ROS-mediated programmed cell death (PCD) of Thalassiosira pseudonana under the stress of BDE-47

Algicidal mechanism and algicidal active metabolites of Alteromonas abrolhosensis against harmful dinoflagellates Karenia mikimotoi

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a global environmental concern, posing significant threats to marine ecosystems and human health. Algicidal bacteria offer a promising biological approach for mitigating HABs. Herein, the mechanism of an algicidal bacterium Alteromonas abrolhosensis JY-JZ1 against Karenia mikimotoi was investigated and algicidal metabolites from the strain JY-JZ1 were analyzed. The significant decrease in maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), relative electron transport rate (rETR), maximum relative electron transport rate (rETRmax) and apparent photosynthetic efficiency (α) indicated destruction of photosynthetic system. Biochemical analyses showed that the JY-JZ1 supernatant induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation in K. mikimotoi. Contents of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) increased responding to JY-JZ1 supernatant treatments. Optical microscope observation and propidium iodide (PI) staining confirmed the destruction of the cell membrane structure. Gene expression analysis showed that the extracellular metabolites of JY-JZ1 altered gene expression associated with photosynthesis, respiration, and cell wall integrity in K. mikimotoi. The metabolites of strain JY-JZ1 for 8 h and 24 h were harvested and analysed. Among the metabolites, 3-hydroxy-kynurenine, 10-undecenoic acid, 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid, 3-hydroxymandelic acid and catechol were first proved to exhibit algicidal activity against K. mikimotoi. This study provides the first report of these metabolites as novel algicidal substances. These results demonstrated that A. abrolhosensis JY-JZ1 exhibits significant potential for controlling HABs and offers multiple algicidal active compounds with promising application prospects.

Dual impacts of elevated pCO2 on the ecological effects induced by microplastics and nanoplastics: A study with Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Aquatic organisms face increased complexity and severity when exposed to the combined stressors of climate change and micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), as opposed to facing these stressors individually. This study examined the effects and underlying mechanisms of elevated pCO2, which leads to freshwater acidification, as well as amino-modified polystyrene MNPs (PS-NH2 MNPs) of varying sizes (5 μm, 300 nm, 80 nm), on Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under both individual and combined conditions. The results showed a size-dependent toxicity of PS MNPs, with the smaller nanoparticles (80 nm) causing greater toxic inhibition than the larger microparticles (5 μm and 300 nm), primarily attributed to oxidative stress-related cellular damage. In contrast, freshwater acidification (FA) appeared to promote the growth of C. reinhardtii, possibly by upregulating transcripts associated with energy metabolism. However, when C. reinhardtii was exposed to both FA and MNPs simultaneously, distinct toxic effects were observed. The co-exposure to FA and NPs induced the most severe oxidative stress, implying the greatest energetic cost. This stress resulted in the downregulation of pathways involved in fatty acid biosynthesis and protein folding, ultimately causing significant damage to cellular structure and function. The increased energy from the upregulation of the TCA cycle was mainly allocated for DNA damage repair and cell division, which induced an energy deficit necessary for stress resistance. In contrast, during co-exposure to FA and MPs, energy was redirected towards DNA replication and the synthesis of anti-stress substances, facilitating recovery and promoting growth. Our study highlighted the decisive influence of climate change and particle size in assessing the ecological effects and risks associated with MNPs.

Uridine diphosphate glucose confers oxidative stress tolerance in microalgae

BACKGROUND

Microalgae, as major primary producers on Earth, are constantly exposed to oxidative stresses from various natural environments. These oxidative stresses often seriously threaten the productivity and species composition of microalgae. However, how microalgae resist oxidative stress is still largely unknown.

RESULTS

Here, we identified the carbohydrate metabolism intermediate uridine diphosphate glucose (UDPG) from the model microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum as a positive regulator in response to oxidative stresses. Under oxidative stresses induced by hydrogen peroxide and high temperature, exogenous addition of UDPG and overexpression of the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene (UGPase), a key gene for intracellular UDPG synthesis, both increased oxidative stress tolerance in P. tricornutum. The algal cells mainly showed reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, the content of malondialdehyde, and cell death rate, together with enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. By contrast, the reduction of UDPG content in UGPase knockout strain resulted in aggravated oxidative damage. Physiological/biochemical evidence combined with transcriptomic and quantitative PCR analyses further showed that UDPG activated the upregulated expression of genes associated with photosynthesis under oxidative stress conditions and decreased oxidative stress damage to photosynthesis, which contributed to increase the photosynthetic activity and reduce the excitation pressure of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, and in turn inhibiting ROS production.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings unveil that UDPG is involved in the regulation of oxidative stress response in P. tricornutum, providing a worthy target for improving stress tolerance in microalgae.

Toxicological Effects and Mechanisms of 2,2',4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl Ether (BDE-47) on Marine Organisms

2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) is a widely used brominated flame retardant belonging to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). After being released into the marine environment, BDE-47 can cause a range of toxic effects on marine organisms through bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and intergenerational transmission. These effects include lethality, impaired motility, photosynthetic toxicity, immune damage, liver toxicity, developmental impairments, and reproductive toxicity. This article reviews the latest research progress on the toxic effects and molecular mechanisms of BDE-47 mentioned above. The primary mechanisms underlying its toxicity include oxidative stress, DNA damage, cellular apoptosis, impaired metabolism, and activation of the MAPK signaling cascade.

