatal O3- flux in the tested cultivars, with discernible effects on their respective yield responses. Further experimentation is necessary to confirm these results across different cultivars exhibiting varying sensitivities to O3. These findings can potentially revolutionize agricultural productivity in regions affected by O3 stress. The criteria for recommending cultivars for agricultural practices should not be based only on their sensitivity/tolerance to O3. Still, they should also consider the effect of CO2 fertilization in the growing area. This experiment offers hope to sustain global food security, as the O3-sensitive wheat cultivar also showed promising results at elevated CO2. In essence, this research could pave the way for more resilient agricultural systems in the era of changing climate under elevated O3 and CO2 conditions.

Investigating the potency of ethylenediurea (EDU) in alleviating the affliction of ambient ozone in heat labile tomato cultivars (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Tomato is the second most valuable vegetable crop, and its susceptibility to tropospheric ozone (O3) varies on the cultivar. Eight tomato cultivars with documented O3 sensitivity were reevaluated using ethylenediurea (400 ppm EDU) to determine the effectiveness of EDU in assessing O3 sensitivity under heavily O3-polluted tropical conditions. EDU helped in amending the growth, photosynthetic pigments, photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and yield characteristics in the tomato cultivars. EDU reduced the lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species content, while enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant responses differed across cultivars. The cultivar Superbug and Sel-7 (O3 susceptible) performed better by employing more biomass and yield and exhibiting more potent antioxidative defense machinery mainly non-enzymatic antioxidants after EDU treatment. The higher value of total antioxidative potential (TAP) in O3 susceptible cultivars suggested the adaptive resilience through EDU application against O3 stress. EDU application greatly enhanced the photosynthetic rate in O3 susceptible cultivars by increasing the stomatal conductance. Hence, both biophysical and biochemical responses were involved in protection against O3 provided by EDU. Kashi chayan and VRT02 (O3 tolerant) cultivars showed least response to EDU, due to their efficient inherent mechanisms in alleviating O3 stress. Thus, EDU may be used as an efficient biomonitoring tool against O3-sensitive cultivars.

Effects of mineral fertilization (NPK) on combined high temperature and ozone damage in rice

BACKGROUND

Increasing concern has recently been highlighted regarding crop damage due to extreme weather events caused by global warming and the increased production of ground-level ozone. Several studies have investigated rice growth in response to fertilization conditions under various environmental stress conditions; however, studies on growth development in response to fertilization conditions under combined high-temperature/ozone treatment conditions are scarce. In this study, we aimed investigate the growth and physiological development of rice under combined high temperature and ozone treatment conditions and to reveal the damage-mitigation effects of NPK fertilization treatments.

RESULTS

The plants were treated with varying levels of NPK [N2 (N-P-K: 9.0-4.5-4.0 kg/a), P2 (4.5-9.0-4.0 kg/a), K2 (4.5-4.5-8.0 kg/a), and control (4.5-4.5-4.0 kg/10a).] under combined high-temperature (35 ℃) and ozone (150 pb) treatment conditions. Analysis of the growth metrics, including plant height, leaf age, dry weight, and the plant height/leaf age (PH/L) ratio were revealed that combined high-temperature/ozone treatment promoted the phenological development indicated by increasing leaf age but decreased the plant height and dry weight indicating its negative effect on quantitative growth. The effects of this combined high-temperature/ozone treatment on growth were alleviated by NPK fertilization, particularly in K2 treatment but worsened in N2 treatment. Visible damage symptoms in rice leaves induced by exposure to the combined stressors was also alleviated by the K2 treatment. At the physiological level, K2 treatment reduced the expression of OsF3H2, which is associated with antioxidant activity, suggesting that potassium improved stress tolerance. Additionally, expression of genes related to abscisic acid (ABA) metabolism showed increased OsNECD (ABA synthesis) and decreased OsCYP707A3 (ABA degradation) in the K2 treatment, promoting a stronger adaptive stress response. Stomatal conductance measurements indicated a slight increase under K2 treatment, reflecting enhanced regulation of stomatal function during stress.

CONCLUSION

The study highlights the potential of potassium fertilization to mitigate combined high-temperature and ozone stress in rice, suggesting it as a strategy to improve crop resilience and optimize fertilization. The findings offer insights into fertilization treatments and can guide future research on stress tolerance in crops.

Effect of tropospheric ozone and its protectants on gas exchange parameters, antioxidant enzymes and quality of Garlic (Allium sativum. L)

An experimental study was conducted to assess the detrimental effect of ground-level ozone (O3) on garlic physiology and to find out appropriate control measures against ground-level O3, at TNAU-Horticultural Research farm, Udhagamandalam. Elevated ground ozone levels significantly decreased garlic leaf chlorophyll, photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, total soluble solids and pungency. The garlic chlorophyll content was highest in ambient ozone level and lowest in elevated ozone@200 ppb, highest stomatal conductance was recorded in ambient ozone with foliar spray of 3%Panchagavya, and the lowest was observed in elevated ozone@200 ppb. Since the elevated O3 had reduced in garlic photosynthetic rate significantly the lowest was observed in elevated O3@200 ppb and the highest photosynthetic rate was observed in ambient Ozone with foliar spray 3% of panchagavya after a week. The antioxidant enzymes of garlic were increased with increased concentration of tropospheric ozone. The highest catalase (60.97 µg of H2O2/g of leaf) and peroxidase (9.13 ΔA/min/g of leaf) concentration was observed at 200 ppb elevated ozone level. Garlic pungency content was highest in ambient ozone with foliar spray of 0.1% ascorbic acid and the lowest was observed under elevated O3@200 ppb. Highest total soluble solids were observed in ambient ozone with foliar spray of 3%Panchagavya and the lowest observed in elevated ozone@200 ppb. Thus, tropospheric ozone has a detrimental impact on the physiology of crops, which reduced crop growth and yield. Under elevated O3 levels, ascorbic acid performed well followed by panchagavya and neem oil. The antioxidant such as catalase and peroxidase had positive correlation among themselves and had negative correlation with chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, pungency and TSS. The photosynthetic rate has high positive correlation with chlorophyll content, pungency and TSS. Correlation analysis confirmed the negative effects of tropospheric ozone and garlic gas exchange parameters and clove quality. The ozone protectants will reduce stomatal opening by which the entry of O3 in to the cell will be restricted and other hand they also will alleviate ROS and allied stresses.

Ectomycorrhiza and ethylenediurea reduced the impact of high nitrogen and ozone stresses and increased the growth of Cedrus deodara

Cedrus deodara is the central conifer plant affected by ozone and nitrogen pollutants among forest species worldwide. The growth of C. deodara depends upon the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) association, which is usually disturbed by these factors. This study aims to understand how these factors affect plants at physiological and biochemical levels. Three fungal strain consortiums were inoculated with two-year-old C. deodara seedlings. The stresses of 100 kg N h-1and 100 ppb O3 were applied for six months to study their impact on chlorophyll and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and APX). The results showed that C2 (Consortium of Cedrus deodara) positively impacted the growth of selected plant species. The high photosynthesis rate was determined by enhanced chlorophyll content, and C2-treated plants showed high chlorophyll content. Relatively, chlorophyll a and b contents increased significantly in the seedlings treated with Ethylenediurea (EDU) alone and with ozone stress. In addition, a significant difference was observed between EDU and O3-treated plants (14% EDU400-O3 and 23% EDU600-O3) and the control. Overall, antioxidant activities were higher in the treated samples than in the control. The order of SOD activity was C2 (448 U/gFW) and lowest (354.7 U/gFW) in control. APX also showed higher activity in treated plants in C1 ≥ C2 ≥ C3+O3, whereas CAT activity was the highest in C2 treatments. Ozone and nitrogen-stressed plants showed higher activities than EDU-treated plants compared to non-treated ones. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding the signaling effects of numerous precursors. Moreover, an extended investigation of seedlings developing into trees must be conducted to verify the potential of ectomycorrhizal strains associated with C. deodara and comprehend EDU's role as a direct molecular scavenger of reactive toxicants.

