Fusariotoxin transfer in animal

Dihydroartemisinin alleviates deoxynivalenol induced liver apoptosis and inflammation in piglets

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the mycotoxins that contaminate cereals and feed, thereby endangering human and animal health. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a derivative of artemisinin, has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions in addition to anti-malaria and anti-cancer. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of DHA on alleviating liver apoptosis and inflammation induced by DON in piglets. The experimental design followed a 2 (normal diet and DON-contaminated diet) × 2 (with and without supplementation of DHA) factorial arrangement. 36 weaned piglets were subjected to a 21-day experiment. Results showed that DON increased ALT activity, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-2, and reduced the levels of total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) in the serum. However, DHA decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-2, and increased the levels of TP and ALB. Also, DON decreased glutathione (GSH) content and catalase (CAT) activity, and increased methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) content. But GSH content was increased by DHA. In addition, DHA decreased DON-induced increase in apoptosis rate of hepatocytes. Furthermore, DON activated death receptor pathway to promote apoptosis by up-regulating the protein expression of FasL and caspase-3, and the mRNA expression of FasL, TNFR1, caspase-8, Bid, Bax, CYC and caspase-3. However, DHA reduced caspase-3 protein expression, as well as the mRNA expression of FADD, Bid, Bax, CYC and caspase-3. Besides, DON also activated TNF/NF-κB pathway to induce an inflammatory response by up-regulating TNF-α protein expression, and the mRNA expression of TNFR1, RIP1, IKKβ, IκBα, IL-1β and IL-8. Nevertheless, DHA reduced the mRNA expression of RIP1, IκBα, NF-κB, IL-1β and IL-6, and the protein expression of TNF-α and NF-κB. In conclusion, DHA improved DON-induced negative effects on serum biochemical parameters and inflammatory cytokine levels, hepatic antioxidant capacity, hepatic apoptosis and inflammation.

Multi-mycotoxin occurrence in feed, metabolism and carry-over to animal-derived food products: A review

The world requests for raw materials used in animal feed has been steadily rising in the last years driven by higher demands for livestock production. Mycotoxins are frequent toxic metabolites present in these raw materials. The exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins could result in undesirable residues in animal-derived food products. Thus, the potential ingestion of edible animal products (milk, meat and fish) contaminated with mycotoxins constitutes a public health concern, since they enter the food chain and may cause adverse effects upon human health. The present review summarizes the state-of-the-art on the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed, their metabolism and carry-over into animal source foodstuffs, focusing particularly on the last decade. Maximum levels (MLs) for various mycotoxins have been established for a number of raw feed materials and animal food products. Such values are sometimes exceeded, however. Aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCs) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed, with aflatoxin M₁ (AFM1) predominating in milk and dairy products, and OTA in meat by-products. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed raw materials tends to be the rule rather than the exception, and the carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to animal source foods is more than proven.

Food-Origin Mycotoxin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Intend to Break the Rules of Neuroglia Cells

Mycotoxins are key risk factors in human food and animal feed. Most of food-origin mycotoxins could easily enter the organism and evoke systemic toxic effects, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA). For the last decade, the researches have provided much evidences in vivo and in vitro that the brain is an important target organ on mycotoxin-mediated neurotoxic phenomenon and neurodegenerative diseases. As is known to all, glial cells are the best regulator and defender of neurons, and a few evaluations about the effects of mycotoxins on glial cells such as astrocytes or microglia have been conducted. The fact that mycotoxin contamination may be a key factor in neurotoxicity and glial dysfunction is exactly the reason why we reviewed the activation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial function changes of glial cells under mycotoxin infection and summarized the mycotoxin-mediated glial cell proliferation disorders, death pathways, and inflammatory responses. The purpose of this paper is to analyze various pathways in which common food-derived mycotoxins can induce glial toxicity and provide a novel perspective for future research on the neurodegenerative diseases.