Influence of perfluoroalkyl substances, with focus on perfluorobutanoic acid on the responding characteristics and molecular mechanisms of Thalassiosira pseudonana

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely dispersed persistent organic pollutants (POPs) throughout marine ecosystems. Due to ban of traditional long-chain PFAS, the emerging short-chain ones showed increased environmental detection as substitutes. As the foundation of aquatic food webs, microalgae play a pivotal role in the stability of marine environments. However, the toxicity of those short-chain PFAS was lack of investigation. Therefore, we chose 4C PFAS perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and the marine model diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana as research targets, comprehensively studied the toxicity of PFBA to T. pseudonana in terms of the population growth, photosynthetic physiology and oxidative stress. Our results characterized the inhibited growth, inhibited photosynthetic parameters, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and activated antioxidant system under PFBA exposure. Further transcriptome analysis revealed the underlying molecular mechanisms: photosynthetic genes were slightly down-regulated and the expression of oxidative stress-related genes was enhanced; significant up-regulation of genes related to the DNA excision repair and replication-coupled DNA repair pathways; the expression of carbon metabolisms-related genes was increased, including the Calvin cycle, glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and fatty acid biosynthesis, that could provide sufficient energy for the recovery processes of microalgal cells. This study elucidated the underlying toxic mechanisms of PFBA on phytoplankton, and provided novel insights for assessing the environmental risks of PFAS.

Responses of Dunaliella sp. AL-1 to chromium and copper: Biochemical and physiological studies

Microalgae have gained recognition as versatile candidates for the remediation of heavy metals (HMs). This study investigated the biosorption potential of Dunaliella sp. AL1 for copper (Cu(II)) and hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) in aqueous solutions. The marine microalga Dunaliella sp. AL1 was exposed to half-sublethal concentrations of both metals in single and bimetallic systems, and responses in algal growth, oxidative stress, photosynthetic pigment production, and photosynthetic performance were evaluated. Cu and/or Cr exposure increased the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in microalgae cells but did not impact algal growth. In terms of photosynthesis, there was a decrease in chlorophylls and carotenoids production in the microalgae culture treated with Cr, either alone or in combination with Cu. The study recorded promising metal removal efficiencies: 26.67%-20.11% for Cu and 94.99%-95.51% for Cr, in single and bimetallic systems, respectively. FTIR analysis revealed an affinity of Cu and Cr ions towards aliphatic/aldehyde C-H, N-H bending, and phosphate groups, suggesting the formation of complex bonds. Biochemical analysis of microalgae biomass collected after the removal of Cr alone or in combination with Cu showed a significant decrease in total carbohydrate content and soluble protein levels. Meanwhile, higher lipid accumulation was recorded and evidenced by BODIPY 505/515 staining. Fatty acid composition analysis by GC revealed a modulation in lipid composition, with a decrease in the ratio of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) to saturated fatty acids (SFA), in response to Cu, Cr, and Cu-Cr exposure, indicating the suitability of the biomass for sustainable biofuel production.

Oxidative Stress-Mediated Programmed Cell Death: a Potential Therapy Target for Atherosclerosis

Nowadays, as a type of orderly and active death determined by genes, programmed cell death (PCD), including apoptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis, has attracted much attention owing to its participation in numerous chronic cardiovascular diseases, especially atherosclerosis (AS), a canonical chronic inflammatory disease featured by lipid metabolism disturbance. Abundant researches have reported that PCD under distinct internal conditions fulfills different roles of atherosclerotic pathological processes, including lipid core expansion, leukocyte adhesion, and infiltration. Noteworthy, emerging evidence recently has also suggested that oxidative stress (OS), an imbalance of antioxidants and oxygen free radicals, has the potential to mediate PCD occurrence via multiple ways, including oxidization and deubiquitination. Interestingly, more recently, several studies have proposed that the mediating mechanisms could effect on the atherosclerotic initiation and progression significantly from variable aspects, so it is of great clinical importance to clarify how OS-mediated PCD and AS interact. Herein, with the aim of summarizing potential and sufficient atherosclerotic therapy targets, we seek to provide extensive analysis of the specific regulatory mechanisms of PCD mediated by OS and their multifaceted effects on the entire pathological atherosclerotic progression.

The Effecting Mechanisms of 100 nm Sized Polystyrene Nanoplastics on the Typical Coastal Alexandrium tamarense

Due to the increase in nanoplastics (NPs) abundance in aquatic environments, their effects on phytoplankton have aroused large research attention. In this study, 100 nm sized polystyrene NPs were chosen to investigate their effecting performance and mechanisms on a typical dinoflagellates Alexandrium tamarense. The results indicated the population growth and photosynthetic efficiencies of A. tamarense were significantly inhibited by NPs exposure, as well as the increase in cellular total carotenoids and paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). Meanwhile, the cellar ROS levels increased, corresponding to the increased activities or contents of multiple antioxidant components, including SOD, CAT, GPX, GR, GSH and GSSG. The transcriptional results support the physiological-biochemical results and further revealed the down-regulation of genes encoding the light reaction centers (PSI and PSII) and up-regulation of genes encoding the antioxidant components. Up-regulation of genes encoding key enzymes of the Calvin cycle and glycolytic pathway together with the TCA cycle could accelerate organic carbon and ATP production for A. tamarense cells resistant to NPs stress. Finally, more Glu and acetyl-CoA produced by the enhanced GSH cycle and the glycolytic pathway, respectively, accompanied by the up-regulation of Glu and Arg biosynthesis genes supported the increase in the PST contents under NPs exposure. This study established a data set involving physiological-biochemical changes and gene information about marine dinoflagellates responding to NPs, providing a data basis for further evaluating the ecological risk of NPs in marine environments.

Reactive oxygen species mediated extracellular polymeric substances production assisting the recovery of Thalassiosira pseudonana from polystyrene micro and nanoplastics exposure

As emerging pollutants in the aquatic environments, micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) aroused widespread environmental concerns for their potential threats to the ecological health. Previous research has proved that microalgae growth could recover from the MNPs toxicities, in which the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) might play the key role. In order to comprehensively investigate the recovery process of microalgae from MNPs stress and the effecting mechanisms of EPS therein, this study conducted a series of experiments by employing two sizes (0.1 and 1 μm) of polystyrene (PS) MNPs and the marine model diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana during 14 days. The results indicated: the pigments accumulations and photosynthetic recovery of T. pseudonana under MPs exposure showed in the early stage (4-5 days), while the elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and EPS contents lasted longer time period (7-8 days). EPS was aggregated with MNPs particles and microalgal cells, corresponding to the increased settlement rates. More increase of soluble (SL)-EPS contents was found than bound (B)-EPS under MNPs exposure, in which the increase of the protein proportion and humic acid-like substances in SL-EPS was found, thus facilitating aggregates formation. ROS was the signaling molecule mediating the overproduction of EPS. The transcriptional results further proved the enhanced EPS biosynthesis on the molecular level. Therefore, this study elucidated the recovery pattern of microalgae from MNPs stress and linked "ROS-EPS production changes-aggregation formation" together during the growth recovery process, with important scientific and environmental significance.

