A systematic review and ecological risk assessment for organic ultraviolet filters in aquatic environments

Biotransformation of oxybenzone and 3-(4-methylbenzylidene)camphor in Cunninghamella species: Potential for environmental clean-up of widely used sunscreen agents

The extensive use of organic UV filters (OUVFs) has led to these compounds being ubiquitously detected in the environment and considered a new kind of environmental pollutant. As OUVFs cannot be efficiently eliminated by conventional treatment processes, there is an urgent need to develop new innovative solutions for their removal. The present work investigates the efficacy of three Cunninghamella strains in the biodegradation of OUVFs: oxybenzone (BP-3) and 3-(4-methylbenzylidene)camphor (4-MBC). Moreover, a cytochrome P450 (CYP450) inhibition study was conducted, and Cunninghamella-processed samples in silico and in vitro toxicity were evaluated. Our results indicated the ability of Cunninghamella strains to utilize OUVFs. Among the tested Cunninghamella strains, both agents were the most efficiently removed by C. blakesleeana. These results were comparable with A. niger biodegradation capacity. In vitro studies of the fungi-processed samples confirmed no mutagenicity in the Ames test and the lack of cytotoxicity against HepG2 cell line. Moreover, Cunninghamella treatment positively influenced OUVFs SH-SY5Y neurotoxicity and ecotoxicity. After fungal treatment, BP-3 agonistic estrogenic activity was higher, whereas antagonistic androgenic effect was lower than before biotransformation. 4-MBC, after biotransformation, lost agonistic estrogenic activity, but gained antagonistic estrogenic properties. Additionally, this study confirmed the involvement of CYP450 enzymes in BP-3 and 4-MBC biotransformation, thus contributing to a better understanding of the detoxification pathways of OUVFs in fungi. In conclusion, these findings demonstrated, for the first time, that using environmental fungi Cunninghamella for the biodegradation of BP-3 and 4-MBC represents a potent approach for eliminating contaminants from the natural environment.

2,3,4-Trihydroxybenzophenone-induced cardiac and neurological toxicity: Heart-brain interaction mediated by regulation of pgam1a and pgk1 involved in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in zebrafish

2,3,4-trihydroxybenzophenone (2,3,4-THBP) is a benzophenone-type UV filter commonly used in sunscreens. However, the widespread application of BP-UV filters has led to an appearance of this chemical in the environment and living organisms. Despite of this, there is poor understanding of the bio-toxicity of 2,3,4-THBP. Here, we investigated the adverse effects of 2,3,4-THBP in varying doses (115, 230, 460, 920, and 1840 μg/L) in zebrafish experimental model. Specifically, we assessed its impact on the cardio- and neuro-development, including pericardiac area, heart rate, as well as brain vessels and differentiation of dopaminergic and central nervous system (CNS) neurons. The expression of genes whose products are involved in cardio- and neuro-development was also monitored. It was found that 2,3,4-THBP caused heart failure (HF)-like symptoms in zebrafish embryos including pericardial edema, reduced heart rate, and yolk sac malformation. It also induced dramatic neurotoxicity, namely defective neuron differentiation, cerebrovascular loss, cognition and behavior defects. It disrupted the vascular system, leading to potentially toxic interactions between the heart and brain, further worsening the state of both organs. Notably, RNA-seq findings indicated that 2,3,4-THBP damaged the energy metabolic function via upregulating the expression of phosphoglycerate mutase 1a (pgam1a) and phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (pgk1) whose protein products are involved in regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, highlighting their role in the interplay between heart and brain. Summarizing, 2,3,4-THBP triggered cardiac and neurological toxicity, which is possibly associated with heart-brain interaction mediated by regulation of pgam1a and pgk1 involved in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.

In Vitro metabolism of six representative organic UV stabilizers (OUVs) in marine fish liver microsomes: Kinetics, mechanisms and bioaccumulation evaluation

The ubiquitous occurrence of organic UV stabilizers (OUVs) poses a potential threat to marine fish, but the metabolism of OUVs in the body remains a missing piece of the puzzle in their ecotoxicology. This study investigated the in vitro metabolism of six OUVs in the liver microsomes of an economically valuable marine fish (Lateolabrax japonicus). The depletion of the six OUVs follows first-order kinetics in the microsomes, with in vitro depletion rate constants (kdepl) ranging from 0.23 to 0.40/h. The intrinsic clearance (CLint) of 1H-benzotriazole (BT) was estimated to be 0.0026 μL/(min·mg·protein). The enzyme inhibition experiments and molecular docking results highlight the importance of cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) 3A4 in OUVs metabolism. Among the 4 metabolizable compounds, some metabolites from hydroxylation, methylation, acetylation and conjugation were tentatively identified. In addition, the in vitro transformation rates can more accurately predict the whole-body bioconcentration potential via an in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) model.

Development of molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensors for the detection of UV filters in aquatic ecosystems

The presence of organic UV filters (OUVAs) has been detected worldwide in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants, originating from various anthropogenic sources, can persist and transform within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), posing a potential environmental hazard. In this framework, this research presents electrochemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for the selective detection of Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and Octocrylene (OC), two of the OUVA most spread in the aquatic environment, to overcome the analytical challenges related to the quantification of this class of contaminants in wastewater samples. Key parameters, including the selection of the electropolymerization conditions, the template washing, polymer surface blocking, and analyte re-binding conditions, were optimized to maximize the selectivity and sensitivity. Electrochemical detection was performed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) supported by an electrochemical probe. In addition, cross-reactivity tests were carried out in the presence of possible interferents, selected based on their size, chemical structure, and occurrence in wastewater samples. The sensors demonstrated significant selectivity and sensitivity for the target analytes, with detection limits of 30 nM for BP-3 and 1 nM for OC, while tests on complex wastewater samples showed recovery rates of 77 % and 101 % for BP-3 and OC, respectively. The study yielded interesting results that could lead to a specific, cost-effective approach to enable widespread monitoring and support early detection of these increasingly relevant contaminants in wastewater samples.

Ecotoxicological effects of sunscreen derived organic and inorganic UV filters on marine organisms: A critical review

Sunscreens are topical personal care products that provide protection against the sun's ultraviolet A (UVA) and ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation. Ultraviolet (UV) filters are compounds added to sunscreens to block, absorb, or reflect the sun's UV rays, but are of major emerging concern due to their widespread use and global distribution. They pose a significant risk to marine organisms owing to their chemical properties, including high lipophilicity which increases their bioavailability. The present review identifies and summarises the factors that contribute to UV filter pollution, their sources, pathways, and effects on marine organisms. We identify and evaluate the current knowledge base and gaps pertaining to their effects. Here, we retrieved 111 peer-reviewed articles from four academic search engines between January and October 2024 with the topic search relating to UV filters, sunscreen and ecotoxicology. Most publications (60 %) focused on the biological effects of organic UV filters, with oxybenzone (benzophenone-3) being the most studied (57 %). Fewer publications assessed the biological effects of inorganic UV filters (40 %). Throughout all search results, the most commonly tested species were in the class of bivalvia (24 %) and oxidative stress based assays were the most popular (organic studies 40 %, inorganic studies, 39 %). To enhance understanding, future research should explore a broader range of organisms and life stages, considering dietary uptake and realistic environmental conditions, including the use of UV lighting in laboratory settings.

Exploring the Hidden Threat of Organic UV Filters to Corals and Macroalgae in Coral Reef Ecosystem from Luhuitou, Sanya, China

The widespread presence of organic UV filters (OUVFs) in coral reef ecosystems has attracted increasing attention. This study analyzed the concentrations and compositions of OUVFs in corals, macroalgae, and sediments in the Luhuitou fringing reef ecosystem in Sanya, China. The detected OUVFs included benzophenones-1, -2, -3, and -8 (BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, and BP-8), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HB), octocrylene (OC), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), and octyl dimethyl-p-aminobenzoic acid (ODPABA). The total concentrations (∑8OUVFs) in coral tissues and macroalgae were found to be 4.3-52.0 and 8.0-29.0 ng/g dry weight (dw), respectively. The bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for BPs (including BP-1, BP-3, and BP-8) and OC in coral tissues were higher than those in macroalgae, while the BAFs for 4-MBC and ODPABA were relatively lower. Preliminary risk assessment results indicated that, in the worst-case scenario, more than 65 and 84% of coral samples had BP-3 concentrations exceeding the thresholds for causing coral larval bleaching and mortality, respectively. At the same time, 99% of the macroalgae samples showed ODPABA concentrations exceeding the thresholds related to their growth inhibition. Therefore, BP-3 and ODPABA posed significant ecological risks to corals and macroalgae, subsequently threatening the health and stability of the coral reef ecosystem.