Zearalenone and the Immune Response

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic fusariotoxin, being classified as a phytoestrogen, or as a mycoestrogen. ZEA and its metabolites are able to bind to estrogen receptors, 17β-estradiol specific receptors, leading to reproductive disorders which include low fertility, abnormal fetal development, reduced litter size and modification at the level of reproductive hormones especially in female pigs. ZEA has also significant effects on immune response with immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive results. This review presents the effects of ZEA and its derivatives on all levels of the immune response such as innate immunity with its principal component inflammatory response as well as the acquired immunity with two components, humoral and cellular immune response. The mechanisms involved by ZEA in triggering its effects are addressed. The review cited more than 150 publications and discuss the results obtained from in vitro and in vivo experiments exploring the immunotoxicity produced by ZEA on different type of immune cells (phagocytes related to innate immunity and lymphocytes related to acquired immunity) as well as on immune organs. The review indicates that despite the increasing number of studies analyzing the mechanisms used by ZEA to modulate the immune response the available data are unsubstantial and needs further works.

Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on the Histology and Ultrastructure of Pig Liver

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of single and combined administrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) on the histology and ultrastructure of pig liver. The study was performed on immature gilts, which were divided into four equal groups. Animals in the experimental groups received DON at a dose of 12 μg/kg body weight (BW) per day, ZEN at 40 μg/kg BW per day, or a mixture of DON (12 μg/kg BW per day) and ZEN (40 μg/kg BW). The control group received vehicle. The animals were killed after 1, 3, and 6 weeks of experiment. Treatment with mycotoxins resulted in several changes in liver histology and ultrastructure, including: (1) an increase in the thickness of the perilobular connective tissue and its penetration to the lobules in gilts receiving DON and DON + ZEN; (2) an increase in the total microscopic liver score (histology activity index (HAI)) in pigs receiving DON and DON + ZEN; (3) dilatation of hepatic sinusoids in pigs receiving ZEN, DON and DON + ZEN; (4) temporary changes in glycogen content in all experimental groups; (5) an increase in iron accumulation in the hepatocytes of gilts treated with ZEN and DON + ZEN; (6) changes in endoplasmic reticulum organization in the hepatocytes of pigs receiving toxins; (7) changes in morphology of Browicz-Kupffer cells after treatment with ZEN, DON, and DON + ZEN. The results show that low doses of mycotoxins used in the present study, even when applied for a short period, affected liver morphology.

Individual and combined mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and fusarenon-X induced apoptosis in lymphoid tissues of mice after oral exposure

Lymphocytes are involved in the adaptive immune response and are highly sensitive to type B trichothecenes. In grains and their products, deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most widely distributed trichothecene. It usually co-occurs with other type B members, such as nivalenol (NIV) and fusarenon-X (FX), because they are all produced by the same Fusarium fungi. However, the combined effects of mycotoxins are complex and cannot be predicted based on individual toxicity. Thus, the adverse effects of combined toxins are of increasing concern. The aim of this study was to compare the toxicity to lymphoid tissues of mice of DON alone or mixed with NIV or FX. Forty, 3-week-old male ICR mice were given a single oral administration of a vehicle control, one toxin, binary, or ternary mixtures and then sacrificed at 12 h after exposure. Mice treated with FX alone showed marked nuclear condensation and fragmentation of lymphocytes in the cortical thymus and germinal center of Peyer's patches and spleen. Similarly, these animals clearly displayed TUNEL- and Caspase-3-positive cells in the regions. In contrast, minimal changes were noticed in the lymphoid tissues of mice receiving combined toxins when compared to this toxin alone. In addition, oral exposure to FX alone significantly up-regulated the relative expression of Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, and Trp53. These data increase our understanding of the toxic actions of DON, NIV, and FX alone or in combination to lymphocytes and can be used to assess the possible risk associated with their co-occurrences in foodstuffs to human and animal health.

Mycotoxins in food and feed

Mycotoxins represent secondary fungal metabolites not essential to the normal growth and reproduction of a fungus, but capable of causing biochemical, physiological and pathological changes in many species. Harmful effects of mycotoxins observed in humans and animals include carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, immune toxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, indigestion and so forth. These substances can be found in a variety of very important agricultural and food products, primarily dependent of product moisture content, and its water activity, relative air humidity, temperature, pH value, composition of the food matrix, the degree of its physical damage, and the presence of mold spores. Given that industrial processing has no significant effect on their reduction and in order to be able to vouch for the absence of mycotoxins, it is necessary to process foodstuffs under standardized and well-controlled conditions and to control each and every loop of the food production and storage chain. Preventative measures capable of reducing the contamination to the minimum must be in place and should be exercised by all means. In case that contamination does happen, methods for mycotoxin reduction or elimination should be implemented in dependence on a number of parameters such as properties of food or feed. Further research is needed in order to identify conditions that facilitate the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi and develop effective preventative measures that can reduce contamination of food and feed as also to recognize possible synergistic effects of different mycotoxins in organism.