Chronic exposure to BDE-47 aggravates acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis by promoting acinar cell apoptosis and inflammation

The effect of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), a persistent environmental pollutant commonly used as a flame retardant in various consumer products, on pancreatitis has not been clearly elucidated, although it has been reported to be toxic to the liver, nervous system, and reproductive system. Acute pancreatitis (AP) and chronic pancreatitis (CP) models were induced in this study by intraperitoneal injection of caerulein. The aim was to investigate the impact of BDE-47 on pancreatitis by exposing the animals to acute (1 week) or chronic (8 weeks) doses of BDE-47 (30 mg/kg in the low-concentration group and 100 mg/kg in the high-concentration group). Additionally, BDE-47 was utilized to stimulate mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages, pancreatic primary stellate cells, and acinar cells in order to investigate the impact of BDE-47 on pancreatitis. In vivo experiments conducted on mice revealed that chronic exposure to BDE-47, rather than acute exposure, exacerbated the histopathological damage of AP and CP, leading to elevated fibrosis in pancreatic tissue and increased infiltration of inflammatory cells in the pancreas. In vitro experiments showed that BDE-47 can promote the expression of the inflammatory cytokines Tnf-α and Il-6 in M1 macrophages, as well as promote acinar cell apoptosis through the activation of the PERK and JNK pathways via endoplasmic reticulum stress. The findings of this study imply chronic exposure to BDE-47 may exacerbate the progression of both AP and CP by inducing acinar cell apoptosis and dysregulating inflammatory responses.

scRNA-seq analysis discovered suppression of immunomodulatory dependent inflammatory response in PMBCs exposed to silver nanoparticles

The assessment of AgNPs toxicity in vitro and in vivo models are frequently conflicting and inaccurate. Nevertheless, single cell immunological responses in a heterogenous environment have received little attention. Therefore, in this study, we have performed in-depth analysis which clearly revealed cellular-metal ion association as well as specific immunological response. Our study didn't show significant population differences in PMBC between control and AgNPs group implying no toxicological response. To confirm it further, deep profiling identified differences in subsets and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of monocytes, B cells and T cells. Notably, monocyte subsets showed significant upregulation of metallothionein (MT) gene expression such as MT1G, MT1X, MT1E, MT1A, and MT1F. On the other hand, downregulation of pro-inflammatory genes such as IL1β and CCL3 in both CD16 + and CD16- monocyte subsets were observed. This result indicated that AgNPs association with monocyte subsets de-promoted inflammatory responsive genes suggesting no significant toxicity observed in AgNPs treated group. Other cell types such as B cells and T cells also showed negligible differences in their subsets suggesting no toxicity response. Further, AgNPs treated group showed upregulation of cell proliferation, ribosomal synthesis, downregulation of cytokine release, and T cell differentiation inhibition. Overall, our results conclude that treatment of AgNPs to PMBC cells didn't display immunological related cytotoxicity response and thus motivate researchers to use them actively for biomedical applications.

Global environmental and toxicological impacts of polybrominated diphenyl ethers versus organophosphate esters: A comparative analysis and regrettable substitution dilemma

The prevalence of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in the global environment is increasing, which aligns with the decline in the usage of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). PBDEs, a category of flame retardants, were banned and classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) through the Stockholm Convention due to their toxic and persistent properties. Despite a lack of comprehensive understanding of their ecological and health consequences, OPEs were adopted as replacements for PBDEs. This research aims to offer a comparative assessment of PBDEs and OPEs in various domains, specifically focusing on their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT) properties. This study explored physicochemical properties (such as molecular weight, octanol-water partition coefficient, octanol-air partition coefficient, Henry's law constant, and vapor pressures), environmental behaviors, global concentrations in environmental matrices (air, water, and soil), toxicities, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer mechanisms of both groups of compounds. Based on the comparison and analysis of environmental and toxicological data, we evaluate whether OPEs represent another instance of regrettable substitution and global contamination as much as PBDEs. Our findings indicate that the physical and chemical characteristics, environmental behaviors, and global concentrations of PBDEs and OPEs, are similar and overlap in many instances. Notably, OPE concentrations have even surged by orders of several magnitude compared to PBDEs in certain pristine regions like the Arctic and Antarctic, implying long-range transport. In many instances, air and water concentrations of OPEs have been increased than PBDEs. While the bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of PBDEs (ranging from 4.8 to 7.5) are slightly elevated compared to OPEs (-0.5 to 5.36) in aquatic environments, both groups of compounds exhibit BAF values beyond the threshold of 5000 L/kg (log10 BAF > 3.7). Similarly, the trophic magnification factors (TMFs) for PBDEs (ranging from 0.39 to 4.44) slightly surpass those for OPEs (ranging from 1.06 to 3.5) in all cases. Metabolic biotransformation rates (LogKM) and hydrophobicity are potentially major factors deciding their trophic magnification potential. However, many compounds of PBDEs and OPEs show TMF values higher than 1, indicating biomagnification potential. Collectively, all data suggest that PBDEs and OPEs have the potential to bioaccumulate and transfer through the food chain. OPEs and PBDEs present a myriad of toxicity endpoints, with notable overlaps encompassing reproductive issues, oxidative stress, developmental defects, liver dysfunction, DNA damage, neurological toxicity, reproductive anomalies, carcinogenic effects, and behavior changes. Based on our investigation and comparative analysis, we conclude that substituting PBDEs with OPEs is regrettable based on PBT properties, underscoring the urgency for policy reforms and effective management strategies. Addressing this predicament before an exacerbation of global contamination is imperative.

