Atractylenolide III, a sesquiterpenoid, induces apoptosis in human lung carcinoma A549 cells via mitochondria-mediated death pathway

*The traditional Chinese medicine processing change chemical composition and pharmacological effectiveness: Taking Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. and honey bran-fried Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. as examples

BACKGROUND

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (Baizhu in Chinese, BZ) is a typical traditional edible-medicinal herb used for thousands of years. Known as "the spleen-reinforcing medicine", it is often used clinically to treat reduced digestive function, abdominal distension, and diarrhoea, which are all caused by spleen deficiency. Among BZ's processing products, honey bran-fried BZ (HBBZ) is the only processed product recorded in BZ in the 2020 Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP). There are differences in effectiveness, traditional application, and clinical indications between them.

PURPOSE

This review reviewed BZ and its main product HBBZ from botany, ethnopharmacology, chemical composition, pharmacological effectiveness, and safety. The changes in chemical composition and pharmacological effectiveness of BZ induced by the processing of traditional Chinese medicine were emphatically described.

METHODS

Keywords related to Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz., honey bran frying, essential oil, lactones, polysaccharide and combinations to include published studies of BZ and HBBZ from 2004-2023 were searched in the following databases: Pubmed, Chengdu University of TCM Library, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang database. All studies, published in English or Chinese, were included. However, in the process of chemical composition collection, we reviewed all available literature on the chemical composition of BZ and HBBZ.

CONCLUSION

Honey bran frying processing methods will affect BZ's chemical composition and pharmacological effectiveness. The types and contents of chemical components in the HBBZ showed some changes compared with those in BZ. For example, the content of volatile oil decreased and the content of lactones increased after stir-fried bran. In addition, new ingredients such as phenylacetaldehyde, 2-acetyl pyrrole, 6- (1,1-dimethylethyl) -3,4-dihydro-1 (2H) -naphthalone and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural appeared. Both BZ and HBBZ have a variety of pharmacological effectiveness. After stir-fried with honey bran, the "Zao Xing" is reduced, and the efficacy of tonify spleen is strengthened, which is more suitable for patients with weak spleen and stomach.

Atractylodes macrocephala III suppresses EMT in cervical cancer by regulating IGF2BP3 through ETV5

Atractylodes macrocephala III (ATL III), with anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects, is the main compound of Atractylodes macrocephala. Whether ATL III has an effect on cervical cancer and the specific mechanism are still unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of ATL III on cervical cancer cells at different concentrations and found that ATL III downregulates insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 3 (IGF2BP3), which was found to be highly expressed in cervical cancer tissue by RNA-Seq. In this study, we found that ATL III promotes apoptosis and regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in cervical cancer cells (HeLa and SiHa cells) and that IGF2BP3 is a common target gene of ATL III in HeLa and SiHa cells. The expression level of IGF2BP3 in cervical cancer cells was proportional to their migration and invasion abilities. This was verified by transfection of cells with a small interfering RNA and an IGF2BP3 overexpression plasmid. After ATL III treatment, the migration and invasion abilities of cervical cancer cells were obviously reduced, but these effects were attenuated after overexpression of IGF2BP3. In addition, the transcription factor IGF2BP3 was predicted by the JASPAR system. After intersection with our sequencing results, we verified the promotional effect of ETV5 (ETS translocation variant 5) on IGF2BP3 and found that ALT III inhibited ETV5. In general, our research showed that ATL III inhibits the migration and invasion of cervical cancer cells by regulating IGF2BP3 through ETV5.

Atractylodes lancea volatile oils target ADAR2-miR-181a-5p signaling to mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenic differentiation

Atractylodeslancea Rhizoma (Rhizoma atractylodis [RA]) has long been recommended for the treatment of arthritis in traditional Chinese medicine, but its mechanism of action is still unclear. RA contains a large amount of Atractylodes lancea volatile oils (Atr). In this study, we investigated whether Atr can promote mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) chondrogenic differentiation. The Atr were extracted from RA by steam distillation method, and the effect of Atr on MSCs was detected by the CCK8 assay. The optimal concentration of Atr for MSCs cultivation was 3 μg/ml. The differentially expressed miR-181a-5p was screened by miRNA microarray assay, and its mimics and inhibitors were transfected into MSCs. It was found that the inhibitor of miR-181a-5p could upregulate cartilage-specific genes such as SOX9, COL2A1, and ACAN. Meanwhile, we also found that the expression of gene editing enzyme ADAR2 was significantly increased in the chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs induced by Atr, and the bases of precursor sequence of miR-181a-5p were changed from A to G. After ADAR2 deletion, the expression of cartilage-specific genes was significantly down-regulated and the precursor sequence bases of miR-181a-5p were not changed. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the predicted target gene of miR-181a-5p was yingyang1 (YY1), and the targeting relationship was verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay. After deleting YY1, the expression of cartilage-specific genes was significantly down-regulated. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that Atr can promote chondrogenic differentiation of MSC through regulation of the ADAR2-miR-181a-5p signaling pathway. This may provide a new insight into the possible mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine (Atr) in treating inflammatory joint diseases.

Chemical Constitution, Pharmacological Effects and the Underlying Mechanism of Atractylenolides: A Review

Atractylenolides, comprising atractylenolide I, II, and III, represent the principal bioactive constituents of Atractylodes macrocephala, a traditional Chinese medicine. These compounds exhibit a diverse array of pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and organ-protective effects, underscoring their potential for future research and development. Recent investigations have demonstrated that the anti-cancer activity of the three atractylenolides can be attributed to their influence on the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. Additionally, the TLR4/NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK signaling pathways primarily mediate the anti-inflammatory effects of these compounds. Atractylenolides can protect multiple organs by modulating oxidative stress, attenuating the inflammatory response, activating anti-apoptotic signaling pathways, and inhibiting cell apoptosis. These protective effects extend to the heart, liver, lung, kidney, stomach, intestine, and nervous system. Consequently, atractylenolides may emerge as clinically relevant multi-organ protective agents in the future. Notably, the pharmacological activities of the three atractylenolides differ. Atractylenolide I and III demonstrate potent anti-inflammatory and organ-protective properties, whereas the effects of atractylenolide II are infrequently reported. This review systematically examines the literature on atractylenolides published in recent years, with a primary emphasis on their pharmacological properties, in order to inform future development and application efforts.