Targeted and untargeted discovery of UV filters and emerging contaminants with environmental risk assessment on the Northwestern Mediterranean coast

Marine ecosystems, particularly coastal areas, are becoming increasingly vulnerable to pollution from human activities. Persistent organic pollutants and contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are recognized as significant threats to both human and environmental health. Our study aimed to identify the molecules present in the seawater of two bathing areas in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers were employed for passive sampling of UV filters and other contaminants in the seawater. The concentrations of UV filters bemotrizinol (BEMT), benzophenone-3 (BP3), diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate (DHHB), octyl triazone (ET), and octocrylene (OC) were measured at these bathing sites during the summer of 2022. In addition, non-targeted chemical analysis was used to complement the list of pollutants in the sampling areas, leading to the identification of 53 contaminants and three natural products. Dodecyltrimethylammonium (DTA) and tetradecyltrimethylammonium (TTA) ions, 1,3-diphenylguanidine (DPG), N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET), and crystal violet (CV) were successfully quantified. Risk assessments showed that DEET, DPG, and BP3 present low environmental risks at the detected concentrations, while CV, DTA, and TTA pose medium to high risks, warranting further investigation. OC was found to pose a significant risk to marine biodiversity, as its environmental concentrations exceeded predicted no-effect concentration values. Overall, this study highlights the complexity of environmental pollution in coastal bathing areas and underscores the urgent need for comprehensive risk assessments to safeguard marine life and public health.

Impact of ultraviolet filters and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon from recreational activities on water reservoirs in southeast Queensland Australia

Water reservoirs and lakes are gaining popularity for recreation activities as populations increase and green spaces become in high demand. However, these activities may cause contamination to critical water resources. This study investigates the impact of recreational activities on the presence and concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and ultraviolet (UV) filters in drinking water reservoirs in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Polydimethylsiloxane passive samplers were used to monitor 14 lakes over a 3-year period, focusing on seasonal variations and the influence of recreational activities such as petrol-powered boating and swimming. A total of 15 PAHs and six UV filters were detected, with chrysene (97%) and octyl salicylate (34%) being the most prevalent PAH and UV filter, respectively. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels were statistically significantly higher in lakes permitting petrol-powered boating, especially during summer (p = 0.005 to 0.05). Lake Maroon and Lake Moogerah were the only sites that showed significantly higher PAH levels in summer (3.9 ± 1.1 and 4.0 ± 1.2 ng L-1, respectively) than winter (1.6 ± 0.61 and 1.5 ± 0.84, respectively). Ultraviolet filters were generally detected in higher levels in lakes allowing swimming, with Lake Moogerah and Lake Sommerset measuring UV filter concentrations of 20 ± 4.1 and 20 ± 11 ng L-1 in summer, respectively. Other lakes that do not permit swimming, such as Lake Maroon and Lake Samsonvale, also exhibited elevated UV filter levels, suggesting illegal swimming. These findings highlight the complexity of PAH and UV filter presence, influenced by multiple factors including lake size, recreational activity type, and seasonal variations. The levels of individual PAHs and UV filters in this study were below established freshwater guidelines. However, when considering their bioaccumulation potential and mixture toxicity, mitigating the impact of these substances on our environment and the organisms within it should be of priority.

Effects of the UV Filter Octocrylene and Its Degradation Product Benzophenone on Pacific Oyster (Magallana gigas) Larvae: A Call for Reassessment of Environmental Hazards

Early life stages are pivotal to the functioning and resilience of ecological systems, displaying heightened vulnerability to environmental changes and exposure to contaminants. Octocrylene (OC), an organic ultraviolet (UV) filter, and its breakdown product benzophenone (BP) are commonly found in aquatic environments, but their impact on keystone processes determining the success or failure of the early life stages of marine organisms remains underexplored. This study aims to assess the impacts of OC and BP at environmentally realistic concentrations (1, 10, and 100 µg.L-1), over a 24 h exposure period, on larvae of the Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas). A multiparametric approach was employed, examining DNA integrity, embryo-larval development and swimming velocity. The results showed that DNA integrity and swimming velocity were not affected by OC or BP; however, both compounds increased developmental abnormalities in D-shaped larvae in all concentrations tested. Considering the robustness of morphological parameters, often assumed as irreversible, and their critical influence on larvae survival, these findings suggest that environmentally relevant concentrations of OC and BP may threaten the success of oyster larvae, potentially impacting the population's long-term stability and, ultimately, raising ecological health issues.

Exposure of individuals aged 18-44 years to personal care products in Beijing, China: Exposure profiles, possible influencing factors, and risk assessment

Personal care products (PCPs) are a class of emerging pollutants that have attracted public concern owing to their harmful effects on humans and the environment. Biomonitoring data is valuable for insight the levels of PCPs in the human body and can be crucial for identifying potential health hazards. To gain a better understanding of timely exposure profiles and health risk of reproductive-age population to PCPs, we determined six parabens, six benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters, and three disinfectants in 256 urine samples collected from young adults aged 18-44 years in Beijing, China. The urinary levels of benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OHBP) were significantly higher in summer compared to winter, suggesting these compounds have different seasonal usage patterns. Moreover, the total concentration of 15 PCPs in female was 430 ng/mL, approximately two times higher than that in male. P‑chloro-m-xylenol (PCMX), as a new type of antibacterial agent, has the greatest level among all target analytes, indicating the increasingly use of this antibacterial alternative recently. Five potential influencing factors that lead to the elevated exposure level of PCPs were identified. Over 19% of the target population had a high hazard index value (greater than 1) which was attributed to exposure to propyl paraben (PrP), benzophenone-1 (BP-1), BP-3 and PCMX, indicating that PCPs may pose a relatively high exposure risk at environmental levels that should be a cause for concern.

2-Ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate on marine and coastal environments: A comprehensive review of its environmental significance and biological impact

Marine and coastal environments are constantly subjected to increasing pressures associated with population growth, industrialization development, pollution and higher demand feeding society's consumerism. Among these pressures, there has been an increasing concern towards UV filters occurrence in aquatic ecosystems due to a greater use of personal care products (PCPs). 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) is one of the most used UV filters in sunscreen formulations, yet few reports address its effects in biota. This literature review intends to collect the available information concerning the environmental presence of EHMC in marine and coastal ecosystems and their effects in biota. The EHMC effects have been reported for the taxonomic groups: Actinomycetes, Alphaproteobacteria, Bacilli, Cytophagia, Flavobacteriia, Gammaproteobacteria, Actinopterygii, Anthozoa, Bacillariophyceae, Bivalvia, Branchiopoda, Coccolithophyceae, Echinoidea, Gastropoda, Malacostraca, Annelida and Thecostraca. The reported literature evaluated endpoints mainly related to development, viability, mortality, estrogenicity, gene transcription disruptions, biochemical alterations and morphophysiological changes. Based on the available information, there is still a clear need for further investigations related to EHMC and its toxicological effects on marine and coastal organisms.