Purple acid phosphatase promoted hydrolysis of organophosphate pesticides in microalgae

When organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are not used and handled in accordance with the current rules and standards, it results in serious threats to the aquatic environment and human health. Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a prospective microalgae-based system for pollutant removal and carbon sequestration. Genetically engineered P. tricornutum, designated as the OE line (endogenously expressing purple acid phosphatase 1 [PAP1]), can utilize organic phosphorus for cellular metabolism. However, the competencies and mechanisms of the microalgae-based system (namely the OE line of P. tricornutum) for metabolizing OPs remain to be addressed. In this study, the OE line exhibited the effective biodegradation competencies of 72.12% and 68.2% for 30 mg L-1 of dichlorvos and 50 mg L-1 of glyphosate, accompanied by synergistic accumulations of biomass (0.91 and 0.95 g L-1) and lipids (32.71% and 32.08%), respectively. Furthermore, the biodiesel properties of the lipids from the OE line manifested a high potential as an alternative feedstock for microalgae-based biofuel production. A plausible mechanism of OPs biodegraded by overexpressed PAP1 is that sufficient inorganic P for adenosine triphosphate and concurrent carbon flux for the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate biosynthesis, which improved the OP tolerance and biodegradation competencies by regulating the antioxidant system, delaying programmed cell death and accumulating lipids via the upregulation of related genes. To sum up, this study demonstrates a potential strategy using a genetically engineered strain of P. tricornutum to remove high concentrations of OPs with the simultaneous production of biomass and biofuels, which might provide novel insights for microalgae-based pollutant biodegradation.

ROS meditated paralytic shellfish toxins production changes of Alexandrium tamarense caused by microplastic particles

A variety of studies have investigated the toxic effects of microplastics (MPs) on microalgae, but few of them considered their influence on dinoflagellate toxins production, which could cause significant ecological safety concerns in coastal areas. This research investigated the impacts of 5 μg L-1 and 5 mg L-1 polystyrene (PS) MPs on the changes of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) production and their relationship with cellular oxidative stress of Alexandrium tamarense, a common harmful algal blooms causative dinoflagellate. The results showed elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, activation of antioxidant system and overproduction of PSTs were positively correlated under PS MPs exposure (especially under 5 mg L-1 PS MPs), and the PSTs changes were eliminated by the ROS inhibitor. Further transcriptomic analysis revealed that ROS could enhance biosynthesis of glutamate, providing raw materials for PSTs precursor arginine, accompanied with enhanced acetyl-CoA and ATP production, finally leading to the overproduction of PSTs. Moreover, the oxidative intracellular environments might block the reduction process from STX to C1&C2, leading to the increase of STX and decrease of C1&C2 proportions. This work brings the first evidence that ROS could mediate PSTs production and compositions of Alexandrium under MPs exposure, with important scientific and ecological significance.

Tea polyphenols inhibit blooms caused by eukaryotic and prokaryotic algae

With changes in global climate, blooms are becoming more frequent and difficult to control. Therefore, the selection of algal suppressor agents with effective inhibition and environmental safety is of paramount importance. One of the main treatment strategies is to inhibit the release of harmful algal toxins. Tea polyphenols (TP) are natural products that have been widely used in medicine, the environment, and other fields due to their antibacterial and antioxidant properties. To investigate their potential application in the treatment of algal blooms, TP were applied to three different microalgae. TP exhibited strong inhibitory effects towards all three microalgae. They stimulate the accumulation of ROS in algal cells, leading to lipid peroxidation and subsequent damage to the cell membrane, resulting in the rupture and necrosis of Cyclotella sp. and Chlorella vulgaris cells. Remarkably, it was observed that lower concentrations of TP exhibited the ability to induce apoptosis in M. aeruginosa cells without causing any structural damage. This outcome is particularly significant as it reduces the potential risk of microcystin release resulting from cell rupture. Overall, blooms dominated by different algae can be treated by adjusting the concentration of TP, a new algal suppressor, indicating strong potential treatment applications.

Photosynthetic response mechanism to polybrominated diphenyl ether exposure in Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination is common in aquatic environments and can severely damage aquatic organisms. However, there is a lack of information on the response and self-adaptation mechanisms of these organisms. Chlorella pyrenoidosa was treated with 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47), causing significant growth inhibition, pigment reduction, oxidative stress, and chloroplast atrophy. Photosynthetic damage contributed to inhibition, as indicated by Fv/Fm, Chl a fluorescence induction, photosynthetic oxygen evolution activity, and photosystem subunit stoichiometry. Here, Chl a fluorescence induction and quinone electron acceptor (QA-) reoxidation kinetics showed that the PSII donor and acceptor sides were insensitive to BDE47. Quantitative analyses of D1 and PsaD proteins illustrated that PSII and PSI complexes were the main primary targets of photosynthesis inhibition by BDE47. Significant modulation of PSII complex might have been caused by the potential binding of BDE47 on D1 protein, and molecular docking was performed to investigate this. Increased activation of antioxidant defense systems and photosystem repair as a function of exposure time indicated a positive resistance to BDE47. After a 5-day exposure, 23 % of BDE47 was metabolized. Our findings suggest that C. pyrenoidosa has potential as a bioremediator for wastewater-borne PBDEs and can improve our understanding of ecological risks to microalgae.