New substances of Equisetum hyemale L. extracts and their in vivo antitumoral effect against oral squamous cell carcinoma

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

Equisetum hyemale is used in traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, diuretic and anticancer agent. Recent studies have observed antiproliferative activity of this species in some tumor cell lines.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antiproliferative activity of the ethanol extract of E. hyemale and its partitions in oral squamous carcinoma cell lines, the death pathways induced by the most active partition, the acute toxicity and therapeutic activity, and the identification of the main compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethanol crude extract was prepared from the stems of E. hyemale and partitions were obtained from this extract with n-hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate. Cytotoxicity assays were performed using MTT on human oral tumor lines SCC-9, SCC4 and SCC-25, and normal primary fibroblasts. The main pathways of programmed cell death were analyzed. Acute toxicity in mice was performed using the most active partition, ethyl acetate. Antitumor activity was accessed in xenotransplants grafts of SCC-9 cells in Balb/nude mice. Phytochemical analysis was performed using UHPLC-MS/MS and dereplication was done using Global Natural Product Social Molecular Networking (GNPS) analysis.

RESULTS

Ethanol extract, n-hexane and ethyl acetate partitions showed dose-dependent activity and selectivity towards oral tumor cells, with the ethyl acetate being the most bioactive. This medium polarity partition was shown to induce tumor cell death through apoptosis due to the presence of activated caspase 3/7, DNA fragmentation, chromatin condensation and phosphatidylserine exposure. The ethyl acetate partition also produced low toxicity in mice, provoking mild hepatic changes, but without causing necrosis and significantly reduced tumors volume and weight in xenotransplants of SCC-9 cells. Phytochemical analysis allowed identification of kaempferol glycosides and cinnamic acid derivatives previously described for E. hyemale. In addition it was possible to identify 6 new non-glycolyzed flavonoids 5-Hydroxy-3',4',7,8-tetramethoxyflavone (14), 5,4'-Dihydroxy-7,8,3'-trimethoxyflavone (15), 5,7-Dihydroxy-3',4'-dimethoxyflavone (16), 3',4,5,7-Tretramethoxyflavone (17), 5-Hydroxy-3'4',7-trimethoxyflavone (18), and 5,4'-Dihydroxy-3'-7'-dimethoxyflavone (19); besides 5 compounds already determined to be cytotoxic in other species, Isoferulic acid (1), Ferulic acid (2), Atractylenolide III (6), Dihydroxy-3',4'-dimethoxyflavone (16), and 5-Hydroxy-3'4 ',7-trimethoxyflavone (18).

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that the E. hyemale extract and partitions inhibited 3 different cell lines of OSCC in a highly selective nontoxic way by inducing apoptosis of the cells. We identified 6 new non-glycosylated flavonoids and 5 other substances in this species.

The antitumor properties of atractylenolides: Molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways

Drugs that exhibit a high degree of tumor cell selectivity while minimizing normal cell toxicity are an area of active research interest as a means of designing novel antitumor agents. The pharmacological benefits of Chinese herbal medicine-based treatments have been the focus of growing research interest in recent years. Sesquiterpenoids derived from the Atractylodes macrocephala volatile oil preparations exhibit in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity. Atracylenolides exhibit anti-proliferative, anti-metastatic, and immunomodulatory activity in a range of tumor cell lines in addition to being capable of regulating metabolic activity such that it is a promising candidate drug for the treatment of diverse cancers. The present review provides a summary of recent advances in Atractylenolide-focused antitumor research efforts.

Atractylenolide III induces apoptosis by regulating the Bax/Bcl-2 signaling pathway in human colorectal cancer HCT-116 Cells in vitro and in vivo

Atractylodes is the dry root of atractylodes macrocephala koidz and has been commonly used as a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Atractylenolide III, a main component of atractylodes, has displayed significant effects on anti-inflammation and anticancer. However, the effects of atractylenolide III on growth inhibition and apoptosis induction in colon cancer remain unclear. The results showed that atractylenolide III significantly inhibited the cell growth and induce cellular apoptosis in HCT-116 cells in a concentration dependence manner in vitro. Mechanistic studies further showed that atractylenolide III could regulate the Bax/Bcl-2 apoptotic signaling pathway through promoting the expression of proapoptotic related gene/proteins Bax, caspase-9 and caspase-3 but inhibiting the expression of antiapoptotic related gene/protein Bcl-2 in HCT-116 cells. Furthermore, atractylenolide III also significantly inhibited the tumor growth of HCT-116 tumor xenografts bearing in nude mice through inducing apoptosis by upregulation of the expressions of Bax, cleaved caspase-3 and p53 but downregulation of the expressions of Bcl-2 in HCT-116 tumor tissues in vivo. The studies may provide the scientific rationale for the understanding of the anticancer effect of atractylenolide III. Therefore, atractylenolide III may have the potential to be developed as a promising novel anticancer agent for the treatment of colorectal cancer clinically.

The Effect of Terpenoid Natural Chinese Medicine Molecular Compound on Lung Cancer Treatment

Among all malignant tumors in the whole universe, the incidence and mortality of lung cancer disease rank first. Especially in the past few years, the occurrence of lung cancer in the urban population has continued to increase, which seriously threatens the lives and health of people. Among the many treatments for lung cancer, chemotherapy is the best one, but traditional chemotherapy has low specificity and drug resistance. To address the above issue, this study reviews the five biological pathways that common terpenoid compounds in medicinal plants interfere with the occurrence and development of lung cancer: cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, cell autophagy, cell invasion, metastasis, and immune mechanism regulation. In addition, the mechanism of the terpenoid natural traditional Chinese medicine monomer compound combined with Western medicine in the multipathway antilung cancer is summarized.

Atractylenolides (I, II, and III): a review of their pharmacology and pharmacokinetics

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz is a widely used as a traditional Chinese medicine. Atractylenolides (-I, -II, and -III) are a class of lactone compounds derived from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. Research into atractylenolides over the past two decades has shown that atractylenolides have anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet, anti-osteoporosis, and antibacterial activity; protect the nervous system; and regulate blood glucose and lipids. Because of structural differences, both atractylenolide-I and atractylenolide-II have remarkable anti-cancer activities, and atractylenolide-I and atractylenolide-III have remarkable anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. We therefore recommend further clinical research on the anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of atractylenolides, determine their therapeutic effects, alone or in combination. To investigate their ability to regulate blood glucose and lipid, as well as their anti-platelet, anti-osteoporosis, and antibacterial activities, both in vitro and in vivo studies are necessary. Atractylenolides are rapidly absorbed but slowly metabolized; thus, solubilization studies may not be necessary. However, due to the inhibitory effects of atractylenolides on metabolic enzymes, it is necessary to pay attention to the possible side effects of combining atractylenolides with other drugs, in clinical application. In short, atractylenolides have considerable medicinal value and warrant further study.

Atractylenolide III predisposes miR-195-5p/FGFR1 signaling axis to exert tumor-suppressive functions in liver cancer

BACKGROUND

Antineoplastic activity of atractylenolide III (ATL) has been reported in several malignant tumors. However, its activity has not been completely clarified in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Herein, anticancer effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of ATL were investigated in HCC cells in vitro.