Short-term and long-term effects of microplastics and organic UV-filters on the invertebrate model species Daphnia magna

There is an ongoing debate regarding the role of microplastics (MPs) in enhancing the effects of various chemical compounds, highlighting the need for more detailed analyses. In this study, neonates of the water flea (Daphnia magna) were exposed to polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs; 3 µm; exposure concentration, 1.25 mg/L), a mixture of seven organic UV-filters (avobenzone, ethylhexyl triazone, homosalate, iscotrizinol, octinoxate, octisalate, and octocrylene; each at a low environmental concentration of 200 ng/L), or the combination of both pollutants for 3, 7, or 21 days. Results showed that PS-MPs alone decreased the body size of daphnids, while all treatments increased heart rate by the end of the 21-day exposure. On days 3 and 21, both PS-MPs and PS-MPs + UV-filters reduced swimming speed and total distance travelled. Additionally, PS-MPs increased the time of the first egg production, but decreased the egg number in the first production, total egg number, maximum egg number, and total neonate number during the 21-day treatment. Similarly, UV-filters or the combined pollutants increased the time of the first egg production and decreased the total neonate number. All treatments increased multixenobiotic resistance activity on days 3 and 7, while only UV-filters elevated CYP450 activity on day 3. PS-MPs or combined pollutants increased GST activity during early exposure but showed no effect on day 21. CAT activity was also affected by treatments in a time-dependent manner. These findings demonstrate that chronic exposure to PS-MPs and UV-filters, applied individually or in combination at a low environmental concentration, moderately impacts development, heart rate, and swimming activity in D. magna, while significantly altering reproduction and key cellular functions such as membrane transport activity, metabolism, and antioxidant defense. Co-exposure did not reveal a clear pattern of synergism or antagonism, suggesting that joint toxicity risks of these xenobiotics typically emerge at concentrations higher than low environmental levels. Future studies should explore potential interactions more thoroughly and assess transgenerational effects on reproduction and cellular defense pathways.

A review of ultraviolet filters and their impact on aquatic environments

Numerous anthropogenic ultraviolet filters (UVF) have been detected in aquatic environments and concerns have arisen regarding their potential impacts on aquatic organisms. This manuscript reviews the environmental concentrations and potential toxicity of various UVF. The highest concentrations of UVF are typically observed near frequently visited recreational areas and during peak water-activity periods, which suggests that sunscreen application correlates with noticeable alterations in UVF concentrations. Aquatic concentrations of certain filters have sporadically exceeded 10 μg/L, although most measurements remain below 1 µg/L, which is below commonly reported toxicity levels. UVF have also been detected in aquatic organisms, typically ranging from nondetectable levels to a few hundred ng/g, depending on the species. The toxic effects from UVF, such as coral bleaching and diminished growth, have been observed in laboratory settings, however, toxicity tends to manifest only at significantly higher levels than what is typically detected in aquatic environments. Further research is imperative to provide consumers with improved guidance on selecting sunscreen containing UVF that poses the least environmental risk.

Distribution characteristics and sources of ultraviolet absorbents in facility agricultural soils in China

The environmental contamination of ultraviolet absorbents (UVAs) has attracted global attention for the persistence, bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity. However, little is known about the content and distribution characteristics of UVAs in agricultural soils, especially in facility agricultural soils. In this study, the contents and distribution characteristics of 16 UVAs were surveyed in agricultural facility soils (N = 61) and field soil samples (N = 61) from 27 provinces in China. The total content of 16 UVAs (Σ16UVAs) in facility soils (mean 64.2 ± 55.4 ng/g) was higher than that in field soils (mean 9.66 ± 7.66 ng/g), suggesting that UVAs in facility soils are associated with mulch film. The Σ16UVAs content in the soil mulched with biodegradable (PBAT) film was higher than that in the soil mulched with polyethylene (PE) film, which indicated that the UVA pollution in the soil mulched with biodegradable film was more serious. With the continuous promotion of the use of biodegradable films may pose a threat to soil and ecological health. Therefore, studies on the content and distribution characteristics of UVAs in facility soils are needed to provide scientific basis for the controlling and monitoring of novel pollutants.

Understudied and underestimated impacts of organic UV filters on terrestrial ecosystems

Organic UV filters (OUVFs) are vital components in various personal care products (PCPs) and commercial goods, with the annual consumption estimated at 10,000 tons. Consequently, the unavoidable use of OUVFs in PCPs and other unregulated commercial applications could present a considerable risk to human and environmental health. These chemical entities enter terrestrial ecosystems through wastewater discharge, agriculture, atmospheric deposition, and recreational activities. Compared to aqueous ecosystems, the effects of OUVFs on terrestrial environments should be more studied and potentially underestimated. The present review addresses the abovementioned gap by summarizing 189 studies conducted between 2006 and 2024, focusing on the analytical measures, occurrence, and ecotoxicological effects of OUVFs on terrestrial ecosystems. These studies underscore the harmful effects of certain OUVFs on the development, reproduction, and endocrine systems of terrestrial organisms, highlighting the necessity for comprehensive toxicological assessments to understand their impacts on non-target species in terrestrial ecosystems. Besides, by underscoring the ecological effects of OUVFs, this review aims to guide future research and inform regulatory measures to mitigate the risks posed by these widespread contaminants. Meanwhile, interdisciplinary research is essential, integrating environmental science, toxicology, ecology, and chemistry to tackle OUVF challenges in terrestrial ecosystems.

A novel online survey approach designed to measure consumer sunscreen application thickness-implications for estimating environmental emissions

BACKGROUND

The effects of ultraviolet (UV) filters in the aquatic environment have been well studied, but environmental exposures remain unclear and understudied. Consumer usage directly influences the amount of sunscreen products, and subsequently UV filters, potentially released into the environment.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a literature review of previous research into sunscreen application thickness, develop a questionnaire protocol designed to semi-quantify sunscreen usage by US consumers, and conduct a large-scale survey to determine a sunscreen application thickness (to face and body) that is more refined than conservative defaults. The United States Food & Drug Administration (US FDA) recommends a sunscreen application rate of 2 mg/cm2. This value is typically used as a worst-case assumption in environmental exposure assessments of UV filters.

METHODS

Designed a novel approach to estimate lotion sunscreen application thickness using an online questionnaire protocol employing visual references and self-reported height and weight of the respondents. A literature review was also conducted to collect historical sunscreen usage.

RESULTS

Over 9000 people were surveyed in the US, and after the dataset was refined, their sunscreen application thickness was estimated based on calculated body surface area and reported sunscreen amounts. The mean and median values for survey respondents are 3.00 and 1.78 mg/cm2, respectively, for facial application thickness and 1.52 and 1.35 mg/cm2, respectively, for body application thickness. Earlier research from 1985-2020 reported 36 of the 38 values are below the US FDA's recommended application thickness of 2 mg/cm2 (range 0.2-5 mg/cm2).

IMPACT STATEMENT

This web-based survey is the first of its kind, designed specifically to quantify sunscreen application in a large and diverse set of consumers. This method provides a greater reach to larger populations thus enabling more granular data analysis and understanding. Exposure assessments of sunscreen ingredients typically use conservative parameters. These data can refine those assessments and allow for more informed and science-based risk management decisions.

Nutshell Materials as a Potential Eco-Friendly Biosorbent for the Effective Extraction of UV Filters and Parabens from Water Samples

UV filters and parabens, as ingredients of cosmetics, are commonly occurring water pollutants. In our work, nutshells were used as biosorbents in the developed analytical procedure for the determination of UV filters and parabens in water samples. The shells obtained from walnuts, hazelnuts, peanuts and pistachios were applied as biosorbents. The proposed analytical method can be used as a powerful alternative to other methods for the analysis of UV filters and parabens in water samples. A method of carrying out the sorption step and its parameters, i.e., the effect of time, pH, and salt addition, was developed. A method for the desorption of analytes was also developed, in which the type and volume of solvent, and the desorption time, were established. The recoveries were in the range of 59-117% for benzophenones and lower recoveries from 14 to 75% for parabens. The results showed that nutshells can be used as low-cost, efficient and eco-friendly biosorbents for the determination of parabens and UV filters in water samples. These materials can be used as a 'greener' replacement for the commercially available adsorbents for the extraction of cosmetic ingredients from the environment.

Benzotriazole ultraviolet absorbents in surface waters and sediments of the Bohai Sea and North Yellow Sea: Spatial trends and influencing factors

Benzotriazole ultraviolet absorbents (BUAs) of emerging concern were recently monitored in seawater and sediments from the Bohai Sea (BS) and North Yellow Sea (NYS), which are impacted by human activities, to elucidate their regional occurrence patterns, phase distributions, and contamination profiles. Although environmental variables such as sedimentary organic carbon, particle size, and salinity, as well as hydrological conditions, affected the environmental occurrence of BUAs in the BS and NYS, the source dependence of BUA distributions associated with urban impacts and riverine inputs was highlighted. Substantial spatial variability in the composition patterns and contamination profiles of BUAs identified through correlation and principal component analyses were likely caused by region-specific sources and characteristics. The distribution of target BUAs between the sediment and seawater phases showed no dependence on the octanol-water partition coefficient (KOW) but exhibited marked spatial variations. The diversity of BUA sorption behaviors was further explained by the total organic carbon (TOC)-normalized distribution coefficient (KTOC). Classic logKTOC-logKOW linear relationships accurately predicted the phase distributions of UV-326, UV-328, and UV-234, but deviations were found for lighter and heavier BUAs, possibly due to the influences of physical disturbance and microparticle binding.