Evidence for tropospheric ozone effects on rice production in Bangladesh

Although Bangladesh is known to be burdened with elevated tropospheric ozone levels, little is known about its effects on food security. We conducted field experiments in four highly polluted rice growing environments of Bangladesh in three cropping seasons (2020-2022), in which we grew 20 different rice varieties with or without application of the ozone protectant ethylene diurea (EDU). The average daytime ozone concentrations at the study sites during the rice growing seasons ranged from 53 ppb to 84 ppb, with the lowest concentrations occurring in the year 2020. EDU increased rice grain yields significantly by an average of 10.4 % across all seasons and locations, indicating that plants were stressed under ambient ozone concentrations. EDU was effective in distinguishing ozone-tolerant from ozone-sensitive varieties, in which yield increased by up to 21 %. Likewise, the EDU treatment positively affected vegetation indices representing chlorophyll (NDVI), the chorophyll:carotenoid ratio (Lic2), and pigments of the xanthophyll cycle (PRI). Stomatal conductance was increased significantly by an average of around 10 % among all varieties when plants were treated with EDU. In all physiological traits, significant genotype by treatment interactions occurred, indicating that different varieties varied in their responses to ozone stress. Our study demonstrates that rice production in Bangladesh is severely affected by tropospheric ozone, and calls for the breeding of tolerant rice varieties as well as mitigation measures to reduce air pollution.

Elevated tropospheric ozone and crop production: potential negative effects and plant defense mechanisms

Ozone (O3) levels on Earth are increasing because of anthropogenic activities and natural processes. Ozone enters plants through the leaves, leading to the overgeneration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the mesophyll and guard cell walls. ROS can damage chloroplast ultrastructure and block photosynthetic electron transport. Ozone can lead to stomatal closure and alter stomatal conductance, thereby hindering carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation. Ozone-induced leaf chlorosis is common. All of these factors lead to a reduction in photosynthesis under O3 stress. Long-term exposure to high concentrations of O3 disrupts plant physiological processes, including water and nutrient uptake, respiration, and translocation of assimilates and metabolites. As a result, plant growth and reproductive performance are negatively affected. Thus, reduction in crop yield and deterioration of crop quality are the greatest effects of O3 stress on plants. Increased rates of hydrogen peroxide accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and ion leakage are the common indicators of oxidative damage in plants exposed to O3 stress. Ozone disrupts the antioxidant defense system of plants by disturbing enzymatic activity and non-enzymatic antioxidant content. Improving photosynthetic pathways, various physiological processes, antioxidant defense, and phytohormone regulation, which can be achieved through various approaches, have been reported as vital strategies for improving O3 stress tolerance in plants. In plants, O3 stress can be mitigated in several ways. However, improvements in crop management practices, CO2 fertilization, using chemical elicitors, nutrient management, and the selection of tolerant crop varieties have been documented to mitigate O3 stress in different plant species. In this review, the responses of O3-exposed plants are summarized, and different mitigation strategies to decrease O3 stress-induced damage and crop losses are discussed. Further research should be conducted to determine methods to mitigate crop loss, enhance plant antioxidant defenses, modify physiological characteristics, and apply protectants.

Addressing ozone pollution to promote United Nations sustainable development goal 2: Ensuring global food security

Achieving global food security and ensuring sustainable agriculture, the dual objectives of the second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 2), necessitate immediate and collaborative efforts from developing and developed nations. The adverse effects of ozone on crop yields have the potential to significantly undermine the United Nations' ambitious target of attaining food security and ending hunger by 2030. This review examines the causes of growing tropospheric ozone, especially in India and China which lead to a substantial reduction in crop yield and forest biomass. The findings show that a nexus of high population, rapid urbanization and regional pollution sources aggravates the problem in these countries. It elucidates that when plants are exposed to ozone, specific cellular pathways are triggered, resulting in changes in the expression of genes related to hormone production, antioxidant metabolism, respiration, and photosynthesis. Assessing the risks associated with ozone exposure involves using response functions that link exposure-based and flux-based measurements to variables like crop yield. Precisely quantifying the losses in yield and economic value in food crops due to current ozone levels is of utmost importance in comprehending the risks ozone poses to global food security. We conclude that policymakers should focus on implementing measures to decrease the emissions of ozone precursors, such as enhancing vehicle fuel efficiency standards and promoting the use of cleaner energy sources. Additionally, efforts should be directed toward mapping or developing crop varieties that can tolerate ozone, applying protective measures at critical stages of plant growth and establishing ozone-related vegetation protection standards.

Using soil nitrogen amendments in mitigating ozone stress in agricultural crops: a case study of cluster beans

The climate change scenario in the coming years is liable to have serious negative consequences on agricultural productivity. Increasing tropospheric ozone concentration is an important aspect of climate change, which, due to its oxidative nature, is injurious to the plants. Due to the multifarious nature and continuously increasing concentration of tropospheric ozone, it is prerequisite to develop strategies to manage ozone stress in plants. Present study not only evaluates the potential of soil nitrogen amendments in ameliorating ozone stress in plants, but also focuses upon the mechanistic approaches adopted by the different plant cultivars to combat ozone stress. Three doses of nitrogen amendments, recommended (N1), 1.5× recommended (N2) and 2× recommended (N3), were given to two cultivars (S-151 and PUSA-N) of Cymopsis tetragonoloba exposed to ambient ozone stress. Control plants were also maintained in which no nitrogen treatment was given. Nitrogen supplementation reduced the root nodulation frequency and leghaemoglobin content, which subsequently increased the cellular nitrogen metabolism as evident through increase in the activities of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase in both the test cultivars. The positive effects of nitrogen amendments are clearly evident in the 1D protein profile studies which showed a greater accumulation of larger sub-units of RuBisCO in nitrogen amended plants. The results clearly indicate that N2 treatment effectively enhanced the yield of both the cultivars (84.8% and 76.37%, in S-151 and PUSA-N, respectively); however, the mechanistic approach adopted by the two cultivars was different. Whereas the yield quantity showed higher increments in S-151, the yield quality parameters (carbohydrates and nitrogen contents) responded more positively in PUSA-N.

Effect of ozone stress on crop productivity: A threat to food security

Tropospheric ozone (O3), the most important phytotoxic air pollutant, can deteriorate crop quality and productivity. Notably, satellite and ground-level observations-based multimodel simulations demonstrate that the present and future predicted O3 exposures could threaten food security. Hence, the present study aims at reviewing the phytotoxicity caused by O3 pollution, which threatens the food security. The present review encompasses three major aspects; wherein the past and prevailing O3 concentrations in various regions were compiled at first, followed by discussing the physiological, biochemical and yield responses of economically important crop species, and considering the potential of O3 protectants to alleviate O3-induced phytotoxicity. Finally, the empirical data reported in the literature were quantitatively analysed to show that O3 causes detrimental effect on physiological traits, photosynthetic pigments, growth and yield attributes. The review on prevailing O3 concentrations over various regions, where economically important crop are grown, and their negative impact would support policy makers to implement air pollution regulations and the scientific community to develop countermeasures against O3 phytotoxicity for maintaining food security.