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.

Deoxynivalenol in wheat, maize, wheat flour and pasta: surveys in Hungary in 2008-2015

Among Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most common contaminant in case of cereals and cereal-based foods in Hungary. In this study, Hungarian wheat (n = 305), maize (n = 108), wheat flour (n = 179) and pasta (n = 226) samples were analysed (N = 818). The samples were collected during 2008-2015 in Hungary. Applied methods of analysis were enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and liquid-chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer. Results were compared and evaluated with Hungarian weather data. Among cereal samples, in 2011, wheat was contaminated with DON (overall average ± standard deviation was 2159 ± 2818 µg kg^-1), which was above the maximum limit (ML). In case of wheat flour and pasta, no average values above ML were found during 2008-2015, but higher DON contamination could be observed in 2011 as well (wheat flour: 537 ± 573 µg kg^-1; pasta: 511 ± 175 µg kg^-1).

Aflatoxins and Saccharomyces cerevisiae: yeast modulates the intestinal effect of aflatoxins, while aflatoxin B1 influences yeast ultrastructure

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is the main site where absorption of food components takes place and the first system coming into contact with mycotoxins of dietary origin. The aim of this work was to study the effect of probiotic Saccharomyces cerevisiae RC016 on intestinal villi of rats exposed to aflatoxins for 60 days. Moreover, the effect of in vitro aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure on yeast cell ultrastructure was evaluated. Six treatments were applied (n=6) to inbred male Wistar rats: (1) uncontaminated feed control (F); (2) yeast control; (3) F + 40 μg/kg AFB1 + 20 μg/kg aflatoxin G1 (AFG1); (4) F + 100 μg/kg AFB1 + 50 μg/kg AFG1; (5) F + 40 μg/kg AFB1 + 20 μg/kg AFG1 + daily oral dose 108 viable S. cerevisiae cells; and (6) F + 100 μg/kg AFB1 + 50 μg/kg AFG1 + daily oral dose 108 viable S. cerevisiae cells. Morphometric measurements (villus length and width, crypt depth, quantification of goblet cells) were assessed using image analysis. S. cerevisiae RC016 cells were exposed to 20 μg/ml of AFB1 in intestinal solutions or in phosphate buffered saline and cells processed for transmission electron microscopy and high resolution light microscopy studies. Dietary exposure to the yeast did not induce significant differences in villus width but increased villus length and crypt depth. Aflatoxin-contaminated diets induced an increase in villus length, width and crypt depth and a significant decrease in the number of goblet cells which were improved by the addition of S. cerevisiae RC016. A significant increase in the yeast cell diameter was observed when RC016 was exposed to aflatoxins, suggesting this as an advantage since a larger cell would be able to adsorb mycotoxins more efficiently. The ability of this strain to act as probiotic and aflatoxin binder makes it a candidate for the formulation of new additives to improve animal performance.

An overview of the toxicology and toxicokinetics of fusarenon-X, a type B trichothecene mycotoxin

Fusarenon-X (FX) is a type B trichothecene mycotoxin that is frequently observed along with deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) in agricultural commodities. This review aims to give an overview of the literature concerning the toxicology and toxicokinetics of FX. FX is primarily found in cereals grown in temperate regions, but it can also be found worldwide because of the global transport of products. The major toxicity of FX occurs through inhibition of protein synthesis, followed by the disruption of DNA synthesis. Moreover, FX has also been shown to induce apoptosis in in vitro and in vivo studies. The targets of FX are organs containing actively proliferating cells, such as the thymus, spleen, skin, small intestine, testes and bone marrow. FX causes immunosuppression, intestinal malabsorption, developmental toxicity and genotoxicity. In addition, sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals is currently lacking, and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies it as a group 3 carcinogen.