Resilience and Mitigation Strategies of Cyanobacteria under Ultraviolet Radiation Stress

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) tends to damage key cellular machinery. Cells may adapt by developing several defence mechanisms as a response to such damage; otherwise, their destiny is cell death. Since cyanobacteria are primary biotic components and also important biomass producers, any drastic effects caused by UVR may imbalance the entire ecosystem. Cyanobacteria are exposed to UVR in their natural habitats. This exposure can cause oxidative stress which affects cellular morphology and vital processes such as cell growth and differentiation, pigmentation, photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism, and enzyme activity, as well as alterations in the native structure of biomolecules such as proteins and DNA. The high resilience and several mitigation strategies adopted by a cyanobacterial community in the face of UV stress are attributed to the activation of several photo/dark repair mechanisms, avoidance, scavenging, screening, antioxidant systems, and the biosynthesis of UV photoprotectants, such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), scytonemin (Scy), carotenoids, and polyamines. This knowledge can be used to develop new strategies for protecting other organisms from the harmful effects of UVR. The review critically reports the latest updates on various resilience and defence mechanisms employed by cyanobacteria to withstand UV-stressed environments. In addition, recent developments in the field of the molecular biology of UV-absorbing compounds such as mycosporine-like amino acids and scytonemin and the possible role of programmed cell death, signal perception, and transduction under UVR stress are discussed.

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase as a target for regulating carbon flux distribution and antioxidant capacity in Phaeodactylum tricornutum

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGPase) is a key enzyme for polysaccharide synthesis, and its role in plants and bacteria is well established; however, its functions in unicellular microalgae remain ill-defined. Here, we perform bioinformatics, subcellular localization as well as in vitro and in vivo analyses to elucidate the functions of two UGPs (UGP1 and UGP2) in the model microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Despite differences in amino acid sequence, substrate specificity, and subcellular localization between UGP1 and UGP2, both enzymes can efficiently increase the production of chrysolaminarin (Chrl) or lipids by regulating carbon flux distribution without impairing growth and photosynthesis in transgenic strains. Productivity evaluation indicate that UGP1 play a bigger role in regulating Chrl and lipid production than UGP2. In addition, UGP1 enhance antioxidant capacity, whereas UGP2 is involved in sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG) synthesis in P. tricornutum. Taken together, the present results suggest that ideal microalgal strains can be developed for the industrial production of Chrl or lipids and lay the foundation for the development of methods to improve oxidative stress tolerance in diatoms.

Disparate toxicity mechanisms of parabens with different alkyl chain length in freshwater biofilms: Ecological hazards associated with antibiotic resistome

As emerging organic pollutants, parabens are of global concern because of their ubiquitous presence and adverse effects. However, few researchers have addressed the relationship between parabens' structural features and toxicity mechanisms. This study conducted theoretical calculations and laboratory exposure experiments to uncover the toxic effects and mechanisms of parabens with different alkyl chains in freshwater biofilms. The result demonstrated that parabens' hydrophobicity and lethality increased with their alkyl-chain length, whereas the possibility of chemical reactions and reactive sites were unchanged despite the alkyl-chain length alteration. Due to the hydrophobicity variation, parabens with different alkyl-chain presented different distribution patterns in cells of freshwater biofilms and consequently induced distinct toxic effects and led to diverse cell death modes. The butylparaben with longer alkyl-chain preferred to stay in the membrane and altered membrane permeability by non-covalent interaction with phospholipid, which caused cell necrosis. The methylparaben with shorter alkyl-chain preferred to enter into the cytoplasm and influence mazE gene expression by chemically reacting with biomacromolecules, thereby triggering apoptosis. The different cell death patterns induced by parabens contributed to different ecological hazards associated with antibiotic resistome. Compared with butylparaben, methylparaben was more likely to spread ARGs among microbial communities despite its lower lethality.

The inhibition and recovery mechanisms of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum in response to high light stress - A study combining physiological and transcriptional analysis

By combining physiological/biochemical and transcriptional analysis, the inhibition and recovery mechanisms of Phaeodactylum tricornutum in response to extreme high light stress (1300 μmol photons · m^-2  · s^-1 ) were elucidated. The population growth was inhibited in the first 24 h and started to recover from 48 h. At 24 h, photoinhibition was exhibited as the changes of PSII photosynthetic parameters and decrease in cellular pigments, corresponding to the downregulation of genes encoding light-harvesting complex and pigments synthesis. Changes in those photosynthetic parameters and genes were kept until 96 h, indicating that the decrease of light absorption abilities might be one strategy for photoacclimation. In the meanwhile, we observed elevated cellular ROS levels, dead cells proportions, and upregulation of genes encoding antioxidant materials and proteasome pathway at 24 h. Those stress-related parameters and genes recovered to the controls at 96 h, indicating a stable intracellular environment after photoacclimation. Finally, genes involving carbon metabolisms were upregulated from 24 to 96 h, which ensured the energy supply for keeping high base and nucleotide excision repair abilities, leading to the recovery of cell cycle progression. We concluded that P. tricornutum could overcome photoinhibition by decreasing light-harvesting abilities, enhancing carbon metabolisms, activating anti-oxidative functions, and elevating repair abilities. The parameters of light harvesting, carbon metabolisms, and repair processes were responsible for the recovery phase, which could be considered long-term adaptive strategies for diatoms under high light stress.

Paraquat induces different programmed cell death patterns in Microcystis aeruginosa and Chlorella luteoviridis

Although programmed cell death (PCD) has been reported in phytoplankton, knowledge of the characterization of the PCD pathway and cascade process in different phytoplankton species is still limited. In this study, PCD progression in cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa and green algae Chlorella luteoviridis by paraquat-induced oxidative stress was monitored. The results showed that paraquat-induced PCD in the two species belonged to the caspase-dependent pathway. Dose- and time-dependent PCD characteristics in the two strains under paraquat included the increase in caspase-like activity, DNA fragmentation, and chromatin condensation. However, the signaling pathway and cascade events of PCD in M. aeruginosa and C. luteoviridis differed. In M. aeruginosa, the free Ca²⁺ concentration was rapidly increased at 8 h, followed by a significant elevation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level at 24 h, and eventual cell death. In C. luteoviridis, the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, revealed by the depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential at 1 h and increase in the ROS level and caspase-like activity at 8 h, might contribute to cell death. In addition, the dynamics of ROS levels and metacaspase activity were synchronized, suggesting that paraquat-triggered PCD was ROS-mediated in both M. aeruginosa and C. luteoviridis. These results provide insights into PCD patterns in prokaryotic cyanobacteria and eukaryotic green algae under similar stress.