Adapting crop production to climate change and air pollution at different scales

Air pollution and climate change are tightly interconnected and jointly affect field crop production and agroecosystem health. Although our understanding of the individual and combined impacts of air pollution and climate change factors is improving, the adaptation of crop production to concurrent air pollution and climate change remains challenging to resolve. Here we evaluate recent advances in the adaptation of crop production to climate change and air pollution at the plant, field and ecosystem scales. The main approaches at the plant level include the integration of genetic variation, molecular breeding and phenotyping. Field-level techniques include optimizing cultivation practices, promoting mixed cropping and diversification, and applying technologies such as antiozonants, nanotechnology and robot-assisted farming. Plant- and field-level techniques would be further facilitated by enhancing soil resilience, incorporating precision agriculture and modifying the hydrology and microclimate of agricultural landscapes at the ecosystem level. Strategies and opportunities for crop production under climate change and air pollution are discussed.

Secondary metabolites responses of plants exposed to ozone: an update

Tropospheric ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant that causes oxidative stress in plants due to the generation of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS). Phenylpropanoid metabolism is induced as a usual response to stress in plants, and induction of key enzyme activities and accumulation of secondary metabolites occur, upon O3 exposure to provide resistance or tolerance. The phenylpropanoid, isoprenoid, and alkaloid pathways are the major secondary metabolic pathways from which plant defense metabolites emerge. Chronic exposure to O3 significantly accelerates the direction of carbon flows toward secondary metabolic pathways, resulting in a resource shift in favor of the synthesis of secondary products. Furthermore, since different cellular compartments have different levels of ROS sensitivity and metabolite sets, intracellular compartmentation of secondary antioxidative metabolites may play a role in O3-induced ROS detoxification. Plants' responses to resource partitioning often result in a trade-off between growth and defense under O3 stress. These metabolic adjustments help the plants to cope with the stress as well as for achieving new homeostasis. In this review, we discuss secondary metabolic pathways in response to O3 in plant species including crops, trees, and medicinal plants; and how the presence of this stressor affects their role as ROS scavengers and structural defense. Furthermore, we discussed how O3 affects key physiological traits in plants, foliar chemistry, and volatile emission, which affects plant-plant competition (allelopathy), and plant-insect interactions, along with an emphasis on soil dynamics, which affect the composition of soil communities via changing root exudation, litter decomposition, and other related processes.

Effects of increased ozone on rice panicle morphology

Ground-level ozone threatens rice production, which provides staple food for more than half of the world's population. Improving the adaptability of rice crops to ozone pollution is essential to ending global hunger. Rice panicles not only affect grain yield and grain quality but also the adaptability of plants to environmental changes, but the effects of ozone on rice panicles are not well understood. Through an open top chamber experiment, we investigated the effects of long-term and short-term ozone on the traits of rice panicles, finding that both long-term and short-term ozone significantly reduced the number of panicle branches and spikelets in rice, and especially the fertility of spikelets in hybrid cultivar. The reduction in spikelet quantity and fertility because of ozone exposure is caused by changes in secondary branches and attached spikelet. These results suggest the potential for effective adaptation to ozone by altering breeding targets and developing growth stage-specific agricultural techniques.

Ozone and nitrogen dioxide regulate similar gene expression responses in Arabidopsis but natural variation in the extent of cell death is likely controlled by different genetic loci

High doses of ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) cause damage and cell death in plants. These two gases are among the most harmful air pollutants for ecosystems and therefore it is important to understand how plant resistance or sensitivity to these gases work at the molecular level and its genetic control. We compared transcriptome data from O3 and NO2 fumigations to other cell death related treatments, as well as individual marker gene transcript level in different Arabidopsis thaliana accessions. Our analysis revealed that O3 and NO2 trigger very similar gene expression responses that include genes involved in pathogen resistance, cell death and ethylene signaling. However, we also identified exceptions, for example RBOHF encoding a reactive oxygen species producing RESPIRATORY BURST OXIDASE PROTEIN F. This gene had increased transcript levels by O3 but decreased transcript levels by NO2, showing that plants can identify each of the gases separately and activate distinct signaling pathways. To understand the genetics, we conducted a genome wide association study (GWAS) on O3 and NO2 tolerance of natural Arabidopsis accessions. Sensitivity to both gases seem to be controlled by several independent small effect loci and we did not find an overlap in the significantly associated regions. Further characterization of the GWAS candidate loci identified new regulators of O3 and NO2 induced cell death including ABH1, a protein that functions in abscisic acid signaling, mRNA splicing and miRNA processing. The GWAS results will facilitate further characterization of the control of programmed cell death and differences between oxidative and nitrosative stress in plants.

Interactive effects of tropospheric ozone and blast disease (Magnaporthe oryzae) on different rice genotypes

Rising tropospheric ozone concentrations can cause rice yield losses and necessitate the breeding of ozone-tolerant rice varieties. However, ozone tolerance should not compromise the resistance to important biotic stresses such as the rice blast disease. Therefore, we investigated the interactive effects of ozone and rice blast disease on nine different rice varieties in an experiment testing an ozone treatment, blast inoculation, and their interaction. Plants were exposed to an ozone concentration of 100 ppb for 7 h per day or ambient air throughout the growth period. Half of the plants were simultaneously infected with rice blast inoculum. Grain yield was significantly reduced in the blast treatment (17%) and ozone treatment (37%), while the combination of both stresses did not further decrease grain yields compared to ozone alone. Similar trends occurred for physiological traits such as vegetation indices, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), photochemical reflectance index (PRI), Lichtenthaler index 2 (Lic2), and anthocyanin reflectance index 1 (ARI1), as well as stomatal conductance and lipid peroxidation. Ozone exposure mitigated the formation of visible blast symptoms, while blast inoculation did not significantly affect visible ozone symptoms. Although different genotypes showed contrasting responses to the two types of stresses, no systematic pattern was observed regarding synergies or trade-offs under the two types of stresses. Therefore, we conclude that despite the similarities in physiological stress responses to ozone and blast, the tolerance to these stresses does not appear to be genetically linked in rice.

Assessing the impact of current tropospheric ozone on yield loss and antioxidant defense of six cultivars of rice using ethylenediurea in the lower Gangetic Plains of India

Climate change influences the current tropospheric ozone (O₃) budget due to industrialization and urbanization processes. In recent years, the impact of elevated O₃ on crop development and yield loss has emerged as one of the most important environmental issues, particularly in rural and suburban areas of the lower Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. The impact of the current tropospheric ozone (O₃) on the crop yield, photosynthetic yield, and enzymatic antioxidants of six rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars (IR 36, MTU 1010, GB 3, Khitish, IET 4786, and Ganga Kaveri) was investigated with and without the application of ethylenediurea (EDU). The results revealed that O₃ stress significantly affected crop yield, photosynthetic yield, and antioxidant enzymes. The findings showed that O₃ toxicity induces oxidative stress biomarkers, i.e., malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and was manifested by increasing the enzymatic antioxidants, i.e., superoxidase dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) in four rice cultivars (IR 36, GB 3, IET 4786, and Ganga Kaveri). At the same time, the results also illustrated that the rice cultivars MTU 1010 and Khitish are more tolerant to O₃ stress as they had less oxidative damage, greater photosynthetic SPAD value, SOD and CAT activities, and lower MDA activity. The results also elucidated that the application of EDU decreased O₃ toxicity in sensitive cultivars of rice by increasing antioxidant defense systems. The current O₃ level is likely to show an additional increase in the near future, and the use of tolerant genotypes of rice may reduce the negative impacts of O₃ on rice production.