METHODS

Cell viability was evaluated by CCK-8 assay. Cell migration and invasion were evaluated using the transwell assay. TUNEL staining was performed to evaluate cell apoptosis. Protein expression was measured by western blotting analysis. Online database TargetScan and luciferase reporter gene analysis were performed to validate FGFR1 as a target of miR-195-5p.

RESULTS

HepG2 and SMMC7721 cell growth, migration, and invasion were inhibited by ATL treatment in a dose-dependent pattern. ATL treatment-induced apoptosis of HepG2 and SMMC7721 cells. Intriguingly, ATL treatment unexpectedly inhibited FGFR1 protein expression in HepG2 and SMMC7721 cells. Knockdown of FGFR1 inhibited proliferation, migration, and invasion, and evoked apoptosis of HepG2 and SMMC7721 cells. We also found that ATL treatment could increase the expression of miR-195-5p, which as a posttranscriptional targeted FGFR1. In HCC tissues, miR-195-5p expression is negatively correlated with FGFR1. Furthermore, the antiproliferative and proapoptotic roles of miR-195-5p were neutralized by overexpressed FGFR1 in HCC cells.

CONCLUSION

ATL effectively repressed growth and induced apoptosis of human HCC cells through the upregulation of miR-195-5p to downregulate FGFR1 expression.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Atractylenolide III as a bioactive anticancer adjuvant medication will provide chemosensitization strategy for reversing the drug resistance of HCC.

Erzhu Jiedu decoction ameliorates liver precancerous lesions in a rat model of liver cancer

Precancerous lesions are the intermediate stage in the development of liver cancer from cirrhosis. Early intervention measures can effectively prevent the occurrence of liver cancer and prolong the lives of patients, resulting in greater economic effects. Erzhu Jiedu decoction (EJD) is a semiempirical formula that is used in the treatment of cirrhosis and liver cancer according to the academic philosophy of "Preventive treatment of disease" and has achieved good curative effects in clinical practice. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of EJD on liver precancerous lesions induced by diethylnitrosamine (DEN) in rats. The results showed that EJD improved the general conditions (body weight, ALT, AST, and GGT) and reduced the number of precancerous lesions in the rat model. Notably, the medium dose of EJD (1.05 g/kg) had better treatment effects than the low dose of EJD, and the high dose of EJD did not further improve the liver lesions compared to the medium dose of EJD. Moreover, EJD effectively reduced the DEN-induced GST-Pi, AFP, CK19, c-Myc, and Ki67 protein expression in liver precancerous tissues. Interestingly, EJD significantly reduced YAP and TAZ mRNA expression in the liver precancerous lesions. Collectively, EJD protects against in the initiation of liver cancer and the regulation of c-Myc and Hippo signaling pathways may be the underlying mechanism.

Atractylenolide III alleviates the apoptosis through inhibition of autophagy by the mTOR-dependent pathway in alveolar macrophages of human silicosis

Silica-induced apoptosis of alveolar macrophages (AMs) is an essential part of silicosis formation. Autophagy tends to present a bidirectional effect on apoptosis. Our previous study found that the blockade of autophagy degradation might aggravate the apoptosis of AMs in human silicosis. We presume that targeting the autophagic pathway is regarded as a promising new strategy for silicosis fibrosis. As a main active component of the Atractylodes rhizome, Atractylenolide III (ATL-III) has been widely applied in clinical anti-inflammation. However, the effect and mechanism of ATL-III on autophagy in AMs of silicosis are unknown. In this study, we found that ATL-III might inhibit autophagy by mTOR-dependent manner, thereby improving the blockage of autophagic degradation in AMs. ATL-III alleviated the apoptosis of AMs in human silicosis. Furthermore, Rapamycin reversed the protective effect of ATL-III in AMs. These results indicate that ATL-III may be a potentially protective ingredient targeting autophagy for workers exposed to silica dust. These findings also suggest that inhibition of autophagy may be an effective way to alleviate the apoptosis of AMs in silicosis.

Urinary Metabolomics Study of the Intervention Effect of Hypoglycemic Decoction on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Rats Model

The hypoglycemic decoction (HD) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) preparation for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM), with a remarkable therapeutic effect. However, its mechanism of action is still unclear at the metabolic level. In this study, the biochemical markers from type 2 DM (T2DM) rats, induced by a high-sugar and high-fat diet combined with streptozotocin (STZ), were detected. The metabolomics-based analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was conducted to evaluate urine samples from control, model, metformin, and HD groups. After oral administration of HD for 28 days, the general state, weight, fasting blood glucose (FBG), blood lipid level, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), fasting insulin (FINS), insulin sensitivity index (ISI), and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were significantly improved (P < 0.01). The western blotting showed that HD can enhance the protein expression of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). The metabolomics results revealed that after treatment with HD, the levels of L-carnitine, 1-methyladenosine, 1-methylhistamine, and 3-indoleacrylic acid were upregulated and the levels of riboflavin, phenylalanine, atrolactic acid, 2-oxoglutarate, citrate, isocitrate, cortisol, and glucose were downregulated. The main mechanism may be closely related to the regulation of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, phenylalanine metabolism, glyoxylate metabolism, and dicarboxylate metabolism. Additionally, it was also found that HD can regulate the protein expression of GLUT4 and AMPK to interfere with TCA cycle and carbohydrate metabolism to treat T2DM.

Metabolomic Study on Nude Mice Models of Gastric Cancer Treated with Modified Si Jun Zi Tang via HILIC UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS Analysis

Recently, metabolomic methods have been used to explore the complex pathogenesis of cancer and the mechanism of action of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulae. In this study, first, modified Si Jun Zi Tang (MSJZT) was prepared with strict quality control using the instrument method of ultra performance liquid chromatography and photodiode array detector (UPLC-PDA). Subsequently, in vivo experiments with tumour-bearing nude mice demonstrated that MSJZT exerted good antitumour effects. MSJZT not only significantly increased mouse body weight but also shrank the tumour volume. Then, the HILIC UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS-based metabolomics approach was used for exploring the pathogenesis of gastric cancer and the molecular mechanism of MSJZT. A total of 59 potential biomarkers in plasma were identified, and 6 pathways were found to be disturbed in gastric cancer. In contrast, after 3 weeks of MSJZT intervention, 32 potential biomarkers were identified, and 4 altered pathways were detected. The changes in glycolytic, amino acid, and lipid metabolisms could be partially regulated by MSJZT through decreasing the content of lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), glutamine synthetase (GS), phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (PCYT2) mRNA, and protein level. In conclusion, we established a HILIC UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS metabolomic analysis method to demonstrate a complex metabolic profile of gastric cancer. The disordered metabolism could be partially regulated by MSJZT. These findings not only establish a solid foundation for TCM to treat gastric cancer but also provide a basis for further exploration of the precise mechanism of MSJZT activity.