Activity of Zearalenone in the Porcine Intestinal Tract

This study demonstrates that low doses (somewhat above the No Observed Adverse Effect Level, NOAEL) of the mycoestrogen zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites display multispecificity towards various biological targets in gilts. The observed responses in gilts were surprising. The presence of ZEN and zearalenols (ZELs) did not evoke a response in the porcine gastrointestinal tract, which was attributed to dietary tolerance. Lymphocyte proliferation was intensified in jejunal mesenteric lymph nodes, and lymphocyte counts increased in the jejunal epithelium with time of exposure. In the distal digestive tract, fecal bacterial counts decreased, the activity of fecal bacterial enzymes and lactic acid bacteria increased, and cecal water was characterized by higher genotoxicity. The accompanying hyperestrogenism led to changes in mRNA activity of selected enzymes (cytochrome P450, hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, nitric oxide synthases) and receptors (estrogen and progesterone receptors), and it stimulated post-translational modifications which play an important role in non-genomic mechanisms of signal transmission. Hyperestrogenism influences the regulation of the host's steroid hormones (estron, estradiol and progesteron), it affects the virulence of bacterial genes encoding bacterial hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (HSDs), and it participates in detoxification processes by slowing down intestinal activity, provoking energy deficits and promoting antiporter activity at the level of enterocytes. In most cases, hyperestrogenism fulfils all of the above roles. The results of this study indicate that low doses of ZEN alleviate inflammatory processes in the digestive system, in particular in the proximal and distal intestinal tract, and increase body weight gains in gilts.

Histological structure of duodenum in gilts receiving low doses of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in feed

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), produced by microfungi of the Fusarium family, are among the most commonly occurring mycotoxins. They are considered important factors affecting human and animal health as well as livestock productivity. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of low doses of these mycotoxins on the histological structure of the pig duodenum. The study was performed on 72 gilts, with initial weights of approximately 25kg, divided into 4 equal groups. Group I received per os ZEN (40μg/kg BW), group II-DON (12μg/kg BW), group III-ZEN (40μg/kg BW) and DON (12μg/kg BW), and group IV-vehicle. The pigs were killed after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 weeks of the treatment, and the duodenum samples were prepared for histological investigations. The slides were digitalized and subjected to morphometrical analysis. The treatment with DON and ZEN did not change the architecture of the mucosa or the ratio between goblet and adsorptive cells in the epithelium. The administration of DON induced an increase in the number of lymphocytes in the mucosal epithelium. Both mycotoxins, administered alone or together, increased the quantity of lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages with black-brown granules in the lamina propria. The time-courses of changes in the number of defense system cells evoked by DON and ZEN were different. In conclusion, dietary exposure to low doses of Fusarium mycotoxins should be considered an important risk factor for subclinical inflammation in the small intestine.

The effects of low doses of two Fusarium toxins, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol, on the pig jejunum. A light and electron microscopic study

Immature gilts were administered per os with zearalenone (ZEN) at 40 μg/kg BW (group Z, n = 9), deoxynivalenol (DON) at 12 μg/kg BW (group D, n = 9), a mixture of ZEN and DON (group M, n = 9) or a placebo (group C, n = 9) over a period of six weeks. The pigs were sacrificed after one, three, or six weeks of the treatment (12 pigs per each time-point). Histological investigations revealed an increase in the mucosal thickness and the crypt depth as well as a decrease in the ratio of the villus height to the crypt depth in groups D and M after six weeks of exposure to the mycotoxins. The number of goblet cells in the villus epithelium was elevated in groups Z and M after one week and in group D after three weeks. The administration of ZEN increased the lymphocyte number in the villus epithelium after 1 week and the plasma cell quantity in the lamina propria after one, three, and six weeks of the experiment. DON treatment resulted in an increase in the lymphocyte number in the villus epithelium and the lamina propria after six weeks, and in the plasma cell quantity in the lamina propria after one, three, and six weeks of exposure. In group M, lymphocyte counts in the epithelium and the lamina propria increased significantly after six weeks. Neither mycotoxin induced significant adverse changes in the ultrastructure of the mucosal epithelium and the lamina propria or in the intestinal barrier permeability. Our results indicate that immune cells are the principal target of low doses of ZEN and DON.