The Potential Impact of Climate Change on the Micronutrient-Rich Food Supply

Micronutrient deficiencies are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries worldwide. Climate change, characterized by increasing global surface temperatures and alterations in rainfall, has the capacity to affect the quality and accessibility of micronutrient-rich foods. The goals of this review are to summarize the potential effects of climate change and its consequences on agricultural yield and micronutrient quality, primarily zinc, iron, and vitamin A, of plant foods and upon the availability of animal foods, to discuss the implications for micronutrient deficiencies in the future, and to present possible mitigation and adaptive strategies. In general, the combination of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and rising temperature is predicted to reduce the overall yield of major staple crops, fruits, vegetables, and nuts, more than altering their micronutrient content. Crop yield is also reduced by elevated ground-level ozone and increased extreme weather events. Pollinator loss is expected to reduce the yield of many pollinator-dependent crops such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Sea-level rise resulting from melting of ice sheets and glaciers is predicted to result in coastal inundation, salt intrusion, and loss of coral reefs and mangrove forests, with an adverse impact upon coastal rice production and coastal fisheries. Global ocean fisheries catch is predicted to decline because of ocean warming and declining oxygen. Freshwater warming is also expected to alter ecosystems and reduce inland fisheries catch. In addition to limiting greenhouse gas production, adaptive strategies include postharvest fortification of foods; micronutrient supplementation; biofortification of staple crops with zinc and iron; plant breeding or genetic approaches to increase zinc, iron, and provitamin A carotenoid content of plant foods; and developing staple crops that are tolerant of abiotic stressors such as elevated carbon dioxide, elevated temperature, and increased soil salinity.

Evaluating impacts of biogenic silver nanoparticles and ethylenediurea on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) against ozone-induced damages

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is a phytotoxic pollutant that leads to a reduction in crop yield. Nanotechnology offers promising solutions to stem such yield losses against abiotic stresses. Silver nanoparticles are major nanomaterials used in consumer products however, their impact on crops under abiotic stress is limited. In this study, we evaluated the anti-ozonant efficacy of biogenic silver nanoparticles (B-AgNPs) and compared them with a model anti-ozonant ethylenediurea (EDU) against ozone phyto-toxicity. Growth, physiology, antioxidant defense, and yield parameters in two wheat cultivars (HD-2967 & DBW-17), treated with B-AgNPs (25 mg/L and 50 mg/L) and EDU (150 mg/L and 300 mg/L), were studied at both vegetative and reproductive stages. During the experimental period, the average ambient ozone concentration and accumulated dose of ozone over a threshold of 40 ppb (AOT40) (8 h day^-1) were found to be 60 ppb and 6 ppm h, respectively, which were sufficient to cause ozone-induced phyto-toxicity in wheat. Growth and yield for B-AgNPs as well as EDU-treated plants were significantly higher in both the tested cultivars over control ones. However, 25 mg/L B-AgNPs treatment showed a more pronounced effect in terms of yield attributes and its lower accumulation in grains for both cultivars. DBW-17 cultivar responded better with B-AgNPs and EDU treatments as compared to HD-2967. Meanwhile, foliar exposure of B-AgNPs (dose; 25 mg/L) significantly enhanced grain weight plant^-1, thousand-grain weight, and harvest index by 54.22 %, 29.46 %, and 14.21 %, respectively in DBW-17, when compared to control. B-AgNPs could enhance ozone tolerance in wheat by increasing biochemical and physiological responses. It is concluded that B-AgNPs at optimum concentrations were as effective as EDU, hence could be a promising ozone protectant for wheat.

Approaches to investigate crop responses to ozone pollution: from O3 -FACE to satellite-enabled modeling

Ozone (O₃ ) is a damaging air pollutant to crops. As one of the most reactive oxidants known, O₃ rapidly forms other reactive oxygen species (ROS) once it enters leaves through stomata. Those ROS in turn can cause oxidative stress, reduce photosynthesis, accelerate senescence, and decrease crop yield. To improve and adapt our feed, fuel, and food supply to rising O₃ pollution, a number of Free Air Concentration Enrichment (O₃ -FACE) facilities have been developed around the world and have studied key staple crops. In this review, we provide an overview of the FACE facilities and highlight some of the lessons learned from the last two decades of research. We discuss the differences between C₃ and C₄ crop responses to elevated O₃ , the possible trade-off between productivity and protection, genetic variation in O₃ response within and across species, and how we might leverage this observed variation for crop improvement. We also highlight the need to improve understanding of the interaction between rising O₃ pollution and other aspects of climate change, notably drought. Finally, we propose the use of globally modeled O₃ data that are available at increasing spatial and temporal resolutions to expand upon the research conducted at the limited number of global O₃ -FACE facilities.

Response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars to elevated ozone stress

The plant response to elevated ozone stress reveals inter-species and intra-species disparity. Ozone-induced crop yield loss is predicted to increase in the future, posing a threat to the world economy. This study aims to evaluate the cultivar specific variation in rice exposed to elevated ozone. Fifteen short-duration rice cultivars were exposed to 50 ppb ozone for 30 days at reproductive stage. The physiological, biochemical, growth and yield traits of all test cultivars were significantly affected in response to elevated ozone. On an average, ozone stress decreased the tiller number by 22.52%, number of effective tillers by 30.43%, 1000 grain weight by 0.62% and straw weight by 23.83% over control. Spikelet sterility increased by 19.26% and linear multiregression 3D model significantly fits the spikelet sterility and photosynthetic traits with the R² of 0.74 under elevated ozone. Principal Component Analysis with total variance of 57.5% categorized 15 rice cultivars into four major groups, i.e., ozone sensitive (MDU6, TRY(R)2 and ASD16), moderately ozone sensitive (ASD18, ADT43, and MDU5), moderately ozone tolerant (ADT37, ADT(R)45, TPS5, Anna(R)4, PMK(R)3, and ADT(R)48), and ozone tolerant (CO51, CO47, and ADT36). This study indicates that the different responses of rice cultivars to elevated ozone stress through a change in plant physiology, biochemical, growth, and yield traits and the results directed to provide scientific information on plant adaptations to ozone stress and helps in efforts to search ozone tolerant gene for plant breeding.

Breeding Driven Enrichment of Genetic Variation for Key Yield Components and Grain Starch Content Under Drought Stress in Winter Wheat

Drought is one of the major abiotic stress factors limiting wheat production worldwide, thus threatening food security. The dissection of the genetic footprint of drought stress response offers strong opportunities toward understanding and improving drought tolerance (DT) in wheat. In this study, we investigated the genotypic variability for drought response among 200 diverse wheat cultivars (genotypes) using agronomic, developmental, and grain quality traits (GQT), and conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to uncover the genetic architectures of these important traits. Results indicated significant effects of genotype, water regime and their interactions for all agronomic traits. Grain yield (GY) was the most drought-responsive trait and was highly correlated with kernels number per meter square (KN). Genome-wide association studies revealed 17 and 20 QTL regions under rainfed and drought conditions, respectively, and identified one LD block on chromosome 3A and two others on 5D associated with breeding progress (BP). The major haplotypes of these LD blocks have been positively selected through breeding and are associated with higher starch accumulation and GY under drought conditions. Upon validation, the identified QTL regions caring favorable alleles for high starch and yield will shed light on mechanisms of tolerance to drought and can be used to develop drought resistant cultivars.