A High Throughput Three-step Ultra-performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method to Study Metabolites of Atractylenolide-III

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AMK) is a traditional Chinese medicine widely used in the treatment of various diseases, especially spleen deficiency. As the principle active constituents of AMK, however, the metabolites of Atractylenolide-III (A-lactone-III) have not been identified in rats yet. In this study, a three-step high throughput method based on UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS-MS was developed to profile and characterize the metabolites of A-lactone-III in rat feces, urine and plasma. The initial step was a full-scan that utilized a multiple mass defect filter (MMDF) combined with dynamic background subtraction (DBS). PeakView®1.2 and Metabolitepilot™1.5 software was then used to obtain data and seek possible metabolites. Finally, MS-MS spectra of the parent drug and possible metabolites were compared by the fragment ion peaks and retention times, which enabled metabolites to be identified. As a result, 53 metabolites were characterized in rats in vivo. The metabolic pathways of A-lactone-III were identified as including methylation, oxidation, hydroxylation, dihydroxylation, hydrogenation, glycosylation, sulfonation, and glucuronide, cysteine and N-acetylcysteine conjugation.

Chinese Herbal Medicine for Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has been widely used in the treatment of advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but their efficacy and safety remain controversial. We sought to comprehensively aggregate and evaluate the available evidence on the efficacy and safety of the combination treatment with CHM and epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) in NSCLC patients. Our exhausted and systematical searching strategy yielded 64 related randomized controlled trials involving 4384 patients. Compared with EGFR-TKIs therapy alone, meta-analysis showed significant differences favoring the combination treatment in progression-free survival ([Formula: see text]), median survival time ([Formula: see text]), one-year survival rate ([Formula: see text]), two-year survival rate ([Formula: see text]), probability of severe toxicities ([Formula: see text]), objective response rate ([Formula: see text]), Karnofsky performance status ([Formula: see text]), and improvement in percentage of CD3[Formula: see text] T lymphocyte ([Formula: see text]) and CD4[Formula: see text] T lymphocyte ([Formula: see text]). Though these results require further confirmation, they are prone to show a potential therapeutic value of CHM in improving the clinical effect, overcoming the drug resistance and toxicities as an adjunctive therapy to EGFR-TKIs.

Heme Oxygenase-1 Induction and Anti-inflammatory Actions of Atractylodes macrocephala and Taraxacum herba Extracts Prevented Colitis and Was More Effective than Sulfasalazine in Preventing Relapse

Background/Aims

In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), repeated bouts of remission and relapse occur in patients and can impose a risk of colitis-associated cancer. We hypothesized that plant extracts of Atractylodes macrocephala (AM) or Taraxacum herba (TH) may be better than sulfasalazine for treating this disease because these extracts can promote additional regeneration.

Methods

Murine intestinal epithelial IEC-6 cells were pretreated with AM or TH before a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced challenge. Acute colitis was induced with 7 days of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in male C57BL/6 mice, and extracts of AM and TH were administered for 2 weeks before DSS administration.

Results

In vitro studies demonstrated that AM or TH treatment reduced LPS-induced COX-2 and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNA levels but increased heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Oral preadministration of AM and TH rescued mice from DSS-induced colitis by inhibiting inflammatory mediators via inactivated extracellular signal regulated kinase and repressed nuclear factor κB and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, but the effect was weaker for sulfasalazine than that for the extracts. Anti-inflammatory activities occurred via the inhibition of macrophage and T lymphocyte infiltrations. Unlike sulfasalazine, which did not induce HO-1, TH extracts afforded significant HO-1 induction.

Conclusions

Because the AM or TH extracts were far superior in preventing DSS-induced colitis than sulfasalazine, AM or TH extracts can be considered natural agents that can prevent IBD relapse.

Influence of Plant Growth Retardants on Quality of Codonopsis Radix

Plant growth retardant (PGR) refers to organics that can inhibit the cell division of plant stem tip sub-apical meristem cells or primordial meristem cell. They are widely used in the cultivation of rhizomatous functional plants; such as Codonopsis Radix, that is a famous Chinese traditional herb. However, it is still unclear whether PGR affects the medicinal quality of C. Radix. In the present study, amino acid analyses, targeted and non-targeted analyses by ultra-performance liquid chromatography combined with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOF-MS) and gas chromatography-MS were used to analyze and compare the composition of untreated C. Radix and C. Radix treated with PGR. The contents of two key bioactive compounds, lobetyolin and atractylenolide III, were not affected by PGR treatment. The amounts of polysaccharides and some internal volatiles were significantly decreased by PGR treatment; while the free amino acids content was generally increased. Fifteen metabolites whose abundance were affected by PGR treatment were identified by UPLC-TOF-MS. Five of the up-regulated compounds have been reported to show immune activity, which might contribute to the healing efficacy (“buqi”) of C. Radix. The results of this study showed that treatment of C. Radix with PGR during cultivation has economic benefits and affected some main bioactive compounds in C. Radix.

Ameliorative effect of atractylenolide III in the mast cell proliferation induced by TSLP

Atractylenolide III (ATL-III) is an active compound of Atractylodes lancea, which has been widely used for the treatment of cancer. Cancer is closely connected with inflammation, and many anti-inflammatory agents are also used to treat cancer. We investigated the influence of ATL-III on thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)-induced inflammatory reactions. Pretreatment with ATL-III suppressed murine double minute 2 levels and promoted p53 levels in TSLP-treated human mast cell, HMC-1 cells. Mast cell proliferation increased by TSLP or IL-3 stimulation was significantly decreased by ATL-III pretreatment. Interleukin (IL)-13 and phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, 5, and 6 levels in TSLP-treated HMC-1 cells were also decreased by ATL-III pretreatment. In addition, ATL-III decreased the TSLP-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-8). ATL-III decreased the levels of Bcl2 and procaspase-3 and increased caspase-3 activation and cleaved PARP levels. Furthermore, ATL-III decreased TSLP-induced mast cell proliferation and the production of inflammatory cytokine by LAD2 cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that ATL-III plays a useful role as an anti-inflammatory agent and should be viewed as a potential anti-cancer agent.