Low-dose priming of gamma radiation enhanced cadmium tolerance in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by modulating physio-biochemical pathways

Microalgae are natural biotic models for exploring the genotoxic effect of heavy metals, irradiation, other external stimuli and the toxicant elimination. The effective removal of heavy metals from the aquatic environment using microalgae has gained considerable attention. However, limited research was carried out on cadmum toxicity in microalgae and their use as bio-accumulants. Previous research suggested that low-dose priming with non-ionizing radiations, such as gamma radiation, increased heavy metal tolerance in plants and aquatic photosynthetic microalgae. In the present study, we have hypothesized the growth inhibitory physiochemical properties of cadmium (Cd) in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and analyzed the protective role of low-dose gamma radiations priming against Cd-induced growth inhibition by emphasizing mechanism of cell survival by antioxidant defence system. Experimentally, the gamma-primed C. reinhardtii exhibited higher cell survival and Cd tolerance with effective modulation of biochemical responses such as antioxidant enzymes. The current investigation revealed that low-dose priming of gamma radiation masks Cd-mediated oxidative stress and enhances cellular detoxification via intracellular antioxidant enzymes in C. reinhardtii.

Binary toxicity of polystyrene nanoplastics and polybrominated diphenyl ethers to Arctic Cyanobacteria under ambient and future climates

Cyanobacteria are the predominant biota in the Arctic. Interactive effects on Arctic cyanobacteria between climate-change-shifting parameters and anthropogenic contaminants are largely unknown. We utilized a fractional factorial experiment and Arctic cyanobacteria Pseudanabaena biceps Strain PCCC_O-153 to capture the complexity of interacting climate factors, nano-polystyrene (nano-PS) and 2,2´,4,4´-tetrabromodipenyl ether (BDE-47). The short-term binary toxicity of nano-PS and BDE-47 was then examined through experiments, toxicity units, and reference models. The toxic mechanism was further revealed through biochemical analyses and multivariate statistics. We found that BDE-47 and nano-PS had more hazardous effects than changing climate conditions. The mixture had antagonistic effects on PCCC_O-153, attributing to the aggregation of nano-PS, the adsorption of BDE-47, and the wrapping of both contaminants by released extracellular polymeric substances. Binary toxicity was caused by the chain reactions triggered by combining individual contaminants. Total protein was a sensitive target and positively correlated to chlorophyll pigment. Oxidative stress for the mixture mainly resulted from the presence of nano-PS. This is the first study to access the hazardous effects of a mixture of anthropogenic contaminants on Arctic cyanobacteria under ambient and future climates.

Silver nanoparticles instigate physiological, genotoxicity, and ultrastructural anomalies in midgut tissues of beetles

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have long been materials of great interest in numerous fields; however, there is escalating alarm over their toxicity to public health since exposure to these particles is inevitable. This study sheds light on the deleterious impacts of AgNPs on the midgut tissues of beetles (Blaps polychresta) collected from Egypt as a biological model. The investigations were conducted on the beetles administered with a sublethal dose of AgNPs (0.03 mg/g body weight) after 30 days. Oxidative stress parameters and antioxidant enzyme activities were assessed, which exposed critical disruption in the antioxidant defense system of treated beetles. Remarkably, metallothionein (MT) gene expression was significantly increased, while reduced glutathione (GSH) level was notably decreased in midgut tissues subjected to AgNPs. These findings manifestly imply the presence of overproduction in terms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) inside the cells. Additionally, DNA impairment and apoptosis of midgut cells were appraised employing comet and flow cytometry analyses, respectively. The comet results revealed a significant increase in comet cells for the AgNPs treated beetles compared with the control group. Furthermore, the apoptosis results demonstrated a substantial diminution in viable cells with significant growth in apoptotic cells in midgut cells exposed to AgNPs, manifesting their striking correlation with comet and biochemical findings. Noticeably, the histopathological and ultrastructural inspections revealed substantial aberrations in the midgut tissues in the AgNPs treated group, substantiating the previous results. As far as we know, no research has been found that surveyed how the AgNPs at low doses affect the midgut tissues of beetles. Overall, these findings evince the aberrant influences of AgNPs on living organisms.

Autophagy alleviates indium-induced programmed cell death in wheat roots

Indium released in agroecosystems is becoming an emerging plant stressor, causing cellular damage and consequently crop yield losses. Previous studies have focused on indium-induced toxicity in plants, while plant adaptive responses to such emerging metal xenobiotics are poorly understood. Here, we explored the relationship of autophagy and programmed cell death (PCD) in wheat roots under indium stress. Indium treatment significantly decreased root activity and cell viability, and suppressed the length of root epidermal cells in the elongation zones. These symptoms may be associated with indium-induced PCD, as indium-stressed wheat roots displayed condensed and granular nuclei, increased number of TUNEL-positive nuclei, enhanced nuclear DNA fragmentation and caspase-3-like protease activity compared to untreated roots. Accordingly, indium enhanced the expression levels of TaMCA1 and TaMCA4, two major metacaspase genes mediated PCD in wheat plants. The enhanced expression of autophagy genes and formation of autophagosomes indicate that autophagy could regulate metabolic adaptation and repair stress-induced damage in wheat roots. Furthermore, reinforcing autophagy by activator rapamycin significantly decreased the number of TUNEL-positive nuclei and the activity of caspase-3-like protease, whereas inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine aggravated diagnostic markers for PCD. These results together suggest that autophagy suppresses indium-induced PCD in wheat roots.