Genetic dissection of bread wheat diversity and identification of adaptive loci in response to elevated tropospheric ozone

Rising tropospheric ozone affects the performance of important cereal crops thus threatening global food security. In this study, genetic variation of wheat regarding its physiological and yield responses to ozone was explored by exposing a diversity panel of 150 wheat genotypes to elevated ozone and control conditions throughout the growing season. Differential responses to ozone were observed for foliar symptom formation quantified as leaf bronzing score (LBS), vegetation indices and yield components. Vegetation indices representing the carotenoid to chlorophyll pigment ratio (such as Lic2) were particularly ozone-responsive and were thus considered suitable for the non-invasive diagnosing of ozone stress. Genetic variation in ozone-responsive traits was dissected by a genome-wide association study (GWAS). Significant marker-trait associations were identified for LBS on chromosome 5A and for vegetation indices (NDVI and Lic2) on chromosomes 6B and 6D. Analysis of linkage disequilibrium (LD) in these chromosomal regions revealed distinct LD blocks containing genes with a putative function in plant redox biology such as cytochrome P450 proteins and peroxidases. This study gives novel insight into the natural genetic variation in wheat ozone response, and lays the foundation for the molecular breeding of tolerant wheat varieties.

Effects of ozone on agriculture, forests and grasslands

The damage and injury that ground level ozone (O3) causes vegetation has become increasingly evident over the past half century with a large body of observational and experimental evidence demonstrating a variety of effects at ambient concentrations on crop, forest and grassland species and ecosystems. This paper explores the use of experimental data to develop exposure-response relationships for use in risk assessment studies. These studies have typically identified the USA mid-West, much of Europe, the Indo Gangetic Plain in South Asia and the Eastern coastal region of China as global regions where O3 is likely to threaten food supply and other ecosystems. Global risk assessment modelling estimates yield losses of staple crops between 3 to 16% causing economic losses of between US$14 to 26 billion in the year 2000. Changes in anthropogenic emissions of O3 precursors in recent decades have modified O3 concentration profiles (peaks versus background O3) and global distributions with the Northern Hemisphere seeing increases in O3 levels of between 1 and 5 ppb/decade since the 1950s and the emergence of Asia as the region with the highest O3 concentrations. In the future, O3 mitigation could focus on methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions; these will differentially influence global and local/regional O3 concentrations and influence daily and seasonal profiles. The consequent effects on vegetation will in part depend on how these changes in O3 profile alter the exceedance of detoxification thresholds for plant damage. Adaptation options may play an important role in enhancing food supply while mitigation strategies are being implemented. An improved understanding of the mechanisms by which O3 affects plants, and how this might influence detoxification thresholds and interactions with other environmental variables such as water stress and nutrients, would help develop O3 deposition and impact models to support the development of crop, land-surface exchange and ultimately earth system models for holistic assessments of global change. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Air quality, past present and future'.

Ozone-induced reduction in rice yield is closely related to the response of spikelet density under ozone stress

Six modern rice cultivars, including three indica and three japonica cultivars were exposed to 100 ppb ozone (8 h per day) and control conditions throughout cropping season in 2016 to 2017 at Yangzhou, China. Ozone decreased plant height and inhibited tillering development as well as panicle number per plant of all cultivars, but had no effect on the productive tiller ratio. Ozone significantly decreased spikelet number per panicle, spikelet number per plant, fully-filled grain percentage and fully-filled grain weight, resulting in yield decrease by 39.3% on average for all cultivars and by 42.6 and 34.4% in the indica and the japonica groups, respectively. The response of aboveground biomass to ozone was similar to that of yield, albeit with a lower decrease, which led to a 7.6% decrease in harvest index. In terms of grain positions (grains attached to the upper primary rachis: superior spikelet (SS); grains attached to the lower secondary rachis: inferior spikelet (IS), and the remaining grains: medium spikelet (MS)), the ozone-induced change in yield traits (yield, spikelet number per panicle, spikelet number per plant, fully-filled grain percentage, and empty grain percentage) followed the order IS > MS > SS, as indicated by the significant interaction between ozone and grain position. Although ozone had negative effects on all yield traits, only ozone-induced reduction in spikelet density (spikelet number per panicle and or spikelet number per plant) was significantly correlated to yield loss. Grain yield showed significant ozone by cultivar and ozone by year interactions, indicating ozone impacts on rice yield varied with meteorological conditions and cultivars.

Uncovering hidden genetic variation in photosynthesis of field-grown maize under ozone pollution

Ozone is the most damaging air pollutant to crops, currently reducing Midwest US maize production by up to 10%, yet there has been very little effort to adapt germplasm for ozone tolerance. Ozone enters plants through stomata, reacts to form reactive oxygen species in the apoplast and ultimately decreases photosynthetic C gain. In this study, 10 diverse inbred parents were crossed in a half-diallel design to create 45 F1 hybrids, which were tested for ozone response in the field using free air concentration enrichment (FACE). Ozone stress increased the heritability of photosynthetic traits and altered genetic correlations among traits. Hybrids from parents Hp301 and NC338 showed greater sensitivity to ozone stress, and disrupted relationships among photosynthetic traits. The physiological responses underlying sensitivity to ozone differed in hybrids from the two parents, suggesting multiple mechanisms of response to oxidative stress. FACE technology was essential to this evaluation because genetic variation in photosynthesis under elevated ozone was not predictable based on performance at ambient ozone. These findings suggest that selection under elevated ozone is needed to identify deleterious alleles in the world's largest commodity crop.

Enhanced ascorbate level improves multi-stress tolerance in a widely grown indica rice variety without compromising its agronomic characteristics

A biotechnological approach was adopted for increasing foliar ascorbate levels as a strategy to adapt a widely grown high yielding rice variety to multiple abiotic stresses. The variety IR64 (Oryza sativa L. ssp. indica) was engineered to express the ascorbate biosynthesis gene GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase (AcGGP) from kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis Planch.) under the control of a leaf-specific promoter of the Leaf Panicle 2 (LP2) gene. Transgene expression increased foliar ascorbate levels up to >2.5 fold but did not lead to any changes in morphological traits (seed yield, sterility rate, grain weight, and biomass) in non-stress conditions. We then hypothesized that enhanced foliar ascorbate would confer multi-stress tolerance. Indeed transgenic lines were more tolerant to salinity in terms of lipid peroxidation and foliar symptoms, and to drought in terms of lipid peroxidation and post-drought recovery (number of dead leaves). A significantly better performance in ozone stress was seen only when ozone coincided with salinity. However, no differences between transgenic lines and wild types occurred when plants were subjected to toxicities in redox-active transition metals, i.e. iron and manganese, although plants showed clear symptoms of oxidative stress. Moreover, no differential response to zinc deficiency was observed, because the background genotype IR64 was not sensitive to this stress. Taken together, our study helps to identify stress conditions that can be mitigated by enhancing foliar ascorbate levels, and therefore facilitates an adaptive breeding approach for multiple stresses that would not imply any yield penalty.

The effects of elevated CO2 and elevated O3 exposure on plant growth, yield and quality of grains of two wheat cultivars grown in north India

Global food security is challenged by increasing levels of CO₂, O₃ and temperature trough their impacts on production and grain quality of wheat, one of the major C₃ crops and staple food across the world. The present study was conducted to assess the effects of elevated levels of CO₂ (EC; 550 ppm) and tropospheric O₃ (EO; 70 ppb) as well as of combined interactive treatment [EC X EO; ECO] on plant growth, yield and grain quality of two wheat cultivars (HD-2967 and C-306) grown during 2016-17 and 2017-18 using free air ozone and carbon dioxide enrichment (FAOCE) facility under field conditions. Individually, EC, increased leaf area index (LAI; 15.9-28.2%), photosynthetic rate (Pn; 11.4-20.3%) and yield (8.2-20.9%) whereas EO declined LAI (5.1-12.5%), Pn (2.8-11.8%) and yield (2.2-14.2%) over ambient conditions (Amb: 405.2 ppm CO₂ and 30.7 ppb O₃). Under ECO condition, EC increased LAI (2.2-17.1%), Pn (2.8-17.6%) and grain yield parameters (4.4-24.3%) across the cultivars in both years, but reduced the positive effects of EO on quality as compared to Amb. Dilution effect of increased yield under EC condition have reduced total protein, micro- and macro-nutrient concentrations whereas EO increased them notably compared to Amb. Starch in grains increased under EC but reduced under EO as compared to Amb. AOT40, the sum of averaged difference of O₃ h^-1 concentration beyond 40 ppb for 7 hours (31233 ppb h^-1) in FAOCEs rings during the crop growth period led to reduction in average grain yield of HD-2967 and C-306 by 11.6 and 8.5% or by 1.6 and 1.3% yield loss per ppb increase of O₃, respectively. The growth, yield and quality parameters of both wheat cultivars responded similarly but to different extent to all treatments. EC was able to offset the negative effects of EO on yield and yield components only, but not those concerning the quality of grains. To stabilize global food security, precursor gases forming tropospheric ozone must be constrained.