Atractylodes lactone compounds inhibit platelet activation

Platelets play a crucial role in the development and progression of atherosclerosis-thrombosis and, therefore, antiplatelet drugs are widely used in the treatment of coronary artery disease. Moreover, advances in understanding the biological functions of natural plant products can provide new pharmacological strategies aimed at promoting cardiovascular health. Atractylenolide I (ATL-1), ATL-2, and ATL-3 are the major bioactive components of a Qi tonifying medicinal herb Rhizoma Atractylodis Macrocephalae (Atractylodes macrocephala), which is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). These components possess well-documented anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities, but their effects on platelet activation are still unknown. In this study, the effects of ATL on platelet function in vitro and in vivo were investigated, and the underlying mechanism was explored. We found that ATL-2 and ATL-3 but not ATL-1 diminished agonist-induced platelet aggregation and diminished adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from dense granules. The levels of phospho-Akt (Ser473) and phospho-p38 MAPK were downregulated in the presence of ATL-2 and ATL-3. We also found that ATL-2 and ATL-3 have a similar inhibitory effect on platelet activation as acetylsalicylic acid in response to agonists. Furthermore, ATL-2 and ATL-3 diminished the spreading of human platelets on immobilized fibrinogen (Fg), delayed clot retraction in platelet-depleted plasma containing human platelets, extended first occlusion time in a mouse model of ferric chloride (FeCl₃)-induced carotid arterial thrombosis, and prolonged the bleeding time. These observations suggest that ATL-2 and ATL-3 are potential candidate therapeutic drugs for the prevention of thrombosis.

Mechanism of apoptosis induction in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells following treatment with a gecko peptides mixture

The aim of the present study was to investigate the apoptotic effect and molecular mechanisms of gecko peptides mixture (GPM) on the human liver carcinoma HepG2 cell line in vitro. The methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was performed to identify the dose- (0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.30 mg/ml) and time-dependent (24, 48 and 72 h) inhibitory effect of GPM on HepG2 cells and their proliferation. Hoechst 33258 staining was carried out to detect the nuclear change coupled with apoptosis induced by GPM. Western blotting was used to evaluate apoptosis-related protein expression changes induced by GPM, including caspase, cytochrome c (Cyt c) and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). MTT results showed that GPM significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Hoechst 33258 staining demonstrated that GPM induced typical apoptotic morphological changes, while western blotting analysis revealed that GPM increased caspase-3, caspase-9, Cyt c and AIF protein expression levels in HepG2 cells treated with 0.06 or 0.08 mg/ml for 24 h. In conclusion, GPM could induce apoptosis by activating the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic pathways.

Strong Specific Inhibition of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 by Atractylenolide I and III

Drug-metabolizing enzymes inhibition-based drug-drug interaction remains to be the key limiting factor for the research and development of efficient herbal components to become clinical drugs. The present study aims to determine the inhibition of uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) isoforms by two important efficient herbal ingredients isolated from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz, atractylenolide I and III. In vitro recombinant UGTs-catalysed glucuronidation of 4-methylumbelliferone was used to determine the inhibition capability and kinetics of atractylenolide I and III towards UGT2B7, and in silico docking method was employed to explain the possible mechanism. Atractylenolide I and III exhibited specific inhibition towards UGT2B7, with negligible influence towards other UGT isoforms. Atractylenolide I exerted stronger inhibition potential than atractylenolide III towards UGT2B7, which is attributed to the different hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Inhibition kinetic analysis was performed for the inhibition of atractylenolide I towards UGT2B7. Inhibition kinetic determination showed that atractylenolide I competitively inhibited UGT2B7, and inhibition kinetic parameter (Ki) was calculated to be 6.4 μM. In combination of the maximum plasma concentration of atractylenolide I after oral administration of 50 mg/kg atractylenolide I, the area under the plasma concentration-time curve ration AUCi /AUC was calculated to be 1.17, indicating the highly possible drug-drug interaction between atractylenolide I and drugs mainly undergoing UGT2B7-catalysed metabolism.

The natural compound codonolactone impairs tumor induced angiogenesis by downregulating BMP signaling in endothelial cells

BACKGROUND

Angiogenesis, the recruitment of new blood vessels, was demonstrated that is an essential component of the growth of a tumor beyond a certain size and the metastatic pathway. The potential use of angiogenesis-based agents, such as those involving natural and synthetic inhibitors as anticancer drugs is currently under intense investigation. In this study, the anti-angiogenic properties of codonolactone (CLT), a sesquiterpene lactone from Atractylodes lancea, were examined in endothelial cells.

PURPOSE

Our published study reported that CLT shows significant anti-metastatic properties in vitro and in vivo. In order to determine whether angiogenic-involved mechanisms contribute to the anti-metastatic effects of CLT, we checked the anti-angiogenic properties of CLT and its potential mechanisms.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and EA.hy 926 cells were involved in this study. Immunofluorescence assay for cells and immunohistochemistry assay for tissues were used to check the expression of angiogenic markers. In vitro migration and invasion of endothelial cells treated with and without CLT were analyzed. Protein expressions were measured by Western blot analysis. For MMPs activity assay, fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based MMPs activity assay and gelatin zymography assay were involved in this study.

RESULTS

Here we demonstrated that CLT exhibited inhibition on cancer cell induced angiogenesis in vivo, and direct inhibited migration and invasion of endothelial cells in vitro. Moreover, we observed that the down-regulation of MMPs and VEGF-VEGFR2 was involved in the anti-angiogenic effects of CLT. Data from Western blotting showed that, in endothelial cells, CLT reduced Runx2 activation and BMP signaling.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that CLT impaired the development of angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo by direct inhibition on endothelial cells. These inhibitory effects were depended on its ability to interference with BMP signaling in endothelial cells, which may cause inhibition of MMPs expression and VEGF secretion by down-regulating Runx2 activation.

ERK/GSK3β signaling is involved in atractylenolide I-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in melanoma cells

Novel agents need to be developed to overcome the limitations of the current melanoma therapeutics. Atractylenolide I (AT-I) is a sesquiterpene compound isolated from atractylodis macrocephalae rhizoma. Previous findings demonstrated that AT-I exhibited cytotoxic action in melanoma cells. However, the molecular mechanisms of AT‑1's anti-melanoma properties remain to be elucidated. In the present study, the cell cycle-arrest and apoptosis-promoting effects as well as the ERK/GSK3β signaling-related mechanism of action of AT-I were examined. B16 melanoma cells were treated with various concentrations of AT-1 (50, 75 and 100 µM) for 48 or 72 h. Cell cycle and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry. Protein expression levels were detected by western blot analysis. AT-I treatment induced G1 phase arrest, which was accompanied by increased p21 and decreased CDK2 protein expression levels. Apoptosis was observed after AT-I treatment for 72 h, which was accompanied by activated caspase‑3 and ‑8. AT-I treatment significantly decreased phospho-ERK, phospho-GSK3β, c-Jun and increased p53 protein expression levels. Lithium chloride (LiCl, 5 mM), a GSK3β inhibitor, treatment alone did not increase the apoptosis of B16 cells, while pretreatment with LiCl markedly reversed AT-I-induced apoptosis. Additionally, AT-I-induced G1 phase arrest was partially reversed by LiCl pretreatment. In conclusion, ERK/GSK3β signaling was involved in the apoptotic and G1 phase arrest effects of AT-I in melanoma cells.