Insights into the uptake, accumulation, and metabolism of UV-328 in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

2-(2H-benzotriazole-2yl)-4,6-di-t-pentylphenol (UV-328), a newly listed persistent organic pollutant (POP) under the Stockholm Convention, has garnered significant attention. It is imperative to understand the uptake, translocation and metabolic pathways of UV-328 in plants to assess its bioaccumulation capacity and potential human health risks. In this study, the absorption, accumulation, and metabolic characteristics of UV-328 in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and radish (Raphanus sativus L.) were assessed by hydroponic experiments. In the hydroponics experiment, UV-328 was significantly absorbed by the roots of the plants, with average root concentration factors (RCFs) ranging from 58.5 to 400 mL/g for lettuce and 84.4-154 mL/g for radish. However, UV-328 was poorly translocated from roots to shoots, with a translocation factor (TF) below 0.055. Furthermore, UV-328 underwent transformation and metabolism within the plant. Utilizing a nontarget screening strategy, fourteen phase I metabolites of UV-328 were firstly identified. The metabolic pathways of UV-328 in plants including hydroxylation, demethylation, oxidation, acetylation and deoxygenation were also suggested. It was worth noting that UV-328 has a significant adverse impact on plant growth and quality. The concentration of chlorophyll in plants exposed to UV-328 was significantly reduced, as were the concentrations of water, flavonoids, vitamin C and amino acids.

Single and mixture toxicity of benzophenone-3 and its metabolites on Daphnia magna

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is one of the organic ultraviolet (UV) filters widely used in personal care products, resulting in its ubiquitous occurrence in aquatic systems. This study discovered the potential risks of benzophenone-3 and its metabolites (BP-1 and BP-8) in aquatic environments. This study investigated the toxicity of three single BPs and their mixtures' effects on the survival of Daphnia magna. All three BP types were found to have toxic effects on D. magna, with median effective concentration (EC50) values of 22.55 mg/L for BP-1, 1.89 mg/L for BP-3, and 2.36 mg/L for BP-8, after 48 h of exposure. When the three BPs were binary and ternary mixtures, the EC50 values fell within 2.74-32.26 mg/L. Binary and tertiary mixtures of the three BPs indicated no strong synergistic or antagonistic effects. The mixture toxicity predictions using the classical mixture concept of concentration addition and measured toxicity data showed good predictability. The ecological risks of BPs were assessed using the maximum measured environmental concentrations of BPs collected from a river in Taiwan, divided by their respective predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values derived from the assessment factor (AF) method. The result showed a low ecological risk for the sum of three BPs. However, BP-3 had the highest potential risk, while BP-1 was the lowest among the three BPs. Therefore, BP-3 should pay attention to long-term environmental monitoring and management. This study provides valuable information for establishing scientifically-based water quality criteria for BPs and evaluating and managing the potential risk of BPs in the aquatic environment.

Microencapsulation of sunscreen reduces toxicity of its components to A. salina: Biochemical, behavioral and morphological studies

Sunscreens contain several substances that cause damage to species where they are disposed. New formulations have been created to prevent such marine environmental damages. One promising formulation is the microencapsulated sunscreen. The objective of this study was to evaluate the possible safety to marine environment of one microencapsulated sunscreen formulation. The animal model Artemia salina (cists and nauplii) was tested with two sunscreen formulations (microencapsulated and non-microencapsulated) and toxicological, behavioral, morphological parameters as well as biochemical assays (lipoperoxidation and carbonylation tests) were analyzed. Results showed that microencapsulated sunscreen impeded some toxic effects caused by the release of the substances within the microcapsule in the highest concentration, reestablishing the mortality and hatching rates to control levels, while removing the sunscreen microcapsule by adding 1 % DMSO reduced the cyst hatching rate, increasing the nauplii mortality rate and decreased locomotor activity in higher concentrations. Finally, nauplii with 24 hours of life and exposed to sunscreen without the microcapsule showed an increase in mitochondrial activity (assessed at 48 hours after exposure) and presented malformations when exposed to the highest concentration non-microencapsulated concentration (assessed by SEM at 72 hours after exposure), when compared to the control group. These results together allow us to conclude that the microencapsulation process of a sunscreen helps protecting A. salina from the harmful effects of higher concentrations of said sunscreens. However, long-term studies must be carried out as it is not known how long a microencapsulated sunscreen can remain in the environment without causing harmful effects to the marine ecosystem and becoming an ecologically relevant pollutant.

Determination and risk assessment of UV filters and benzotriazole UV stabilizers in wastewater from a wastewater treatment plant in Lüneburg, Germany

UV filters and benzotriazole UV stabilizers are considered emerging contaminants in the environment. LC-MS/MS and GC-MS methods, involving a single solid phase extraction protocol, were developed and validated to determine eight UV filters and seven UV stabilizers, respectively in wastewater from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Lüneburg, Germany. The LC-MS/MS method exhibited extraction recoveries of ≥ 71% at six different fortification levels with limits of detection (LODs) range of 0.02 ng mL-1 - 0.09 ng mL-1. Extraction recoveries of 47 to 119% at six different fortification levels were obtained for the GC-MS method with LODs range of 0.01 - 0.09 ng mL-1. Among the UV filters, the highest mean concentration was determined for octocrylene (OCR) in influent (3.49 ng mL-1) while the highest mean concentration was measured for 2-hydroxy-4-octyloxybenzophenone (UV 531) in influent (0.44 ng mL-1) among the UV stabilizers. Potential risk to aquatic organisms was assessed by the risk quotient approach. Only OCR presented a high risk to aquatic invertebrates whereas 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) and 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS) posed high risks to algae. Benzotriazole UV stabilizers presented negligible risks to aquatic invertebrates and fish. This work reports the detection of rarely studied 4-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and UV 531 in WWTP influent and effluent. The occurrence and risk assessment of target benzotriazole UV stabilizers in wastewater from a German WWTP was demonstrated for the first time.

Sunscreen use during recreational activities on a French Atlantic beach: release of UV filters at sea and influence of air temperature

Organic UV filters are emerging contaminants in personal care products such as sunscreens. The toxicity of numerous of these UV filter compounds has been demonstrated in several marine taxa. However, whilst the biological impact has already been largely demonstrated, the anthropogenic drivers leading to UV filter contamination still need to be identified. In this work, a survey was conducted on a site of the French Atlantic Coast (i) to describe beachgoers' behaviours (sunscreen use and beach frequentation), (ii) provide an estimation of the UV filters released at sea and (iii) highlight the effect of air temperature on these behaviours and on the release of UV filters. In parallel with these estimations of the UV filters released at sea, in situ chemical measurements were performed. By comparing the results of both approaches, this interdisciplinary work provides an insight of how the observations of beachgoers' behaviour modulations and attendance level fluctuations could be used to prevent UV filter contaminations and ultimately manage the ecotoxicological risk.

Wastewater and seawater monitoring in Antarctica: Passive sampling as a powerful strategy to evaluate emerging pollution

The Ross Sea, among the least human-impacted marine environments worldwide, recently became the first marine protected area in Antarctica. To assess the impact of the Italian research station Mario Zucchelli (MZS) on the surrounding waters, passive sampling - as well as spot sampling for comparison - took place in the effluent of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and the receiving surface marine waters. Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS) were deployed for six consecutive 2-week periods from November to February in a reservoir collecting the wastewater effluent. Passive samplers were also deployed at shallow depth offshore from the wastewater effluent outlet from MZS for two separate 3-week periods (November 2021 and January 2022). Grab water samples were collected alongside each POCIS deployment, for comparison with passive sampling results. POCIS, used for the first time in Antarctica, demonstrated to be advantageous to estimate time-averaged concentrations in waters and the results were comparable to those obtained by repeated spot samplings. Among the 23 studied ECs - including drugs, UV-filters, perfluorinated substances, caffeine - 15 were detected in both grab and passive sampling in the WWTP effluent and followed similar concentration profiles in both types of sampling. High concentrations of caffeine, naproxen and ketoprofen in the dozens of μg L-1 were detected. Other compounds, including drugs and several UV filters, were detected down to sub- μg L-1 concentrations. In marine waters close to the effluent output, only traces of a drug (4.8 ng L-1) and two UV filters (up to 0.04 μg L-1) were quantified.