Chromosome Location Contributing to Ozone Tolerance in Wheat

Breeding wheat for higher grain yield can contribute to global food security and sustainable production on less land. Tropospheric ozone can injure wheat plants and subsequently reduce grain yield. Identification of ozone tolerance in the wheat genome can assist plant breeders in developing new sources of tolerant germplasm. Our objective was to use the ‘Chinese Spring’ monosomic lines to screen for ozone response and identify the chromosomic locations contributing to ozone tolerance based on foliar injury. Two methodologies, Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors and Outdoor Plant Environment Chambers, were used to expose wheat monosomic lines to varying concentrations and durations of ozone. Each wheat monosomic line in ‘Chinese Spring’ has a missing chromosome in each of the wheat subgenomes (A, B, and D). In both methodologies, we found significant and repeatable data to identify chromosome 7A as a major contributor to tolerance to ozone injury in ‘Chinese Spring’. In every experiment, the absence of chromosome 7A resulted in significant injury to wheat due to ozone. This was not the case when any other chromosome was missing.

Can Reduced Irrigation Mitigate Ozone Impacts on an Ozone-Sensitive African Wheat Variety?

Ground-level ozone (O3) pollution is known to adversely affect the production of O3-sensitive crops such as wheat. The magnitude of impact is dependent on the accumulated stomatal flux of O3 into the leaves. In well-irrigated plants, the leaf pores (stomata) tend to be wide open, which stimulates the stomatal flux and therefore the adverse impact of O3 on yield. To test whether reduced irrigation might mitigate O3 impacts on flag leaf photosynthesis and yield parameters, we exposed an O3-sensitive Kenyan wheat variety to peak concentrations of 30 and 80 ppb O3 for four weeks in solardomes and applied three irrigation regimes (well-watered, frequent deficit, and infrequent deficit irrigation) during the flowering and grain filling stage. Reduced irrigation stimulated 1000-grain weight and harvest index by 33% and 13%, respectively (when O3 treatments were pooled), which compensated for the O3-induced reductions observed in well-watered plants. Whilst full irrigation accelerated the O3-induced reduction in photosynthesis by a week, such an effect was not observed for the chlorophyll content index of the flag leaf. Further studies under field conditions are required to test whether reduced irrigation can be applied as a management tool to mitigate adverse impacts of O3 on wheat yield.

Ascorbic Acid and Ozone: Novel Perspectives to Explain an Elusive Relationship

A huge amount of studies highlighted the importance of high ascorbic acid (AA) content in ozone tolerance, yet the relationship between them appears more complex than a simple direct correlation. Sometimes the connection is clear, for example, two Arabidopsis mutants defective in the main AA biosynthetic pathway (vtc mutants) were identified by means of their ozone sensitivity. However, some low-AA containing mutants are relatively tolerant, suggesting that AA location/availability could be more relevant than total content. A clear distinction should also be made between ozone tolerance obtained when AA content is increased by experimental supplementation (exogenous AA), and the physiological role of plant-synthesized AA (endogenous AA), whose amount is apparently subjected to tight regulation. Recent findings about the role of AA in signal transduction and epigenetic regulation of gene expression open new routes to further research.

Ethylenediurea (EDU) mitigates the negative effects of ozone in rice: Insights into its mode of action

Monitoring of ozone damage to crops plays an increasingly important role for the food security of many developing countries. Ethylenediurea (EDU) could be a tool to assess ozone damage to vegetation on field scale, but its physiological mode of action remains unclear. This study investigated mechanisms underlying the ozone-protection effect of EDU in controlled chamber experiments. Ozone sensitive and tolerant rice genotypes were exposed to ozone (108 ppb, 7 hr day^-1 ) and control conditions. EDU alleviated ozone effects on plant morphology, foliar symptoms, lipid peroxidation, and photosynthetic parameters in sensitive genotypes. Transcriptome profiling by RNA sequencing revealed that thousands of genes responded to ozone in a sensitive variety, but almost none responded to EDU. Significant interactions between ozone and EDU application occurred mostly in ozone responsive genes, in which up-regulation was mitigated by EDU application. Further experiments documented ozone degrading properties of EDU, as well as EDU deposits on leaf surfaces possibly related to surface protection. EDU application did not mitigate the reaction of plants to other abiotic stresses, including iron toxicity, zinc deficiency, and salinity. This study provided evidence that EDU is a surface protectant that specifically mitigates ozone stress without interfering directly with the plants' stress response systems.

Cascading effects of elevated ozone on wheat rhizosphere microbial communities depend on temperature and cultivar sensitivity

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) concentrations have now reached levels that can potentially affect crop production in several regions of the world. The interacting effects of the elevated O₃ and temperature on plants are still unclear and their consequences on the rhizosphere microbial communities never studied yet. Here, we conducted a 3-week fumigation experiment on two cultivars of wheat with different tolerance to O₃ (Premio and Soissons) at two temperatures (20 °C and 30 °C). The impacts of O₃ were measured on plants physiology, rhizosphere chemical environment and microbial communities. Globally, most of the results showed that elevated O₃ effects were more pronounced at 20 °C than 30 °C, especially on the most O_3-sensitive cultivar (Soissons). Elevated O₃ reduced significantly plant root biomass (up to -37% for Soissons) compared to non-fumigated plants. A decrease in the dissolved organic matter with a relative increase of aromatic compounds concentration was also observed under elevated O₃, suggesting quantitative and qualitative impacts on roots exudation. While bacterial abundance was negatively affected by O₃ plant stress, fungal abundance was found to be stimulated (up to 12 fold compared to non-fumigated plants for Soissons at 20 °C). These changes were accompanied by modifications of the genetic structures and metabolic profiles, with a relative increase of amino acids catabolism. This fully controlled laboratory experiment showed that the effects of elevated O₃ on soil microbial communities i) are plant-mediated and depend on the cultivar sensitivity, ii) decrease in warming condition, iii) increase the fungi to bacteria ratio and iv) alter both the genetic structure and the metabolic activities. This study highlights the importance of considering interactive effects between pollutants and climate changes on plant-microbe relationship to better inform models and improve predictions of future states of agroecosystems.