The protective effect of atractylenolide I on systemic inflammation in the mouse model of sepsis created by cecal ligation and puncture

CONTEXT

Atractylenolide I (AT-I), an active compound isolated from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (Compositae), shows several pharmacological activities.

OBJECTIVE

Our present study is designed to investigate the protective effect of AT-I on systemic inflammation in the mouse model of sepsis created by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), and explore the possible mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sepsis mouse model was established by CLP, and the tested dosages of AT-I were 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg (ip). Pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) were determined by the ELISA method; serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) level was measured by the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) test; white blood cells (WBC) were counted by Blood cell analyzer; contents of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transarninase (AST), creatinine (Cre), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in serum were determined by automatic biochemistry analyzer. For survival rate tests, CLP mice were observed within 7 days, and body temperature was measured at 0, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h after surgery.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that AT-I significantly increased the survival rate of mice with sepsis (p < 0.05), whereas the WBCs and levels of LPS, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6), ALT, AST, Cre, and BUN decreased significantly after treatment with AT-I (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the AT-I ameliorates sepsis syndrome by reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and LPS, and provides an improvement in liver and kidney functions.

Anti-proliferative effects of Atractylis lancea (Thunb.) DC. via down-regulation of the c-myc/hTERT/telomerase pathway in Hep-G2 cells

Atractylis lancea (Thunb.) DC. (AL), an important medicinal herb in Asia, has been shown to have anti-tumor effects on cancer cells, but the involved mechanisms are poorly understood. This study focused on potential effects and molecular mechanisms of AL on the proliferation of the Hep-G2 liver cancer cell line in vitro. Cell viability was assessed by MTT test in Hep-G2 cells incubated with an ethanol extract of AL. Then, the effects of AL on apoptosis and cell cycle progression were determined by flow cytometry. Telomeric repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) assays was performed to investigate telomerase activity. The mRNA and protein expression of human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and c-myc were determined by real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. Our results show that AL effectively inhibits proliferation in Hep-G2 cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. When Hep-G2 cells were treated with AL after 48h,the IC50 was about 72.1 μg/ mL. Apoptosis was induced by AL via arresting the cells in the G1 phase. Furthermore, AL effectively reduced telomerase activity through inhibition of mRNA and protein expression of hTERT and c-myc. Hence, these data demonstrate that AL exerts anti-proliferative effects in Hep-G2 cells via down-regulation of the c-myc/hTERT/ telomerase pathway.

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz stimulates intestinal epithelial cell migration through a polyamine dependent mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AMK), a valuable traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has been widely used in clinical practice for treating patients with disorders of the digestive system. AMK has shown noteworthy promoting effect on improving gastrointestinal function and immunity, which might represent a promising candidate for the treatment of intestinal mucosa injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of AMK on intestinal mucosal restitution and the underlying mechanisms via intestinal epithelial (IEC-6) cell migration model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cell migration model of IEC-6 cells was induced by a single-edge razor blade along the diameter of the cell layers in six-well polystyrene plates. After wounding, the cells were grown in control cultures and in cultures containing spermidine (5μM, SPD, reference drug), alpha-difluoromethylornithine (2.5mM, DFMO, polyamine inhibitor), AMK (50, 100, and 200mg/L), DFMO plus SPD and DFMO plus AMK for 12h. The polyamines content was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with pre-column derivatization. The Rho mRNAs expression levels were assessed by Q-RT-PCR. The Rho and non-muscle myosin II proteins expression levels were analyzed by Western blot. The formation and distribution of non-muscle myosin II stress fibers were monitored with immunostaining techniques using specific antibodies and observed by confocal microscopy. Cell migration assay was carried out using inverted microscope and the Image-Pro Plus software. All of these indexes were used to evaluate the effectiveness of AMK.

RESULTS

(1) Treatment with AMK caused significant increases in cellular polyamines content and Rho mRNAs and proteins expression levels, as compared to control group. Furthermore, AMK exposure increased non-muscle myosin II protein expression levels and formation of non-muscle myosin II stress fibers, and resulted in an acceleration of cell migration in IEC-6 cells. (2) Depletion of cellular polyamines by DFMO resulted in a decrease of cellular polyamines levels, Rho mRNAs and proteins expression, non-muscle myosin II protein formation and distribution, thereby inhibiting IEC-6 cell migration. AMK not only reversed the inhibitory effects of DFMO on the polyamines content, Rho mRNAs and proteins expression, non-muscle myosin II protein formation and distribution, but also restored cell migration to control levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained from this study revealed that AMK significantly stimulates the migration of IEC-6 cells through a polyamine dependent mechanism, which could accelerate the healing of intestinal injury. These findings suggest the potential value of AMK in curing intestinal diseases characterized by injury and ineffective repair of the intestinal mucosa in clinical practice.

Effects of Kuan-Sin-Yin decoction on immunomodulation and tumorigenesis in mouse tumor models

Background

Complementary therapies are widely used among cancer patients. Kuan-Sin-Yin (KSY) decoction, a popular qi-promoting herbal medicine, was constituted with several herbs known to exhibit immunomodulating or anticancer activity. After combining these herbs as a compound formula, it is necessary to reassess the immunomodulation effects, the effects on tumor growth, and possible toxicity of KSY.

Methods

The anti-cancer effects of KSY in vivo were determined by measuring the tumor volumes, anticancer-associated cytokines (IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-2, and IL-12), accumulation of tumor infiltrating leukocytes (TILs), proliferation and apoptosis-related molecular markers (Ki-67, p53, p21, activated caspase 3, and cleaved PARP), and an in situ TUNEL assay. The body weight and serum chemistry of treated mice were also assessed. In vitro, the effects of KSY were evaluated using MTT assay, BrdU incorporation assay and cell growth curve.

Results

In vivo, KSY suppressed bladder or lung cancer growth but did not promote the production of cytokines nor increase the accumulation of TILs. The expression of p53 and p21 in KSY-treated mice were increased. The numbers of apoptotic tumor cells and the expression of apoptosis marker proteins (Caspase 3 and cleaved PARP) were not significantly elevated after KSY treatment. In vitro, the viability and proliferation of tumor cells, but not normal cells, were suppressed by KSY treatment. No significant toxicity was found in KSY-treated mice.

Conclusions

KSY suppressed the tumor growth in vivo and in vitro, which resulted from its cytostatic effects on cancer cells, rather than the induction of anti-cancer immunity. Under these experimental conditions, no apparent toxicity was observed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1472-6882-14-488) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Guibitang, a traditional herbal medicine, induces apoptotic death in A431 cells by regulating the activities of mitogen-activated protein kinases

Background

Guibi-tang (GBT), a traditional herbal formula, mainly has been shown to possess immune regulation, antioxidant and protective effect of the gastric mucosa. Constituent herbs of GBT are frequently used to treat various diseases; however, their pharmacological effects, especially on cancer cells, differ from those of GBT. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms behind effects of GBT remain unclear. In the present study, we explored the mechanism of chemopreventive/chemotherapeutic efficacy of GBT against human squamous cell carcinoma without cytotoxicity in normal cells and proved the efficacy of GBT through performing in vivo xenograft assay.