Different effecting mechanisms of two sized polystyrene microplastics on microalgal oxidative stress and photosynthetic responses

Increasing marine microplastics (MPs) pollution potentially threatens the stability of phytoplankton community structures in marine environments. MPs toxicities to microalgae are largely determined by particle size, while the size-dependent mechanisms are still not fully understood. In this study, two sizes (0.1 µm and 1 µm) of polystyrene (PS) MPs were used as experimental targets to systemically compare their different effecting mechanisms on the marine model diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana with respect to oxidative stress and photosynthesis. The results indicated the toxicity of 1 µm sized MPs was higher than 0.1 µm sized MPs regarding to population growth. In condition of similar microalgal population inhibition rates, we found more enhanced cellular oxidative stress and cell death happened in the 1 µm MPs treatments, which could be linked to higher zeta potential of 1 µm MPs and more severe cell surface damage; microalgal surface light shading and cellular pigments decline were more obvious in the 0.1 µm MPs treatment, which could be linked to high aggregation abilities of 0.1 µm MPs. Gene expressions supported the morphological and physiological findings on the transcriptional level. Environmental related MPs concentrations (5 μg L^-1) also aroused gene expression changes of T. pseudonana while more changing genes were found under 0.1 µm MPs than 1 µm MPs. These results provide novel insights into the size-dependent mechanisms of MPs toxicity on marine microalgae, as well as their potential influence on the marine environment.

Toxicity of 2, 2', 4, 4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) on the green microalgae Chlorella sp. and the role of cellular oxidative stress

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are toxic to marine organisms including the major primary producer phytoplankton, while the toxic mechanisms haven't yet been fully clarified. Therefore, we comprehensively studied the toxic mechanisms of BDE-47 on the marine chlorophyte Chlorella sp., with a focus on the role of cellular oxidative stress. The results indicate that BDE-47 stress resulted in the inhibition of population growth as well as cell death and programmed cell death. The antioxidant system was activated in both low and high BDE-47 treatments, but only microalgal cells in the high BDE-47 treatment showed cellular oxidative stress. By adding ROS inhibitor, the relief of photosynthetic inhibition, Ca²⁺ overproduction and cell death was found. Therefore, we conclude that photosynthetic damage, cell death and cellular oxidative stress were the major mechanisms of BDE-47 toxicity to Chlorella sp., and that cellular oxidative stress played an important role in mediating the other mechanisms.

A Novel Algicidal Bacterium and Its Effects against the Toxic Dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi (Dinophyceae)

The toxic dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi is a harmful algal bloom-forming species in coastal areas around the world. It produces ichthyotoxins and hemolytic toxins, with deleterious effects on marine ecosystems. In this study, the bacterium Pseudoalteromonas sp. FDHY-MZ2, with high algicidal efficiency against K. mikimotoi, was isolated from a bloom event. Based on the results, it completely lysed K. mikimotoi cells within 24 h 0.5% (vol/vol), with the algicidal activity of the supernatant of the bacterium culture. Algal cell wall fragmentation occurred, leading to cell death. There was a marked decline in various photochemical traits. When treated with the supernatant, cellulase, pheophorbide a oxygenase (PAO) and cyclin B genes were significantly increased, suggesting induced cell wall deterioration, chloroplast degradation and cell cycle regulation of K. mikimotoi cells. In addition, the expression levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging gene was significantly inhibited, indicating that the ROS removal system was damaged. The bacterial culture was dried to obtain the spray-dried powder, which showed algicidal activity rates of 92.2 and 100% against a laboratory K. mikimotoi culture and a field microcosm of Karlodinium sp. bloom within 24 h with the addition of 0.04% mass fraction powder. Our results demonstrate that FDHY-MZ2 is a suitable strain for K. mikimotoi and Karlodinium sp. blooms management. In addition, this study provides a new strategy for the anthropogenic control of harmful algal bloom-forming species in situ. IMPORTANCE K. mikimotoi is a noxious algal bloom-forming species that cause damaging of the aquaculture industry and great financial losses. Bacterium with algicidal activity is an ideal agency to inhibit the growth of harmful algae. In this approach application, the bacterium with high algicidal activity is required and the final management material is ideal for easy-to-use. The algicidal characteristics are also needed to understand the effects of the bacterium for managing strategy exploration. In this study, we isolated a novel algicidal bacterium with extremely high lysis efficiency for K. mikimotoi. The algicidal characteristics of the bacterium as well as the chemical and molecular response of K. mikimotoi with the strain challenge were examined. Finally, the algicidal powder was explored for application. The results demonstrate that FDHY-MZ2 is suitable for K. mikimotoi and Karlodinium sp. blooms controlling, and this study provides a new strategy for algicidal bacterium application.

Algicidal Bacteria: A Review of Current Knowledge and Applications to Control Harmful Algal Blooms

Interactions between bacteria and phytoplankton in aqueous ecosystems are both complex and dynamic, with associations that range from mutualism to parasitism. This review focuses on algicidal interactions, in which bacteria are capable of controlling algal growth through physical association or the production of algicidal compounds. While there is some evidence for bacterial control of algal growth in the field, our understanding of these interactions is largely based on laboratory culture experiments. Here, the range of these algicidal interactions is discussed, including specificity of bacterial control, mechanisms for activity, and insights into the chemical and biochemical analysis of these interactions. The development of algicidal bacteria or compounds derived from bacteria for control of harmful algal blooms is reviewed with a focus on environmentally friendly or sustainable methods of application. Potential avenues for future research and further development and application of bacterial algicides for the control of algal blooms are presented.

Toxic effect of BDE-47 on the marine alga Skeletonema costatum: Population dynamics, photosynthesis, antioxidation and morphological changes

The toxic effects of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) on the marine alga Skeletonema costatum were studied, including the population dynamics, chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics, pigment content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content and morphology. High doses (200-600 μg L^-1) of BDE-47 significantly suppressed the population growth of S. costatum, with a 96 h EC₅₀ value of 293 μg L^-1. Photosynthetic parameters (F_v/F_m, rETR_max and Φ_PSⅡ) of photosystem II (PSII) were significantly inhibited with increasing BDE-47 concentrations. The chlorophyll c (chl c) concentration was also inhibited by exposure to BDE-47. In contrast, chl a and carotenoid concentrations were elevated after exposure to high concentrations of BDE-47 for 72 and 96 h. The SOD activity was generally higher at concentrations of 100-600 μg L^-1 than those of the control when the exposure time was less than 48 h. With increasing time, the SOD activity generally decreased, and significantly higher SOD activity only occurred in the treatment with high doses of BDE-47. High MDA contents occurred after exposure for 96 h in all BDE-47 treatments. With increasing BDE-47 concentrations, drastic deformation of the silicious valve and detachment of the strutted processes were found. In addition, drastic decreases in the BDE-47 concentration in culture medium indicated the bioaccumulation of BDE-47 by S. costatum. Our results revealed multiple responses of S. costatum to BDE-47 exposure, and indicated the potential risk of BDE-47 in the East China Sea based on these responses.