Preliminary estimation of deoxynivalenol excretion through a 24 h pilot study

A duplicate diet study was designed to explore the occurrence of 15 Fusarium mycotoxins in the 24 h-diet consumed by one volunteer as well as the levels of mycotoxins in his 24 h-collected urine. The employed methodology involved solvent extraction at high ionic strength followed by dispersive solid phase extraction and gas chromatography determination coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. Satisfactory results in method performance were achieved. The method’s accuracy was in a range of 68%–108%, with intra-day relative standard deviation and inter-day relative standard deviation lower than 12% and 15%, respectively. The limits of quantitation ranged from 0.1 to 8 µg/Kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and matrix-matched calibrations were used for quantitation. Only deoxynivalenol (DON) was quantified in both food and urine samples. A total DON daily intake amounted to 49.2 ± 5.6 µg whereas DON daily excretion of 35.2 ± 4.3 µg was determined. DON daily intake represented 68.3% of the established DON provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Valuable preliminary information was obtained as regards DON excretion and needs to be confirmed in large-scale monitoring studies.

Modulation of intestinal functions following mycotoxin ingestion: meta-analysis of published experiments in animals

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that can cause serious health problems in animals, and may result in severe economic losses. Deleterious effects of these feed contaminants in animals are well documented, ranging from growth impairment, decreased resistance to pathogens, hepato- and nephrotoxicity to death. By contrast, data with regard to their impact on intestinal functions are more limited. However, intestinal cells are the first cells to be exposed to mycotoxins, and often at higher concentrations than other tissues. In addition, mycotoxins specifically target high protein turnover- and activated-cells, which are predominant in gut epithelium. Therefore, intestinal investigations have gained significant interest over the last decade, and some publications have demonstrated that mycotoxins are able to compromise several key functions of the gastrointestinal tract, including decreased surface area available for nutrient absorption, modulation of nutrient transporters, or loss of barrier function. In addition some mycotoxins facilitate persistence of intestinal pathogens and potentiate intestinal inflammation. By contrast, the effect of these fungal metabolites on the intestinal microbiota is largely unknown. This review focuses on mycotoxins which are of concern in terms of occurrence and toxicity, namely: aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and Fusarium toxins. Results from nearly 100 published experiments (in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo) were analyzed with a special attention to the doses used.

Mycotoxins in the environment: II. Occurrence and origin in Swiss river waters

Thirty-three different mycotoxins were surveyed over nearly two years in a typical Swiss wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), as well as in Swiss midland rivers. Out of these, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and beauvericin (BEA), were detected. DON was quantified in all WWTP effluent grab samples with a maximum concentration of 73.4 ng/L, while the lowest concentration was observed for BEA with 1.3 ng/L. NIV was detected in about 37%, the other three compounds in 9-36% of the weekly or fortnightly integrated flow proportional river water samples. Concentrations were river discharge dependent, with higher numbers in smaller rivers, but mostly in the very low ng/L-range, with a maximum of 24.1, and 19.0 ng/L for NIV and DON, respectively. While NIV and DON prevailed in summer and autumn, BEA occurred mostly during winter. Summer and autumn seasonal load fractions were, however, not correlating with other river basin parameters indicative of the probably most obvious seasonal input source, that is, Fusarium graminearum infected wheat crop areas. Nevertheless, together with WWTP effluents, these two sources largely explained the loads of mycotoxins quantified in river waters. The ecotoxicological relevance of mycotoxins as newly identified aquatic micropollutants has yet to be assessed.

Co-exposure of Fusarium mycotoxins: in vitro myelotoxicity assessment on human hematopoietic progenitors

Mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin B (ENB), fumonisin B1 (FB1), T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEA) can co-occur in food commodities. This aim of this study was to assess the myelotoxicity of these mycotoxins in couple using in vitro human granulo-monocytic (Colony Forming Unit-Granulocyte and Macrophage, CFU-GM) hematopoietic progenitors. Clonogenic assays have been performed in the presence of the following couples of fusariotoxins: DON + BEA, DON + FB1, DON + T-2, DON + ZEA, T-2 + ZEA and BEA + ENB. Co-exposure of human CFU-GM to DON + BEA resulted in synergic myelotoxic effects. The combination of DON + T-2 presented additive or synergic myelotoxic effects. The couples DON + ZEA, T-2 + ZEA and BEA + ENB had additive myelotoxic effects, while the combination of DON + FB1 showed antagonist myelotoxic effects. These in vitro results suggested that the simultaneous presence of mycotoxins in food commodities and diet may be more myelotoxic than the presence of one mycotoxin alone. Diminution of hematopoietic progenitors could give rise to a decrease number of mature blood cells, inducing agranulocytosis and/or thrombocytopenia and in severe cases aplastic anemia.