Closing the global ozone yield gap: Quantification and cobenefits for multistress tolerance

Increasing both crop productivity and the tolerance of crops to abiotic and biotic stresses is a major challenge for global food security in our rapidly changing climate. For the first time, we show how the spatial variation and severity of tropospheric ozone effects on yield compare with effects of other stresses on a global scale, and discuss mitigating actions against the negative effects of ozone. We show that the sensitivity to ozone declines in the order soybean > wheat > maize > rice, with genotypic variation in response being most pronounced for soybean and rice. Based on stomatal uptake, we estimate that ozone (mean of 2010-2012) reduces global yield annually by 12.4%, 7.1%, 4.4% and 6.1% for soybean, wheat, rice and maize, respectively (the "ozone yield gaps"), adding up to 227 Tg of lost yield. Our modelling shows that the highest ozone-induced production losses for soybean are in North and South America whilst for wheat they are in India and China, for rice in parts of India, Bangladesh, China and Indonesia, and for maize in China and the United States. Crucially, we also show that the same areas are often also at risk of high losses from pests and diseases, heat stress and to a lesser extent aridity and nutrient stress. In a solution-focussed analysis of these results, we provide a crop ideotype with tolerance of multiple stresses (including ozone) and describe how ozone effects could be included in crop breeding programmes. We also discuss altered crop management approaches that could be applied to reduce ozone impacts in the shorter term. Given the severity of ozone effects on staple food crops in areas of the world that are also challenged by other stresses, we recommend increased attention to the benefits that could be gained from addressing the ozone yield gap.

Ozone pollution will compromise efforts to increase global wheat production

Introduction of high-performing crop cultivars and crop/soil water management practices that increase the stomatal uptake of carbon dioxide and photosynthesis will be instrumental in realizing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of achieving food security. To date, however, global assessments of how to increase crop yield have failed to consider the negative effects of tropospheric ozone, a gaseous pollutant that enters the leaf stomatal pores of plants along with carbon dioxide, and is increasing in concentration globally, particularly in rapidly developing countries. Earlier studies have simply estimated that the largest effects are in the areas with the highest ozone concentrations. Using a modelling method that accounts for the effects of soil moisture deficit and meteorological factors on the stomatal uptake of ozone, we show for the first time that ozone impacts on wheat yield are particularly large in humid rain-fed and irrigated areas of major wheat-producing countries (e.g. United States, France, India, China and Russia). Averaged over 2010-2012, we estimate that ozone reduces wheat yields by a mean 9.9% in the northern hemisphere and 6.2% in the southern hemisphere, corresponding to some 85 Tg (million tonnes) of lost grain. Total production losses in developing countries receiving Official Development Assistance are 50% higher than those in developed countries, potentially reducing the possibility of achieving UN SDG2. Crucially, our analysis shows that ozone could reduce the potential yield benefits of increasing irrigation usage in response to climate change because added irrigation increases the uptake and subsequent negative effects of the pollutant. We show that mitigation of air pollution in a changing climate could play a vital role in achieving the above-mentioned UN SDG, while also contributing to other SDGs related to human health and well-being, ecosystems and climate change.

Diagnosing ozone stress and differential tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.) with ethylenediurea (EDU)

Rising tropospheric ozone concentrations in Asia necessitate the breeding of adapted rice varieties to ensure food security. However, breeding requires field-based evaluation of ample plant material, which can be technically challenging or very costly when using ozone fumigation facilities. The chemical ethylenediurea (EDU) has been proposed for estimating the effects of ozone in large-scale field applications, but controlled experiments investigating constitutive effects on rice or its suitability to detect genotypic differences in ozone tolerance are missing. This study comprised a controlled open top chamber experiment with four treatments (i) control (average ozone concentration 16 ppb), (ii) control with EDU application, (iii) ozone stress (average 77 ppb for 7 h daily throughout the season), and (iv) ozone stress with EDU application. Three contrasting rice genotypes were tested, i.e. the tolerant line L81 and the sensitive Nipponbare and BR28. The ozone treatment had significant negative effects on plant growth (height and tillering), stomatal conductance, SPAD value, spectral reflectance indices such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), lipid peroxidation, as well as biomass and grain yields. These negative effects were more pronounced in the a priori sensitive varieties, especially the widely grown Bangladeshi variety BR28, which showed grain yield reductions by 37 percent. EDU application had almost no effects on plants in the absence of ozone, but partly mitigated ozone effects on foliar symptoms, lipid peroxidation, SPAD value, stomatal conductance, several spectral reflectance parameters, panicle number, grain yield, and spikelet sterility. EDU responses were more pronounced in sensitive genotypes than in the tolerant L81. In conclusion, EDU had no constitutive effects on rice and partly offset negative ozone effects, especially in sensitive varieties. It can thus be used to diagnose ozone damage in field grown rice and for distinguishing tolerant (less EDU-responsive) and sensitive (more EDU-responsive) genotypes.

Understanding and improving global crop response to ozone pollution

Concentrations of ground-level ozone ([O3 ]) over much of the Earth's land surface have more than doubled since pre-industrial times. The air pollutant is highly variable over time and space, which makes it difficult to assess the average agronomic and economic impacts of the pollutant as well as to breed crops for O3 tolerance. Recent modeling efforts have improved quantitative understanding of the effects of current and future [O3 ] on global crop productivity, and experimental advances have improved understanding of the cellular O3 sensing, signaling and response mechanisms. This work provides the fundamental background and justification for breeding and biotechnological approaches for improving O3 tolerance in crops. There is considerable within-species variation in O3 tolerance in crops, which has been used to create mapping populations for screening. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) for O3 tolerance have been identified in model and crop species, and although none has been cloned to date, transcript profiling experiments have identified candidate genes associated with QTL. Biotechnological strategies for improving O3 tolerance are also being tested, although there is considerable research to be done before O3 -tolerant germplasm is available to growers for most crops. Strategies to improve O3 tolerance in crops have been hampered by the lack of translation of laboratory experiments to the field, and the lack of correlation between visual leaf-level O3 damage and yield loss to O3 stress. Future efforts to screen mapping populations in the field and to identify more promising phenotypes for O3 tolerance are needed.

Current and future ozone risks to global terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem processes

Risks associated with exposure of individual plant species to ozone (O3) are well documented, but implications for terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem processes have received insufficient attention. This is an important gap because feedbacks to the atmosphere may change as future O3 levels increase or decrease, depending on air quality and climate policies. Global simulation of O3 using the Community Earth System Model (CESM) revealed that in 2000, about 40% of the Global 200 terrestrial ecoregions (ER) were exposed to O3 above thresholds for ecological risks, with highest exposures in North America and Southern Europe, where there is field evidence of adverse effects of O3, and in central Asia. Experimental studies show that O3 can adversely affect the growth and flowering of plants and alter species composition and richness, although some communities can be resilient. Additional effects include changes in water flux regulation, pollination efficiency, and plant pathogen development. Recent research is unraveling a range of effects belowground, including changes in soil invertebrates, plant litter quantity and quality, decomposition, and nutrient cycling and carbon pools. Changes are likely slow and may take decades to become detectable. CESM simulations for 2050 show that O3 exposure under emission scenario RCP8.5 increases in all major biomes and that policies represented in scenario RCP4.5 do not lead to a general reduction in O3 risks; rather, 50% of ERs still show an increase in exposure. Although a conceptual model is lacking to extrapolate documented effects to ERs with limited or no local information, and there is uncertainty about interactions with nitrogen input and climate change, the analysis suggests that in many ERs, O3 risks will persist for biodiversity at different trophic levels, and for a range of ecosystem processes and feedbacks, which deserves more attention when assessing ecological implications of future atmospheric pollution and climate change.