Phytoplankton mortality in a changing thermal seascape

Predicting spatiotemporal distributions of phytoplankton biomass and community composition heavily relies on experimental studies that document how environmental conditions influence population growth rates. In unicellular phytoplankton, the net population growth rate is the difference between the cell division rate and the death rate. Along with predation and disease, phytoplankton mortality arises from abiotic stress. Although the effect of temperature on the net population growth rate is well understood, studies examining thermally induced death rates in phytoplankton are scarce. We investigated how cell division and death rates of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum varied within its thermal tolerance limits (thermal niche), and at temperatures just above its upper thermal tolerance limit. We show that death rates were largely independent of temperature when P. tricornutum was grown within its thermal niche, but increased significantly at temperatures that approached or exceeded its upper thermal tolerance limit. Furthermore, the sensitivity of mortality increased with the duration of exposure to heat stress and was affected by the pre-acclimation temperature. Heat waves can be expected to significantly affect phytoplankton mortality episodically. The increasing frequency of heat waves accompanying global warming can be expected to drive changes in phytoplankton community structure due to interspecific variability of thermal niches with potential implications for food web dynamics and biogeochemical cycles.

Enhanced SA and Ca2+ signaling results in PCD-mediated spontaneous leaf necrosis in wheat mutant wsl

Leaf is the major photosynthesis organ and the key source of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain. Spotted leaf (spl) mutant is a kind of leaf lesion mimic mutants (LMMs) in plants, which is an ideal material for studying the mechanisms of leaf development. In this study, we report the leaf abnormal development molecular mechanism of a spl mutant named white stripe leaf (wsl) derived from wheat cultivar Guomai 301 (WT). Histochemical observation indicated that the leaf mesophyll cells of the wsl were destroyed in the necrosis regions. To explore the molecular regulatory network of the leaf development in mutant wsl, we employed transcriptome analysis, histochemistry, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and observations of the key metabolites and photosynthesis parameters. Compared to WT, the expressions of the chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthesis-related homeotic genes were repressed; many genes in the WRKY transcription factor (TF) families were highly expressed; the salicylic acid (SA) and Ca²⁺ signal transductions were enhanced in wsl. Both the chlorophyll contents and the photosynthesis rate were lower in wsl. The contents of SA and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were significantly higher, and the leaf rust resistance was enhanced in wsl. Based on the experimental data, a primary molecular regulatory model for leaf development in wsl was established. The results indicated that the SA accumulation and enhanced Ca²⁺ signaling led to programmed cell death (PCD), and ultimately resulted in spontaneous leaf necrosis of wsl. These results laid a solid foundation for further research on the molecular mechanism of leaf development in wheat.

Cell Death and Metabolic Stress in Gymnodinium catenatum Induced by Allelopathy

Allelopathy between phytoplankton species can promote cellular stress and programmed cell death (PCD). The raphidophyte Chattonella marina var. marina, and the dinoflagellates Margalefidinium polykrikoides and Gymnodinium impudicum have allelopathic effects on Gymnodinium catenatum; however, the physiological mechanisms are unknown. We evaluated whether the allelopathic effect promotes cellular stress and activates PCD in G. catenatum. Cultures of G. catenatum were exposed to cell-free media of C. marina var. marina, M. polykrikoides and G. impudicum. The mortality, superoxide radical (O₂^●-) production, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, protein content, and caspase-3 activity were quantified. Mortality (between 57 and 79%) was registered in G. catenatum after exposure to cell-free media of the three species. The maximal O₂^●- production occurred with C. marina var. marina cell-free media. The highest TBARS levels and SOD activity in G. catenatum were recorded with cell-free media from G. impudicum. The highest protein content was recorded with cell-free media from M. polykrikoides. All cell-free media caused an increase in the activity of caspase-3. These results indicate that the allelopathic effect in G. catenatum promotes cell stress and caspase-3 activation, as a signal for the induction of programmed cell death.

Oxidative stress parameters, DNA damage and expression of HSP70 and MT in midgut of Trachyderma hispida (Forskål, 1775) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) from a textile industry area

The textile mill industry is one of the major sources of pollution and contributors of metal contaminants to the environment. At the same time, the industry is important for global economy. Pollution caused by the textile industry is characteristic due to a unique set of potentially toxic substances. Darkling beetles (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae), which live in all biogeographical regions, are especially common in soil quality and soil degradation studies. Our study was designed to assess long-term effects of textile industry (which generates specific pollution) on soil organisms, namely Trachyderma hispida. We especially wanted to find out what changes allow the species to survive and adapt to these specific conditions. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of soil and midgut tissues of T. hispida sampled from a polluted site in the Edku textile industrial area in Egypt revealed a high accumulation of chemical elements, compared to a reference site. The concentration of elements in soil was well correlated with their concentration in the midgut of insects. Activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase were negatively correlated with concentration of elements in soil and in the midgut. Meanwhile, malondialdehyde concentration in the midgut revealed an opposite tendency. DNA damage and expression of stress proteins, (HSP70 and metallothionein - MT) were elevated in insects from the polluted site. The activity of textile industry in the area of Edku undoubtedly causes an increase of soil pollution and, in consequence, causes a number of changes in the bodies of organisms living in these areas, including T. hispidus. Therefore, it is necessary to find a solution which limits the emission of waste from the textile industry, as well as to design modern strategies of processing, storing and utilizing it.