Identification and apoptotic potential of T-2 toxin metabolites in human cells

The mycotoxin T-2 toxin, produced by various Fusarium species, is a widespread contaminant of grain and grain products. Knowledge about its toxicity and metabolism in the human body is crucial for any risk assessment as T-2 toxin can be detected in processed and unprocessed food samples. Cell culture studies using cells of human origin represent a potent model system to study the metabolic fate of T-2 toxin as well as the cytotoxicity in vitro. In this study the metabolism of T-2 toxin was analyzed in a cell line derived from human colon carcinoma cells (HT-29) and primary human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (RPTEC) using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Fourier transformation mass spectrometry (HPLC-FTMS). Both cell types metabolized T-2 toxin to a variety of compounds. Furthermore, cell cycle analysis in RPTEC proved the apoptotic effect of T-2 toxin and its metabolites HT-2 toxin and neosolaniol in micromolar concentrations.

T-2 toxin induced Salmonella Typhimurium intoxication results in decreased Salmonella numbers in the cecum contents of pigs, despite marked effects on Salmonella-host cell interactions

The mycotoxin T-2 toxin and Salmonella Typhimurium infections pose a significant threat to human and animal health. Interactions between both agents may result in a different outcome of the infection. Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to investigate the effects of low and relevant concentrations of T-2 toxin on the course of a Salmonella Typhimurium infection in pigs. We showed that the presence of 15 and 83 μg T-2 toxin per kg feed significantly decreased the amount of Salmonella Typhimurium bacteria present in the cecum contents, and a tendency to a reduced colonization of the jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon and colon contents was noticed. In vitro, proteomic analysis of porcine enterocytes revealed that a very low concentration of T-2 toxin (5 ng/mL) affects the protein expression of mitochondrial, endoplasmatic reticulum and cytoskeleton associated proteins, proteins involved in protein synthesis and folding, RNA synthesis, mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and regulatory processes. Similarly low concentrations (1-100 ng/mL) promoted the susceptibility of porcine macrophages and intestinal epithelial cells to Salmonella Typhimurium invasion, in a SPI-1 independent manner. Furthermore, T-2 toxin (1-5 ng/mL) promoted the translocation of Salmonella Typhimurium over an intestinal porcine epithelial cell monolayer. Although these findings may seem in favour of Salmonella Typhimurium, microarray analysis showed that T-2 toxin (5 ng/mL) causes an intoxication of Salmonella Typhimurium, represented by a reduced motility and a downregulation of metabolic and Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 1 genes. This study demonstrates marked interactions of T-2 toxin with Salmonella Typhimurium pathogenesis, resulting in bacterial intoxication.

In vivo effects of zearalenone on the expression of proteins involved in the detoxification of rat xenobiotics

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a lactone derivative of the resorcylic acid produced by various Fusarium species that are widely found in foods and animal feeds. ZEN exerts species-specific estrogenic effects, possibly because of the metabolism differences arising from reduction, hydroxylation, or glucuro-conjugation. The main objective of this study was to determine the levels of expression of rat proteins that are involved in the ZEN detoxification pathway upon acute ZEN treatment. This was achieved by monitoring the mRNA associated with 25 genes using RT-PCR upon ZEN uptake. These genes code for a variety of proteins that are involved in cellular detoxifying pathways, transporters, cytochromes P450 (CYPs), hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, and transferases, and receptors that are involved in CYP expression or steroid metabolism. Liver samples from rats treated with ZEN were compared to untreated rats or animals treated with classical CYP inducers (phenobarbital, dexamethasone, β-naphtoflavone, and clofibrate). Significant changes of mRNA expression were observed for the efflux transporter, P-glycoprotein, monooxygenases (CYP2C7, CYP2E1, CYP3A1, CYP3A2, and aromatase), steroid dehydrogenases, and Uridine diphospho-glucuronyl transferases (UGTs). Following a single ZEN treatment, the initial modifications in mRNA levels indicate a close association with microsomal enzyme activity of the CYP2B, CYP2C, and CYP3A protein families.