Methods

For analysis of the constituents of GBT, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-DAD system was performed. To detect the anticancer effect of GBT, cell viability assay, caspase activity assay, cell cycle analysis, DNA fragmentation analysis, and Western blot analysis were performed in A431 cells. In addition, the inhibitory effect of tumor growth by GBT was evaluated in athymic nude mice inoculated with A431 cells.

Results

GBT showed cytotoxic activity against three different squamous cell carcinoma, especially on A431 cells. GBT induced the apoptosis through activating the caspase-8 in A431 cells. Inhibition of A431 cell growth by GBT was caused by G1-phase arrest through regulating proteins associated with cell cycle progression, such as cyclin D1, p21, and p27. Furthermore, GBT regulated the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), and activated p53, a tumor suppressor protein. In MAPKs inhibitor study, inhibitors respectively blocked GBT-induced cell viability, indicating that MAPKs signals play critical role in cell death caused by GBT. In vivo xenografts, daily oral administration of 600 mg/kg GBT efficiently suppressed the tumorigenic growth of A431 cells without side effects such as loss of body weight and change of toxicological parameters compared to vehicle.

Conclusions

We first elucidate that GBT stimulates the apoptotic signaling pathway and suppresses the proliferation of A431 cells via regulating MAPKs signaling pathway. Furthermore, GBT significantly inhibits tumor growth of A431 cells without causing systemic toxicity. Based on our study, GBT could be useful in the management of skin cancer as chemoprevention and chemotherapy remedy.

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz promotes intestinal epithelial restitution via the polyamine--voltage-gated K+ channel pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AMK) has been used widely as a digestive and tonic in traditional Chinese medicine. AMK has shown noteworthy promoting effect on intestinal epithelial cell migration, which might represent a promising candidate for the treatment of intestinal mucosa injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of AMK on intestinal mucosal restitution and the underlying mechanisms via IEC-6 cell migration model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A wounding model of IEC-6 cells was induced by a single-edge razor blade along the diameter of six-well polystyrene plates. The cells were grown in control cultures and in cultures containing spermidine (5 μmol/L, SPD, reference drug), alpha-difluoromethylornithine (2.5 mmol/L, DFMO, polyamine inhibitor), AMK (50, 100, and 200 μg/mL), DFMO plus SPD and DFMO plus AMK for 24h. The membrane potential (MP) and cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]cyt) were detected by flow cytometry, and polyamines content was determined via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The expression of Kv1.1 mRNA and protein levels were assessed by RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Cell migration assay was carried out using the Image-Pro Plus software. All of these indexes were used to evaluate the effectiveness of AMK.

RESULTS

(1) Treatment with AMK caused significant increases in cellular polyamines content, membrane hyperpolarization, an elevation of [Ca(2+)]cyt and an acceleration of cell migration in IEC-6 cells, as compared to control group. (2) AMK not only reversed the inhibitory effects of DFMO on the polyamines content, MP, and [Ca(2+)]cyt but also restored IEC-6 cell migration to control levels. (3) The Kv1.1 mRNA and protein expression were significantly increased by AMK treatment in control and polyamine-deficient IEC-6 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our current studies revealed that treatment with AMK significantly stimulates the migration of intestinal epithelial cells through polyamine-Kv1.1 channel signaling pathway, which could promote the healing of intestinal injury. These results suggest the potential usefulness of AMK to cure intestinal disorders characterized by injury and ineffective repair of the intestinal mucosa.

Bioactivity-guided isolation of polyacetylenes with inhibitory activity against NO production in LPS-activated RAW264.7 macrophages from the rhizomes of Atractylodes macrocephala

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala (Compositae) is one of the most well-known traditional Chinese medicine in China, Japan and Korea, which has a long history of use for the treatment of splenic asthenia, edema, anorexia, and excessive perspiration, etc. As active compounds of anti-inflammatory activity of this medicinal plant have not been fully elucidated, the aim of this study was to isolate and identify the active constituents inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production from the rhizomes of A. macrocephala.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Inhibitory activity against NO production in lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW264.7 macrophages was evaluated by Griess reaction. Fifteen polyacetylenes were isolated from the active ethyl acetate extract using activity-guided screening. The structures of all compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic methods and comparison with published data. The compounds were further tested for their inhibitory activity against NO production.

RESULTS

Seven new polyacetylenes, named atractylodemaynes A-G (1-7), along with eight known ones (8-15) were isolated. Compound 14 was isolated for the first time from the rhizomes of A. macrocephala. The study showed that the tested compounds exhibited inhibitory activity against NO production in a dose-dependent manner. Among them, compounds 10, 11 and 12 had relatively stronger inhibitory effect with IC50 values of 28, 23 and 19μM, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that the polyacetylenes might greatly contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity of the rhizomes of A. macrocephala.

A novel compound RY10-4 induces apoptosis and inhibits invasion via inhibiting STAT3 through ERK-, p38-dependent pathways in human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells

Previous reports suggested that protoapigenone showed remarkable antitumor activities against a broad spectrum of human cancer cell lines, but had no effect on human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell. The lack of effective remedies had necessitated the application of new therapeutic scheme. A novel compound RY10-4 which has the similar structure close to protoapigenone showed better antitumor activity. Treatment with RY10-4 inhibited the expression of pro-caspase-3, pro-caspase-9, Bcl-2 as well as phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (p-STAT3). It also reduced the expressions of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and increases the expressions of reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein with kazal motifs (RECK), as well as tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) via inhibiting STAT3 by activating the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases (the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), the p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)) in A549 cells treated with RY10-4. Moreover, the cytotoxic effect of RY10-4 was induction of apoptosis in A549 cells by enhancing production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Taken together, the observations suggested that RY10-4 had affected Bcl-2 family members, caspases, MMPs, TIMPs expressions and ROS production via inhibiting STAT3 activities through ERK and p38 pathways in A549 cells.

Application of genetic algorithm for discovery of core effective formulae in TCM clinical data

Research on core and effective formulae (CEF) does not only summarize traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) treatment experience, it also helps to reveal the underlying knowledge in the formulation of a TCM prescription. In this paper, CEF discovery from tumor clinical data is discussed. The concepts of confidence, support, and effectiveness of the CEF are defined. Genetic algorithm (GA) is applied to find the CEF from a lung cancer dataset with 595 records from 161 patients. The results had 9 CEF with positive fitness values with 15 distinct herbs. The CEF have all had relative high average confidence and support. A herb-herb network was constructed and it shows that all the herbs in CEF are core herbs. The dataset was divided into CEF group and non-CEF group. The effective proportions of former group are significantly greater than those of latter group. A Synergy index (SI) was defined to evaluate the interaction between two herbs. There were 4 pairs of herbs with high SI values to indicate the synergy between the herbs. All the results agreed with the TCM theory, which demonstrates the feasibility of our approach.