Bioconcentration, biotransformation, and transcriptomic impact of the UV-filter 4-MBC in the manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum

Ultraviolet filters (UV-filters) are compounds extensively used in personal care products. These compounds are produced at increasing rates and discharged into marine ecosystems in unknown quantities and with no regulation, making them emerging contaminants. Among those, the UV-filter 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) is used in a variety of personal care products such as sunscreens, soaps, or lipsticks. This high consumption has resulted in its presence in various environmental matrices at in concentrations ranging from ng to μg L-1. Very little is known, however, about the possible adverse effects in exposed non-target organisms. Our study presents novel data on the bioconcentration, toxicokinetics, and molecular effects of 4-MBC in a marine bivalve species of commercial interest, Ruditapes philippinarum (Manila clam). Organisms were exposed at two different concentrations (1.34 and 10.79 μg L-1) of 4-MBC for 7 days, followed by a 3-day depuration period (clean sea waters). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were 3562 and 2229 L kg-1 for the low and high exposure concentrations, respectively, making this pollutant bioaccumulative according to REACH criteria. Up to six 4-MBC biotransformation products (BTPs)were identified, 2 of them for the first time. Transcriptomic analysis revealed between 658 and 1310 differently expressed genes (DEGs) after 4-MBC exposure. Functional and enrichment analysis of the DEGs showed the activation of the detoxification pathway to metabolize and excrete the bioconcentrated 4-MBC, which also involved energy depletion and caused an impact on the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids and in the oxidative phosphorylation pathways. Oxidative stress and immune response were also evidenced through the activation of cathepsins and the complement system. Such elucidation of the mode of action of a ubiquitous pollutant such as 4-MBC at the molecular level is valuable both from an environmental point of view and for the sustainable production of Manila clam, one of the most cultivated mollusk species worldwide.

Effects associated with exposure to the emerging contaminant octyl-methoxycinnamate (a UV-B filter) in the aquatic environment: a review

Given the increasing concern surrounding ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced skin damage, there has been a rise in demand for UV filters. Currently, UV-filters are considered emerging contaminants. The extensive production and use of UV filters have led to their widespread release into the aquatic environment. Thus, there is growing concern that UV filters may bioaccumulate and exhibit persistent properties within the environment, raising several safety health concerns. Octyl-methoxycinnamate (OMC) is extensively employed as a UV-B filter in the cosmetic industry. While initially designed to mitigate the adverse photobiological effects attributed to UV radiation, the safety of OMC has been questioned with some studies reporting toxic effects on environment. The aim of this review to provide an overview of the scientific information regarding the most widely used organic UV-filter (OMC), and its effects on biodiversity and aquatic environment.

Behaviorally segmented audiences for managing sunscreen chemical pollution risk in protected coastal natural resource areas

This audience segmentation of visitors at coastal parks in Hawaii and North Carolina addresses an emergent natural resource management concern and risk to aquatic ecosystems: sunscreen chemical pollution. Four audiences were identified that correspond to different behavioral profiles: sunscreen protection tourists, multimodal sun protection tourists, in-state frequent park visitors, and frequent beachgoers who skip sunscreen. The second-largest audience, sunscreen protection tourists, represents 29% of visitors at Cape Lookout National Seashore and 25% at Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park. This group ranks of most concern for chemical pollution because they use sunscreen, but not typically mineral formulations or other methods such as protective clothing, and they have lower levels of sunscreen chemical issue awareness. The identification of similar audience segments across regions with differing cultural characteristics and sunscreen regulation status suggests the robustness of the model and its indicator variables, with implications for both environmental protection and public health. Further, coastal visitors' interest in enacting pro-environmental sun protection behaviors during their next park or beach visit indicates the potential for natural resource managers to holistically address risks in both domains through targeted interventions with audiences of most concern.

Estimation of the riverine input of organic ultraviolet filters (OUVFs) from the Pearl River Estuary to the South China Sea during the early Covid-19 pandemic

Organic ultraviolet filters (OUVFs) are functional ingredients used in cosmetics to protect skin from the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This study presents recent findings on the distribution of OUVFs in the Pearl River Estuary (PRE), located in southern China. This investigation was conducted during the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic when the stay-at-home policy was implemented. Analysis revealed the presence of OUVFs in both the surface and bottom water samples collected from eight major outlets of the Pearl River. The OUVFs were detected in both the dissolved phase and suspended particulate matter, with a total concentration ranging from 7.19 ± 6.54 to 20.5 ± 9.62 ng/L. Notably, OUVFs' concentrations in the study period were significantly lower compared to those reported before the pandemic. This implies that effective reduction of OUVF emissions can be achieved through usage reduction combined with the management of direct discharge and appropriate treatment by urban wastewater treatment facilities. During the study period, the annual release of OUVFs was approximately 12.6 kg/1000 people/year, with the greatest contribution from the Hu Men outlet. Consequently, it is imperative to consider the potential ecological risks associated with the release of OUVFs from the PRE into the marine environment, particularly with the potential for an accompanying rebound in risk upon the lifting of restrictions on outdoor activities in the post Covid-19 time.

Fish gut and skin microbiota dysbiosis induced by exposure to commercial sunscreen formulations

UV filters (organic or mineral) present in sunscreen products are emerging contaminants of coastal aquatic environments. There is an urgent need to understand marine organisms responses to these compounds. In this study, we investigated the effect of exposure to dilutions of commercial sunscreen formulations on bacterial communities of mullet (Chelon sp.). The gut and skin mucus microbial communities were characterized using a metabarcoding approach targeting the 16S rRNA gene. Our results revealed that mullets had its own bacterial communities that differ from their surrounding habitats and specific to tissue. The dilutions of commercial sunscreens modified the relative abundance of Actinobacteroita, Bacteriodota and Proteobacteria for both gut and skin microbiota. They also allowed to bacteria affiliated to Mycobacterium, Nocardia and Tenacibaculum genera, known to house pathogenic species, to colonize the epithelium which may have implications for fish host health.

Fine-scale geographic risk assessment of oxybenzone sunscreen pollution within Hanauma Bay using hydrodynamic characterization and modeling

Hanauma Bay's coral reef system is threatened by sunscreen pollution. Understanding the hydrodynamic nature of the bay is crucial for understanding the transport and fate of pollutants within the bay. This study conducted a comprehensive hydrodynamic analysis, revealing significant aspects of current patterns and their influence on sunscreen pollutant behavior. The analysis demonstrated the formation of flows that drive currents parallel to the shoreline, resulting in increased pollutant retention time over sensitive reef areas. Direct flushing currents were identified as playing a role in reducing pollution buildup. Particle dynamics analysis highlighted the importance of considering temporal dynamics and their implications for pollutant pathways, particularly through the swash zone during high tide phases. The study identified primary current patterns near the reef area and emphasized the circular behavior within the water body, affecting corals' susceptibility to bleaching in the southwestern part of Hanauma bay. To understand where oxybenzone concentrations were a threat to wildlife, we created a geographic model that integrated ecological risk assessment with hydrodynamic behavior in a given system, which we designate the Risk Quotient Plume - the geographic area where the concentration is above the threat level for a chemical. The study found high oxybenzone concentrations throughout the bay, threatening coral, fish, and algae populations. Oxybenzone's distribution indicated a serious threat to the entire back reef habitat and a hinderance to coral restoration efforts. The study also emphasizes the need to consider the hydrodynamic behavior of pollutants and their interaction with microplastics in the bay. Overall, the findings provide insights into hydrodynamics and pollutant dispersion in Hanauma Bay, supporting effective pollution management and conservation strategies.

Salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction combined with LC-MS/MS for the simultaneous determination of seven organic UV filters in environmental water samples: method development and application

Organic UV filters (OUVFs), the active ingredient in sunscreens, are of environmental concern due to reported ecotoxicological effects in aquatic biota. Determining the environmental concentrations of these chemicals is essential for understanding their fate and potential environmental risk. Salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) coupled with liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed for simultaneous extraction, separation, and quantification of seven OUVFs (2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone, 2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, butyl-methoxy-dibenzoyl methane, octocrylene, octyl methoxycinnamate, and oxybenzone). Method detection limits (MDLs) ranged from 11 to 45 ng/L and practical quantification limits (PQLs) from 33 to 135 ng/L. Method trueness, evaluated in terms of recovery, was 69-127%. Inter-day and intra-day variability was < 6% RSD. The coefficients of determination were > 0.97. The method was applied to river and seawater samples collected at 19 sites in and near Port Phillip Bay, Australia, and temporal variation in OUVF concentrations was studied at two sites. Concentrations of OUVF were detected at 10 sites; concentrations of individual OUVFs were 51-7968 ng/L, and the maximum total OUVF concentration detected at a site was 8431 ng/L. Recreational activity and water residence time at the site contributed to OUVF's environmental presence and persistence. The benefits of the SALLE-LC-MS/MS method include its simple operation, good selectivity, precision over a wide linear range, and that obtained extracts can be directly injected into the LC-MS/MS, overall making it an attractive method for the determination of these OUVFs in environmental water matrices. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the occurrence of OUVFs in Port Phillip Bay, Australia.

Influence of sunscreen formulation on the transfer of mineral and organic ultraviolet filters from skin to seawater in simulated ocean bathing tests

OBJECTIVE

Significant research and regulatory attention have been focussed on the potential for some ultraviolet filters (UVFs) to rinse off from beachgoers' skin into seawater leading to exposure to sea life, especially coral reefs. The amount of UVFs potentially rinsed from skin during recreational beach activities has not been well studied, leading to uncertainty about the potential magnitude of aquatic UVF exposure due to changes in sunscreen use patterns. This study quantifies rinse-off of UVFs in sunscreen from skin into synthetic seawater and identifies differences in rinse-off quantity due to formulation type with a goal of informing future modelling efforts aimed at estimating UVF exposure to sea life associated with recreational activities at the beach.

METHODS

UVF rinse-off from skin during recreation in seawater was simulated by applying eight different sunscreen products to porcine skin samples followed by three periods of shaking in synthetic seawater totalling 40 min. The rinsed mass of six UVFs - zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, avobenzone, homosalate, octisalate, and octocrylene - was determined analytically in synthetic seawater and in extractant rinsate from glassware for organic UVFs and compared among formulas.

RESULTS

Among the 22 UVF-formulation combinations tested, 19 resulted in less than 10% of the applied UVF rinsed from skin. All formulation-UVF combinations where the formula types were water-in-oil (reverse phase) emulsions or anhydrous resulted in 5% or less of the applied UVF rinsed to synthetic seawater. Sunscreens formulated as oil-in-water emulsions yielded higher rinse-off percentages for all UVFs tested, with a maximum of 20% rinse-off of avobenzone in one lotion.

CONCLUSION

The potential for sunscreen UVF rinse-off is significantly influenced by formulation and is generally well below the prior assumed rinse-off levels used to estimate risk. Formulation consideration is therefore essential for accurate exposure models used in environmental risk assessment. Anhydrous and reverse phase (water-in-oil) sunscreen formulations tested resulted in lower UVF transfer from skin to synthetic seawater in simulated ocean bathing tests and as a result, are expected to yield lower UVF exposures to sea life. This approach can be used in predictive environmental exposure models to support ecologically safe sunscreen formulation design.

Repurposing consumer sunscreen habits and practices survey data to guide the development of UV filter environmental exposure models and risk assessments

OBJECTIVE

A key factor that is deficient in most environmental emissions assessments for UV filters is a keen understanding of consumer habits and practices that can inform realistic exposure assessments. This study utilized a large volunteer survey (>11 000 persons) that captured many factors that affect consumer-based loadings to aquatic environments. The purpose of this study was to utilize this large survey to identify factors that affect the amount of sunscreen products used by consumers.

METHODS

Correlations among more than 20 variables were used to provide an understanding of the overall dataset and identify factors that may be related to the amount of sunscreen product applied to the body (i.e., application thickness). Forward multiple linear regressions were used to identify the relative importance of each of these factors alone and in combination with others in predicting the amount of applied sunscreen.

RESULTS

The proportion of body surface area (BSA) covered by sunscreen was the primary factor related to application thickness, followed by body surface area of the survey participant, seasonal usage, Fitzpatrick skin type and the sun protection factor, respectively. Each of the five regression models examined was statistically highly significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparisons to recommendations from the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine parameters illustrated sufficient differences so as to encourage the development of future consumer habits and practice surveys that include factors beyond the scope of this study (e.g., activities, time of day, year, location, etc.) that can lead to improved exposure and risk assessments.

UV filter occurrence in beach water of the Mediterranean coast - A field survey over 2 years in Palavas-les-Flots, France

OBJECTIVE

A 2-year sampling campaign was realized on French Mediterranean beach (Palavas-les-Flots Hérault) in order to measure the concentration of UV filters released from the sunscreen used by bathers. Multiple factors suspected of playing determining roles in the UV filter pattern in water were explored, such as the seasonal and daily time evolutions, or the vertical and horizontal distributions, and they were regarded through the UV filter characteristics.

METHODS

The beach was monitored during periods of high and low tourist attendance, typically before, during and after the summer peak. The beachgoers attendance was counted. Bathing water was sampled distinctly from the bulk column and from the top surface layer, testing different sampling tools. Sediments and mussels were also sampled and analysed as potential UV filter sinks. Three organic UV filters (octocrylene OCR, avobenzone BMDBM and octyl methoxycinnamate OMC) and one mineral (titanium dioxide TiO2 ) were studied here as representatives of the current cosmetic market.

RESULTS

Summer peak attendance on the beach was confirmed associated with peak levels of UV filter concentration in the bathing water, even more pronounced during a heat wave period. This relation was also observed at day scale with an afternoon peak, suggesting a rapid evolution of the UV filter pattern in water. Contrasted fates were measured between the four studied UV filters, that could be mainly explained by their respective characteristics, i.e. particulate or dissolved, hydrophilic or lipophilic, lifetime. Generally, this resulted in a concentration ranking TiO2  > OCR > OMC > BMDBM, ranging from 0.5 to 500 μg/L. The most lipophilic and recalcitrant OCR was found most vertically differentiated and over concentrated in the top surface layer of water. Finally, a large horizontal heterogeneity was also observed in the UV filter concentration pattern, raising the need for sample replicates that cover a significant area.

CONCLUSION

This work fulfils some knowledge gaps on the issue of UV filter release in coastal environments, not only by providing original field data and methodological recommendations but also importantly in the comparison made of organic and mineral UV filters, which are often considered separately and rarely evaluated at the same time.

Lymnaea stagnalis and Ophryotrocha diadema as Model Organisms for Studying Genotoxicological and Physiological Effects of Benzophenone-3

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is a lipophilic organic compound that occurs naturally in flower pigments. Since it adsorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the UVA and UVB regions, it is one of the most common UV filters found in sunscreen and cosmetic products. We explored by in vivo micronuclei (MNi) assay the genotoxic effects of BP-3 on hemocytes from the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis. We also studied its possible toxic effects on life-history traits: body growth in L. stagnalis and egg production of both L. stagnalis and the marine polychaete worm Ophryotrocha diadema. Adult individuals were exposed to increasing concentrations of BP-3 (0.025, 0.050, 0.100, and 0.200 mg/L) once a week for 4 weeks. In L. stagnalis, exposure to BP-3 at concentrations of both 0.2 and 0.1 mg/L produced genotoxic effects on the micronuclei frequencies, but only concentrations of 0.2 mg/L affected the NBUDs frequencies. Similarly, negative effects on body growth were observed at the concentrations of 0.2 and 0.1 mg/L and a significant reduction of egg production at 0.2 mg/L. In O. diadema, a negative correlation between egg production and increasing BP-3 concentrations was observed. Our findings suggest the need for more stringent measures to reduce the presence of BP-3 in the environment.