Determination of zearalenone and its metabolites in endometrial cancer by coupled separation techniques

This study presents a selective method of isolation of zearalenone (ZON) and its metabolite, α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), in neoplastically changed human tissue by accelerated solvent and ultrasonic extractions using a mixture of acetonitrile/water (84/16% v/v) as the extraction solvent. Extraction effectiveness was determined through the selection of parameters (composition of the solvent mixture, temperature, pressure, number of cycles) with tissue contamination at the level of nanograms per gram. The produced acetonitrile/water extracts were purified, and analytes were enriched in columns packed with homemade molecularly imprinted polymers. Purified extracts were determined by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with different detection systems (diode array detection - DAD and mass spectrometry - MS) involving the Ascentis RP-Amide as a stationary phase and gradient elution. The combination of UE-MISPE-LC (ultrasonic extraction - molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction - liquid chromatography) produced high (R ≈ 95–98%) and repeatable (RSD < 3%) recovery values for ZON and α-ZOL.

Some food-associated mycotoxins as potential risk factors in humans predisposed to chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites able to affect the functions of numerous tissues and organs in animals and humans, including intestinal and immune systems. However, the potential link between exposure to some mycotoxins and human chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases, such as celiac and Crohn's diseases or ulcerative colitis, has not been investigated. Instead, several theories based on bacterial, immunological or neurological events have been elaborated to explain the etiology of these pathologies. Here we reviewed the literature on mycotoxin-induced intestinal dysfunctions and compared these perturbations to the impairments of intestinal functions typically observed in human chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases. Converging evidence based on various cellular and animal studies show that several mycotoxins induce intestinal alterations that are similar to those observed at the onset and during the progression of inflammatory bowel diseases. Although epidemiologic evidence is still required, existing data are sufficient to suspect a role of some food-associated mycotoxins in the induction and/or persistence of human chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases in genetically predisposed patients.

Development of a new HPLC method used for determination of zearalenone and its metabolites in broiler samples. Influence of zearalenone on the nutritional properties of broiler meat

This paper presents the development, optimization and validation of a new HPLC method used for the separation and determination of zearalenone, ZON, and its metabolites in biological samples of Leghorn broiler. ZON and its metabolites can be separated with good resolution in 11 min, using a Hypersil Gold C18 column, a mobile phase mixture of 50 mM aqueous ammonium acetate:acetonitrile:methanol, 45:8:47 (v/v/v), flow rate 1 mL/min and column temperature 40 degrees C. Based on the results obtained by this method applied on biological samples one can conclude that liver is the site for zearalenone localization and detoxification. Influence of zearalenone on the nutritional properties of broiler meat (weight variation, gross chemical composition, fatty acids profile of the meat) was studied, also. Results obtained during 4 days of treatment with ZON showed minimal or no effects of the dietary zearalenone on broiler meat nutritional quality.

Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: An oestrogenic mycotoxin

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced mainly by fungi belonging to the genus Fusarium in foods and feeds. It is frequently implicated in reproductive disorders of farm animals and occasionally in hyperoestrogenic syndromes in humans. There is evidence that ZEA and its metabolites possess oestrogenic activity in pigs, cattle and sheep. However, ZEA is of a relatively low acute toxicity after oral or interperitoneal administration in mice, rat and pig. The biotransformation for ZEA in animals involves the formation of two metabolites alpha-zearalenol (alpha-ZEA) and beta-zearalenol (beta-ZEA) which are subsequently conjugated with glucuronic acid. Moreover, ZEA has also been shown to be hepatotoxic, haematotoxic, immunotoxic and genotoxic. The exact mechanism of ZEA toxicity is not completely established. This paper gives an overview about the acute, subacute and chronic toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity and immunotoxicity of ZEA and its metabolites. ZEA is commonly found on several foods and feeds in the temperate regions of Europe, Africa, Asia, America and Oceania. Recent data about the worldwide contamination of foods and feeds by ZEA are considered in this review. Due to economic losses engendered by ZEA and its impact on human and animal health, several strategies for detoxifying contaminated foods and feeds have been described in the literature including physical, chemical and biological process. Dietary intakes of ZEA were reported from few countries from the world. The mean dietary intakes for ZEA have been estimated at 20 ng/kgb.w./day for Canada, Denmark and Norway and at 30 ng/kgb.w./day for the USA. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for ZEA of 0.5 microg/kg of body weight.