Anti-tumor effects of atractylenolide I isolated from Atractylodes macrocephala in human lung carcinoma cell lines

Atractylenolide I (ATL-1) is the major sesquiterpenoid of Atractylodes macrocephala. This study was designed to investigate whether ATL-1 induced apoptosis in A549 and HCC827 cells in vitro and in vivo. In our results, ATL-1 significantly decreased the percentage of in vitro viability, in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, DAPI staining and flow cytometry tests demonstrated the induction of apoptosis by ATL-I. Western blot analysis indicated that the protein levels of caspase-3, caspase-9 and Bax were increased in A549 and HCC827 cells after ATL-I exposure; to the contrary, the expressions of Bcl-2, Bcl-XL were decreased after treatment with ATL-1. In the in vivo study, ATL-I effectively suppressed tumor growth (A549) in transplanted tumor nude mice with up-regulation of caspase-3, caspase-9, and Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that ATL-I has significant antitumor activity in lung carcinoma cells, and the possible mechanism of action may be related to apoptosis induced by ATL-I via a mitochondria-mediated apoptosis pathway.

Targeting of the Sonic Hedgehog pathway by atractylenolides promotes chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells

Molecules that enhance chondrogenic differentiation in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were identified and isolated using an in vitro Gli reporter gene assay in MSCs incorporating a Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) target. Atractylenolide III, which promoted Gli1-mediated transcriptional activity, was isolated from an ethyl acetate extract of the Rhizoma, Atractylodis macrocephalae. After dehydration, atractylenolide III was transformed to atractylenolide I. Both atractylenolides were confirmed by MS, UV, IR, 1H- and 13C-NMR spectra. Atractylenolide III (which contains -OH at the 8-position) and atractylenolide I (which lacks -OH at the 8-position) were found to effectively promote the activity of the Gli promoter. While the hydroxyl group of atractylenolide III was not essential for the effect of atractylenolide, its effect was dependent on Shh signaling. Phenotypic cellular analysis indicated that atractylenolides induced MSCs to differentiate into chondrocytes, as shown by increased expression of specific chondrogenic markers including collagen II, aggrecan and the cartilage related transcription factor, Sox9. Atractylenolides significantly increased the expression of Shh and its target gene Gli-1, indicating that Shh signaling was activated by atractylenolides. Moreover, inhibition of Shh signaling reduced the effect of atractylenolides on the chondrogenic phenotype. The discovery that atractylenolides induce chondrocytes from MSCs is promising for bony disease therapy.

Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite markers from the Chinese medicinal herb Atractylodes macrocephala (Asteraceae)

Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (Asteraceae) is an economically important Chinese medicinal herb. In this study, 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed from A. macrocephala using the compound microsatellite marker technique. Levels of polymorphism within the 15 markers were assessed using 83 individuals from two wild and two cultivated populations in China. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 20, with an average of 9.9 alleles. Observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.083 to 1.000 and from 0.097 to 0.938, respectively. These markers will be valuable for germplasm classification and identification, as well as for assessing the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure among wild and cultivated populations of A. macrocephala.

Simultaneous determination of four sesquiterpenoids in Atractylodes Macrocephala Rhizoma by GC-FID: optimisation of an ultrasound-assisted extraction by central composite design

INTRODUCTION

Atractylodes Macrocephala Rhizoma (AMR) is a traditional Chinese medicine containing several sesquiterpenoids with a series of effects. These bioactive compounds may be used as chemical markers for the quality control of AMR. It is necessary to optimise the extraction method and conditions in order to improve extraction productivity.

OBJECTIVE

To develop a simple and effective method for the extraction of sesquiterpenoids from AMR and then to simultaneously determine four sesquiterpenoids, selina-4 (14), 7(11)-dien-8-one (SA), atractylenolide II (AII), atractylenolide III (AIII) and atractylenolide VII (AVII), in AMR.

METHODOLOGY

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was optimised by central composite design (CCD) to obtain the maximum efficiency. The gas chromatography method was validated and applied for the quantification of four sesquiterpenoids.

RESULTS

The optimum values of factors were: particle size (120 mesh), extraction time (26 min), extraction temperature (39°C) and 31 mL of chloroform. The selectivity, linear range, limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), accuracy, precision and repeatability of the method developed indicated its validity. The application of the method showed that the contents of four sesquiterpenoids in AMR were rather variable.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the described GC method could be used for the quality control of AMR and its related preparations. Meanwhile, this research revealed that UAE under optimum conditions could be considered as a powerful tool for the extraction of phytochemicals from plants.

A novel non-aromatic B-ring flavonoid: isolation, structure elucidation and its induction of apoptosis in human colon HT-29 tumor cell via the reactive oxygen species-mitochondrial dysfunction and MAPK activation

The aim of the present study was to elucidate the chemical structure of a novel non-aromatic B-ring flavonoid (DHEC) isolated from Macrothelypteris viridifrons and to evaluate its putative molecular mechanism of action on induction of apoptosis in human colon HT-29 cancer cell. On the basis of MS, UV, IR, 1D and 2D NMR data, DHEC was identified as 2-(cis-1, 2-dihydroxy-4-oxo-cyclohex-5-enyl)-5-hydroxy-7-ethoxy-chromone. In addition, the cytotoxicity of DHEC and its effect on induction of apoptosis were confirmed by several assays. After treatment of HT-29 cell with DHEC, we observed the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species, the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, the alteration of expression of the Bcl-2 family members, the releasing of cytochrome c, the cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), and the activation of caspase-3, -8, and -9. Further analysis showed that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) related proteins were stimulated by treatment with DHEC. These results suggest that DHEC exhibits potential anti-cancer activity in HT-29 cell through induction of apoptosis, which may highly be associated with reactive oxygen species-mitochondrial dysfunction as well as activation of MAPK signaling pathway.

Chemical and ecological evaluation of a genuine Chinese medicine: Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz

The study was designated to complete a chemical and ecological evaluation of a genuine Chinese medicine Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (A. macrocephala) and to explore the existence of correlation between chemical ingredients of different A. macrocephala populations and ecological factors. Different samples of A. macrocephala collected from six Chinese habitats were analyzed using chemical and ecological methods. The results showed the bioactive ingredients of A. macrocephala to be closely related to ecological factors. The study can serve the purposes of preservation and development of genuine Chinese medicines.