Effects of Elevated Tropospheric Ozone Concentration on the Bacterial Community in the Phyllosphere and Rhizoplane of Rice

Microbes constitute a vital part of the plant holobiont. They establish plant-microbe or microbe-microbe associations, forming a unique microbiota with each plant species and under different environmental conditions. These microbial communities have to adapt to diverse environmental conditions, such as geographical location, climate conditions and soil types, and are subjected to changes in their surrounding environment. Elevated ozone concentration is one of the most important aspects of global change, but its effect on microbial communities living on plant surfaces has barely been investigated. In the current study, we aimed at elucidating the potential effect of elevated ozone concentrations on the phyllosphere (aerial part of the plant) and rhizoplane (surface of the root) microbiota by adopting next-generation 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. A standard japonica rice cultivar Nipponbare and an ozone-tolerant breeding line L81 (Nipponbare background) were pre-grown in a greenhouse for 10 weeks and then exposed to ozone at 85 ppb for 7 h daily for 30 days in open top chambers. Microbial cells were collected from the phyllosphere and rhizoplane separately. The treatment or different genotypes did not affect various diversity indices. On the other hand, the relative abundance of some bacterial taxa were significantly affected in the rhizoplane community of ozone-treated plants. A significant effect of ozone was detected by homogeneity of molecular variance analysis in the phyllosphere, meaning that the community from ozone-treated phyllosphere samples was more variable than those from control plants. In addition, a weak treatment effect was observed by clustering samples based on the Yue and Clayton and weighted UniFrac distance matrices among samples. We therefore conclude that the elevated ozone concentrations affected the bacterial community structure of the phyllosphere and the rhizosplane as a whole, even though this effect was rather weak and did not lead to changes of the function of the communities.

Has the sensitivity of soybean cultivars to ozone pollution increased with time? An analysis of published dose-response data

The rising trend in concentrations of ground-level ozone (O3 ) - a common air pollutant and phytotoxin - currently being experienced in some world regions represents a threat to agricultural yield. Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is an O3 -sensitive crop species and is experiencing increasing global demand as a dietary protein source and constituent of livestock feed. In this study, we collate O3 exposure-yield data for 49 soybean cultivars, from 28 experimental studies published between 1982 and 2014, to produce an updated dose-response function for soybean. Different cultivars were seen to vary considerably in their sensitivity to O3 , with estimated yield loss due to O3 ranging from 13.3% for the least sensitive cultivar to 37.9% for the most sensitive, at a 7-h mean O3 concentration (M7) of 55 ppb - a level frequently observed in regions of the USA, India and China in recent years. The year of cultivar release, country of data collection and type of O3 exposure used were all important explanatory variables in a multivariate regression model describing soybean yield response to O3 . The data show that the O3 sensitivity of soybean cultivars increased by an average of 32.5% between 1960 and 2000, suggesting that selective breeding strategies targeting high yield and high stomatal conductance may have inadvertently selected for greater O3 sensitivity over time. Higher sensitivity was observed in data from India and China compared to the USA, although it is difficult to determine whether this effect is the result of differential cultivar physiology, or related to local environmental factors such as co-occurring pollutants. Gaining further understanding of the underlying mechanisms that govern the sensitivity of soybean cultivars to O3 will be important in shaping future strategies for breeding O3 -tolerant cultivars.

Suppression Substractive Hybridization and NGS Reveal Differential Transcriptome Expression Profiles in Wayfaring Tree (Viburnum lantana L.) Treated with Ozone

Tropospheric ozone (O3) is a global air pollutant that causes high economic damages by decreasing plant productivity. It enters the leaves through the stomata, generates reactive oxygen species, which subsequent decrease in photosynthesis, plant growth, and biomass accumulation. In order to identify genes that are important for conferring O3 tolerance or sensitivity to plants, a suppression subtractive hybridization analysis was performed on the very sensitive woody shrub, Viburnum lantana, exposed to chronic O3 treatment (60 ppb, 5 h d(-1) for 45 consecutive days). Transcript profiling and relative expression assessment were carried out in asymptomatic leaves, after 15 days of O3 exposure. At the end of the experiment symptoms were observed on all treated leaves and plants, with an injured leaf area per plant accounting for 16.7% of the total surface. Cloned genes were sequenced by 454-pyrosequencing and transcript profiling and relative expression assessment were carried out on sequenced reads. A total of 38,800 and 12,495 high quality reads obtained in control and O3-treated libraries, respectively (average length of 319 ± 156.7 and 255 ± 107.4 bp). The Ensembl transcriptome yielded a total of 1241 unigenes with a total sequence length of 389,126 bp and an average length size of 389 bp (guanine-cytosine content = 49.9%). mRNA abundance was measured by reads per kilobase per million and 41 and 37 ensembl unigenes showed up- and down-regulation respectively. Unigenes functionally associated to photosynthesis and carbon utilization were repressed, demonstrating the deleterious effect of O3 exposure. Unigenes functionally associated to heat-shock proteins and glutathione were concurrently induced, suggesting the role of thylakoid-localized proteins and antioxidant-detoxification pathways as an effective strategy for responding to O3. Gene Ontology analysis documented a differential expression of co-regulated transcripts for several functional categories, including specific transcription factors (MYB and WRKY). This study demonstrates that a complex sequence of events takes place in the cells at intracellular and membrane level following O3 exposure and elucidates the effects of this oxidative stress on the transcriptional machinery of the non-model plant species V. lantana, with the final aim to provide the molecular supportive knowledge for the use of this plant as O3-bioindicator.

Physiological and genotype-specific factors associated with grain quality changes in rice exposed to high ozone

Rising tropospheric ozone concentrations in Asia affect the yield and quality of rice. This study investigated ozone-induced changes in rice grain quality in contrasting rice genotypes, and explored the associated physiological processes during the reproductive growth phase. The ozone sensitive variety Nipponbare and a breeding line (L81) containing two tolerance QTLs in Nipponbare background were exposed to 100 ppb ozone (8 h per day) or control conditions throughout their growth. Ozone affected grain chalkiness and protein concentration and composition. The percentage of chalky grains was significantly increased in Nipponbare but not in L81. Physiological measurements suggested that grain chalkiness was associated with a drop in foliar carbohydrate and nitrogen levels during grain filling, which was less pronounced in the tolerant L81. Grain total protein concentration was significantly increased in the ozone treatment, although the albumin fraction (water soluble protein) decreased. The increase in protein was more pronounced in L81, due to increases in the glutelin fraction in this genotype. Amino acids responded differently to the ozone treatment. Three essential amino acids (leucine, methionine and threonine) showed significant increases, while seven showed significant treatment by genotype interactions, mostly due to more positive responses in L81. The trend of increased grain protein was in contrast to foliar nitrogen levels, which were negatively affected by ozone. A negative correlation between grain protein and foliar nitrogen in ozone stress indicated that higher grain protein cannot be explained by a concentration effect in all tissues due to lower biomass production. Rather, ozone exposure affected the nitrogen distribution, as indicated by altered foliar activity of the enzymes involved in nitrogen metabolism, such as glutamine synthetase and glutamine-2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase. Our results demonstrate differential responses of grain quality to ozone due to the presence of tolerance QTL, and partly explain the underlying physiological processes.

Ground-level O3 pollution and its impacts on food crops in China: a review

Ground-level ozone (O3) pollution has become one of the top environmental issues in China, especially in those economically vibrant and densely populated regions. In this paper, we reviewed studies on the O3 concentration observation and O3 effects on food crops throughout China. Data from 118 O3 monitoring sites reported in the literature show that the variability of O3 concentration is a function of geographic location. The impacts of O3 on food crops (wheat and rice) were studied at five sites, equipped with Open Top Chamber or O3-FACE (free-air O3 concentration enrichment) system. Based on exposure concentration and stomatal O3 flux-response relationships obtained from the O3-FACE experimental results in China, we found that throughout China current and future O3 levels induce wheat yield loss by 6.4-14.9% and 14.8-23.0% respectively. Some policies to reduce ozone pollution and impacts are suggested.