Avoidance behaviour and toxicological impact of sunscreens in the teleost Chelon auratus

There is increasing evidence that sunscreen, more specifically the organic ultra-violet filters (O-UVFs), are toxic for aquatic organisms. In the present study, we simulated an environmental sunscreen exposure on the teleost fish, Chelon auratus. The first objective was to assess their spatial avoidance of environmental concentrations of sunscreen products (i.e. a few μg.L-1 of O-UVFs). Our results showed that the fish did not avoid the contaminated area. Therefore, the second objective was to evaluate the toxicological impacts of such pollutants after 35 days exposure to concentrations of a few μg.L-1 of O-UVFs. At the individual level, O-UVFs increased the hepatosomatic index which could suggest pathological alterations of the liver or the initiation of the detoxification processes. At the cellular level, a significant increase of malondialdehyde was measured in the muscle of fish exposed to O-UVFs which suggests a failure of antioxidant defences and/or an excess of reactive oxygen species.

Stressors of emerging concern in deep-sea environments: microplastics, pharmaceuticals, personal care products and deep-sea mining

Although most deep-sea areas are remote in comparison to coastal zones, a growing body of literature indicates that many sensitive ecosystems could be under increased stress from anthropogenic sources. Among the multiple potential stressors, microplastics (MPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs/PCPs) and the imminent start of commercial deep-sea mining have received increased attention. Here we review recent literature on these emerging stressors in deep-sea environments and discuss cumulative effects with climate change associated variables. Importantly, MPs and PPCPs have been detected in deep-sea waters, organisms and sediments, in some locations in comparable levels to coastal areas. The Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea are the most studied areas and where higher levels of MPs and PPCPs have been detected. The paucity of data for most other deep-sea ecosystems indicates that many more locations are likely to be contaminated by these emerging stressors, but the absence of studies hampers a better assessment of the potential risk. The main knowledge gaps in the field are identified and discussed, and future research priorities are highlighted to improve hazard and risk assessment.

Organic ultraviolet filter mixture promotes bleaching of reef corals upon the threat of elevated seawater temperature

Global reef degradation is a critical environmental health issue that has triggered intensive research on ocean warming, but the implications of emerging contaminants in coral habitats are largely overlooked. Laboratory experiments assessing organic ultraviolet (UV) filter exposure have shown that these chemicals negatively affect coral health; their ubiquitous occurrence in association with ocean warming may pose great challenges to coral health. We investigated both short- (10-day) and long-term (60-day) single and co-exposures of coral nubbins to environmentally relevant organic UV filter mixtures (200 ng/L of 12 compounds) and elevated water temperatures (30 °C) to investigate their effects and potential mechanisms of action. The initial 10-day exposure of Seriatopora caliendrum resulted in bleaching only under co-exposure conditions (compounds + temperature). The 60-day mesocosm study entailed the same exposure settings with nubbins of three species (S. caliendrum, Pocillopora acuta and Montipora aequituberculata). Bleaching (37.5 %) and mortality (12.5 %) of S. caliendrum were observed under UV filter mixture exposure. In the co-exposure treatment, 100 % S. caliendrum and P. acuta bleached associating with 100 % and 50 % mortality, respectively, and significant increase of catalase activities in P. acuta and M. aequituberculata nubbins were found. Biochemical and molecular analyses indicated significant alteration of oxidative stress and metabolic enzymes. The results suggest that upon the adverse effects of thermal stress, organic UV filter mixture at environmental concentrations can cause bleaching in corals by inducing a significant oxidative stress and detoxification burden, suggesting that emerging contaminants may play a unique role in global reef degradation.

Benzophenone-3 causes oxidative stress in the brain and impairs aversive memory in adult zebrafish

Oxybenzone (BP-3) is an ultraviolet (UV) filter widely used in industries that is directly or indirectly released into the aquatic environment. However, little is known about its effects on brain performance. Here, we investigated whether BP-3 exposure affects the redox imbalance in zebrafish and how they respond to a task that requires memory of an aversive situation. Fish were exposed to BP-3 10 and 50 μg L-1 for 15 days and then tested using an associative learning protocol with electric shock as a stimulus. Brains were extracted for reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurement and qPCR analysis of antioxidant enzyme genes. ROS production increased for exposed animals, and catalase (cat) and superoxide dismutase 2 (sod 2) were upregulated. Furthermore, learning and memory were reduced in zebrafish exposed to BP-3. These results suggested that BP-3 may lead to a redox status imbalance, causing impaired cognition and reinforcing the need to replace the toxic UV filters with filters that minimize environmental effects.

Predictive in silico models for aquatic toxicity of cosmetic and personal care additive mixtures

As emerging environmental contaminants, cosmetic and personal care additives (CPCAs) may have less oversight than other consumer products. Their continuous release and pseudopersistence could cause long-term harm to the aquatic environment. Since CPCAs generally exist in the form of mixtures in the environment, prediction and analysis of their mixture toxicity are crucial for ecological risk assessment. In this study, the acute toxicity of five typical CPCA mixtures to Daphnia magna was tested. The combined toxicity of binary mixtures was examined with the traditional concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) model. Overall, the synergistic effect of the five CPCAs may be caused mainly by methylparaben. In addition, reliable approaches for quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model development were explored. Specifically, 18 QSAR models were developed by three dataset partitioning techniques (Kennard-Stone's algorithm division, Euclidean distance based division, and sorted activity based division), two descriptor filtering methods (genetic algorithm and stepwise multiple linear regression) and three regression methods (multiple linear regression, partial least squares and support vector machine). Sixteen equations were applied for the calculation of the mixture descriptors to screen the functional expression of the mixture descriptors with the largest contribution to the mixture toxicity. A new comprehensive parameter that integrates internal and external validation was proposed for QSAR models evaluation. The mixture toxicity is mainly related the 3D distribution of atomic masses and the spatial distribution of the molecule electronic properties. Rigorously validated and externally predictive QSAR models were developed for predicting the toxicity of binary CPCAs mixtures with any ratio, in the applicability domain. The best possible work frame for construction and validation of QSAR models to provide reliable predictions on the mixture toxicity was proposed.

Trace analysis of benzophenone-type UV filters in water and their effects on human estrogen and androgen receptors

To carry out risk assessments of benzophenone-type UV filters (BPs), fast and accurate analytical methods are crucial to determine and monitor levels in the environment. This study presents an LC-MS/MS method that requires minimal sample preparation and yet can identify 10 different BPs in environmental samples such as surface or wastewater resulting in a LOQ range from 2 to 1060 ng/L. The method suitability was tested through environmental monitoring, which showed that, BP-4 is the most abundant derivative found in the surface waters of Germany, India, South Africa and Vietnam. BP-4 levels correlate with the WWTP effluent fraction of the respective river for selected samples in Germany. Peak values of 171 ng/L for 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OH-BP), as measured in Vietnamese surface water, already exceed the PNEC value of 80 ng/L, elevating 4-OH-BP to the status of a new pollutant that needs more frequent monitoring. Moreover, this study reveals that during biodegradation of benzophenone in river water, the transformation product 4-OH-BP is formed which contain structural alerts for estrogenic activity. By using yeast-based reporter gene assays, this study provides bio-equivalents of 9 BPs, 4-OH-BP, 2,3,4-tri-OH-BP, 4-cresol and benzoate and complements the existing structure-activities relationships of BPs and their degradation products.

Comparison of developmental toxicity of benzophenone-3 and its metabolite benzophenone-8 in zebrafish

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) as one of frequently used organic UV filters has been considered an emerging pollutant due to its toxicities. Benzophenone-8 (BP-8) is one of the main metabolites of BP-3 in organisms. Current reports show that BP-8 may be more toxic than BP-3. However, difference of their toxicities on embryonic development has rarely been reported. In this study, zebrafish embryos were chosen as the target organism to explore the developmental toxicities of BP-3 and BP-8. Non-targeted metabolomic analysis was performed to compare their modes of action. Results showed that BP-8 exposures led to higher bioaccumulation and lower hatching rate of zebrafish larvae than BP-3. Both BP-8 and BP-3 exposures caused behavioral abnormalities of zebrafish larvae, but no significant difference was found between them. At the metabolome level, 1 μg/L BP-3 and 1 μg/L BP-8 exposures altered neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway and FoxO signaling pathway, respectively, which might be involved in the abnormal behaviors in zebrafish larvae. For higher exposure groups (30 and 300 μg/L), both BP-3 and BP-8 exposures changed metabolism of cofactors and vitamins of zebrafish larvae. Exposure of BP-3 altered the metabolism by pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis pathway, while BP-8 exposure changed riboflavin metabolism and folate biosynthesis. The above results indicated different modes of action of BP-3 and BP-8 in zebrafish embryonic development. This study sheds new light to biological hazards of BP-3 due to its metabolism in aquatic organisms.

First In Vivo Insights on the Effects of Tempol-Methoxycinnamate, a New UV Filter, as Alternative to Octyl Methoxycinnamate, on Zebrafish Early Development

The demand for organic UV filters as active components in sunscreen products has rapidly risen over the last century, as people have gradually realized the hazards of overexposure to UV radiation. Their extensive usage has resulted in their ubiquitous presence in different aquatic matrices, representing a potential threat to living organisms. In this context, the need to replace classic UV filters such as octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), one of the most popular UV filters reported to be a potential pollutant of aquatic ecosystems, with more environmentally friendly ones has emerged. In this study, using zebrafish, the first in vivo results regarding the effect of exposure to tempol-methoxycinnamate (TMC), a derivative of OMC, are reported. A comparative study between TMC and OMC was performed, analyzing embryos exposed to similar TMC and OMC concentrations, focusing on morphological and molecular changes. While both compounds seemed not to affect hatching and embryogenesis, OMC exposure caused an increase in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response genes, according to increased eif2ak3, ddit3, nrf2, and nkap mRNA levels and in oxidative stress genes, as observed from modulation of the sod1, sod2, gpr, and trx mRNA levels. On the contrary, exposure to TMC led to reduced toxicity, probably due to the presence of the nitroxide group in the compound's molecular structure responsible for antioxidant activity. In addition, both UV filters were docked with estrogen and androgen receptors where they acted differently, in agreement with the molecular analysis that showed a hormone-like activity for OMC but not for TMC. Overall, the results indicate the suitability of TMC as an alternative, environmentally safer UV filter.

Maternal Effect of Polyethylene Microplastic Fragments Containing Benzophenone-3 in Different Ages and Broods of Daphnia Magna

The maternal effect of microplastics (MPs) toxicity is likely influenced by age and brood of test species. This study investigated the maternal effect of polyethylene MP fragments (18.23 ± 8.02 μm) with benzophenone-3 (BP-3; 2.89 ± 0.20% w/w) on chronic toxicity to Daphnia magna over two generations. Neonate (< 24 h old) and adult (5 d old) daphnids in the F0 generation were exposed until 21 d old, then first and third brood neonates in the F1 generation were recovered in clean M4 medium for 21 d. Higher chronic toxicity and maternal effect of MP/BP-3 fragments were observed in the adult group compared with the neonate group, reducing growth and reproduction in both F0 and F1 generations. First brood neonates in the F1 generation showed a higher maternal effect of MP/BP-3 fragments than third brood ones, resulting in enhanced growth and reproduction relative to the control. This study provided insights into the ecological risk of MPs containing plastic additives in the natural environment.

Microplastics enhance the toxicity and phototoxicity of UV filter avobenzone on Daphnia magna

Microplastics (MPs) and ultraviolet (UV) filters cause pollution in aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, regulations on the use and discharge of UV filters in personal care products are lacking. Therefore, the combined toxicity of MPs (virgin polystyrene (PS) spheres; size: 200 nm) and avobenzone (AVO; a UV filter) on Daphnia magna were assessed. The exposure groups were AVO, AVO + UV irradiation for 6 h [AVO (UV)], AVO with MPs (Mix), and AVO with MPs + UV irradiation for 6 h [Mix (UV)]. The daphnids were exposed to these treatments for 48 h and observed for an additional 6 h. Energy reserves of all treated groups increased compared to that of the control group. Growth in the Mix group was inhibited despite a high food uptake, and food uptake and growth inhibition were validated in the Mix (UV) group. Additionally, the food uptake of the AVO (UV) and Mix (UV) groups decreased during the recovery period, possibly owing to a decrease in the normal feeding ability resulting from an increase in abnormality. These results indicate that the combined toxicity of MPs+AVO can be exacerbated under natural conditions; the complex toxicity should be considered when assessing aquatic environment pollution.

A year-long study of the occurrence and risk of over 140 contaminants of emerging concern in wastewater influent, effluent and receiving waters in the Republic of Ireland

Despite being a developed country in the European Union (EU), knowledge of the nature and extent of contamination of water bodies with contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in Ireland is limited. In this study, >140 CECs including pharmaceuticals, pesticides and personal care products were monitored in monthly samples of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influent, effluent and receiving surface waters at both an urban and a rural location (72 samples in total) in Ireland over a 12-month period in 2018-2019. In total, 58 CECs were detected, including several EU Water Framework Directive Watch List compounds. Of all classes, the highest concentrations were measured for pharmaceuticals across all media, i.e., propranolol in surface waters (134 ng·L^-1), hydrochlorothiazide in effluent (1067 ng·L^-1) and venlafaxine in influent wastewater (8273 ng·L^-1). Overall, high wastewater treatment removal was observed and a further reduction in CEC occurrence and concentration was measured via dilution in the receiving river environment. Lastly, an environmental risk assessment (ERA) was performed using risk quotients (RQ), which revealed that in surface waters, total RQ for all CECs was an order of magnitude lower than in effluents. The majority of CECs in surface waters posed a lower risk except E2 and EE2 which presented a medium risk (RQs of 3.5 and 1.1, respectively) in the rural area. This work represents the most comprehensive CEC monitoring dataset to date for Ireland which allowed for an ERA prioritisation to be performed for the first time.

Efficient removal of persistent and emerging organic pollutants by biosorption using abundant biomass wastes

Persistent and emerging organic pollutants represent a serious and global threat to human health and ecosystems. We describe here a simple, efficient and affordable technology for removing such organic pollutants from aquatic systems. Biosorption process was chosen, meeting these three criteria, and so that biosorbents should be biomass wastes combining the following characteristics: natural, cheap and abundant. Powdered dead roots from invasive alien species (Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Fallopia japonica), and wastes rich in tannins such as coffee grounds and green tea grounds were tested as biosorbents for removing extensively used organic pollutants: organic UV-filters, insecticides and herbicides. The elemental composition and morphology of the biosorbents were fully determined. The biosorption kinetics for each pair of biosorbent/pollutant was described by a pseudo-second order model. Excellent biosorption efficiency was obtained for 10 μM solution of oxybenzone (89 ± 1%), octocrylene (90 ± 2%), lindane (88 ± 0%) and diuron (90 ± 1%) in only 2 h. And total removal of 10 μM of chlordecone (100 ± 0%) could be achieved, which could be of high concern for the population living in chlordecone-contaminated areas. As such pollutants can be found in aquatic ecosystems, an interference study with salts showed that biosorption efficiency remained as efficient in reconstituted seawater. A principal component analysis was performed as an attempt to rationalise the biosorption results. The solubility of the organic pollutants in water and the concentration of tanins in the biosorbents were key parameters.

Mulch film: An overlooked diffuse source of organic ultraviolet absorbers in agricultural soil

Ultraviolet absorbers (UVAs) are emerging pollutants of concern owing to their environmental persistence and endocrine-disrupting effects. UVAs are added to agricultural films to prevent UV-induced degradation, potentially leading to the release of UVAs into the soil. In this study, the occurrence of four frequently used UVAs (UV-324, UV-326, UV-328, and UV-531) in film-mulched agricultural soils (using conventional polyethylene films and biodegradable films) was investigated. Results showed that the UVA concentrations were several orders of magnitude higher in film-mulched soil (mean 91.4 μg/kg) than in unmulched soil (mean 0.08 μg/kg), indicating that mulch films are important sources of UVAs released into agricultural soil. Notably, the mean UVA concentration was up to 10 times higher in biodegradable-film-mulched soils than in polyethylene (PE) film-mulched soils; this result is consistent with our finding that the mean UVA concentration was 448 times higher in commercial biodegradable films than in PE films. In simulated migration experiments, UVAs migrated more readily into the soil from the biodegradable film than from the PE film. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that the use of mulch films may cause the accumulation of UVAs in agricultural soils as non-point sources. In particular, biodegradable plastic mulches can release more UVAs into soils.