Patulin induces pyroptosis through the autophagic-inflammasomal pathway in liver

The mitochondrial dysfunction regulated by JAK2/STAT3 pathway leads to the necroptosis in the renal cells under patulin exposure

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin widely found in various agricultural products and fruits, which has obvious toxic effects on animals and humans. Some studies have shown that PAT can cause nephrotoxicity, but the exact mechanism remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we investigated PAT-induced nephrotoxicity and the possible molecular mechanisms involved in its action. In vivo, the results showed that PAT affected the integrity of the glomerular basement membrane and peduncles, leading to necroptosis. We further demonstrated that PAT up-regulated the expression of JAK2, STAT3, RIPK1, RIPK3, and MLKL. This observation was also confirmed in MPC-5 cells. In vitro, pretreatment with Nec-1 (a specific inhibitor of necroptosis) or si-STAT3 resulted in a significant reduction in necroptosis and improved mitochondrial dysfunction. Notably, the pharmacological protection of mitochondrial function by SS-31 significantly attenuated the onset of PAT-induced necroptosis. Taken together, our study suggested that STAT3 activation, and mitochondrial dysfunction played critical roles in PAT-induced necroptosis in the kidney. These findings revealed the mechanisms by which PAT triggered necroptosis, potentially providing a new therapeutic strategy for PAT poisoning.

The inducible role of autophagy in cell death: emerging evidence and future perspectives

BACKGROUND

Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent degradation pathway for recycling intracellular materials and removing damaged organelles, and it is usually considered a prosurvival process in response to stress stimuli. However, increasing evidence suggests that autophagy can also drive cell death in a context-dependent manner. The bulk degradation of cell contents and the accumulation of autophagosomes are recognized as the mechanisms of cell death induced by autophagy alone. However, autophagy can also drive other forms of regulated cell death (RCD) whose mechanisms are not related to excessive autophagic vacuolization. Notably, few reviews address studies on the transformation from autophagy to RCD, and the underlying molecular mechanisms are still vague.

AIM OF REVIEW

This review aims to summarize the existing studies on autophagy-mediated RCD, to elucidate the mechanism by which autophagy initiates RCD, and to comprehensively understand the role of autophagy in determining cell fate.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

This review highlights the prodeath effect of autophagy, which is distinct from the generally perceived cytoprotective role, and its mechanisms are mainly associated with the selective degradation of proteins or organelles essential for cell survival and the direct involvement of the autophagy machinery in cell death. Additionally, this review highlights the need for better manipulation of autophagy activation or inhibition in different pathological contexts, depending on clinical purpose.

Outer membrane vesicles from Pseudomonas aeruginosa induce autophagy-regulated pyroptosis in THP-1 cells

Outer membrane vesicles derived from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA-OMVs) play a crucial role in bacterial pathogenesis, mediating immune modulation and inflammation. Autophagy, a process that degrades damaged organelles, and pyroptosis, a form of programmed cell death, both regulate immune responses and contribute to infection defense. However, the relationship between PA-OMVs, autophagy, and pyroptosis remains insufficiently explored, particularly regarding their regulatory mechanisms. This study investigates how PA-OMVs influence cellular autophagy and pyroptosis, with the aim of identifying potential therapeutic strategies for infectious diseases. Bulk RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were conducted on cells treated with PA-OMVs. Autophagy inhibitors, chloroquine (CQ) and 3-methyladenine (3-MA), were used to explore their effects on pyroptosis, with RT-PCR and ELISA applied to assess pyroptosis levels. The results revealed a complex interplay between autophagy and pyroptosis, with PA-OMVs modulating key immune and inflammatory pathways. Autophagy inhibition decreased the expression of pyroptosis markers, suggesting a regulatory role. These findings highlight the potential of targeting the autophagy-pyroptosis axis for new infection control strategies and vaccine development.

Proanthocyanidins alleviate acute alcohol liver injury by inhibiting pyroptosis via inhibiting the ROS-MLKL-CTSB-NLRP3 pathway

BACKGROUND

Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) is a hepatic disorder resulting from prolonged or excessive alcohol intake. The predominant manifestation of ALD is fatty liver, which progresses to alcoholic hepatitis as the disease worsens. Pyroptosis is a novel type of programmed cell death that is intricately linked to the inflammatory cascade, presenting a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention in the management of ALD. Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) are polyphenols extracted from grape seeds that have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, whether OPCs can treat ALD by suppressing pyroptosis is not completely clarified.

PURPOSE

To explore the role of OPCs in ALD to inhibit pyroptosis and its mechanism.

METHODS

In vitro, HepG2 cells were employed to evaluate the beneficial impact of OPCs on alcohol-induced pyroptosis. MTT colorimetric method, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), western blot (WB), immunofluorescence, acridine orange (AO) staining, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay were performed. In vivo, C57BL mice were used and gavaged with alcohol and OPCs. Hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE) staining, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) level assay, and WB were performed.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that OPCs could reduce the alcohol-induced increase in pyroptosis-related proteins, such as pyrin domain-containing 3 protein (NLRP3), cleaved-caspase 1, gasdermin D (GSDMD-N), Interleukin-18 (IL-18), IL-1β (IL-1β). In in vitro mechanistic experiments, We discovered that OPCs ameliorate alcohol-induced pyroptosis by decreasing cathepsin B (CTSB) leakage-mediated NLRP3 activation. More significantly, we discovered that alcohol phosphorylates mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL), enabling P-MLKL to translocate to the lysosomal membrane and induce lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP). OPCs might counteract the effects of alcohol by reducing the leakage of CTSB and inhibiting the phosphorylation of MLKL through the scavenging of ROS.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that OPCs might counteract ALD by inhibiting pyroptosis through the ROS-MLKL-CTSB-NLRP3 pathway. Our study offered fresh insight into the ways in which naturally occurring chemicals shield ALD against harm.

Podophyllotoxin mediates hepatic toxicity via the C5a/C5aR/ROS/NLRP3 and cGMP/PKG/mTOR axis in rats based on toxicological evidence chain (TEC) concept by phosphoproteomic analysis

BACKGROUND

Podophyllotoxin (PPT), a highly active compound extracted from the rhizome of Dysosma versipellis (DV), has been used as an effective anti-cancer drug clinically since the 1950s. It possesses various biological activities, including antiviral and antitumor effects. However, its clinical application is severely limited due to its hepatotoxicity, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms of PPT-induced hepatotoxicity using tandem quality tag (TMT) based quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics, providing potential targets and directions for developing new therapeutic strategies to facilitate the safe and rational use of podophyllotoxin in clinical settings.

METHODS

We employed a comprehensive assessment of PPT-induced hepatotoxicity based on the Toxicology Evidence Chain (TEC) concept, originally proposed by our research group in 2018. This approach involves a tiered search for evidence of Harmful Ingredients Evidence (HIE), Injury Phenotype Evidence (IPE), Adverse Outcomes Evidence (AOE), and Toxic Events Evidence (TEE) during the development of PPT-induced hepatotoxicity, thereby constructing a guiding toxicology evidence chain. Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were administered 20 mg/kg PPT for 4 consecutive days (HIE). Indicators such as hepatic function, oxidative stress, inflammatory factors, as well as the histopathology of liver tissue were evaluated to assess liver damage and synthetic function (AOE). Proteomics and phosphoproteomics were conducted to systematically assess PPT-induced hepatotoxicity at the level of modified proteins and verify the molecular mechanisms of key molecular pathways (TEE1). Furthermore, in vitro THLE-2 cell models were used in conjunction with CCK8, immunofluorescence, and ELISA assays to validate cytotoxicity and its underlying mechanisms (TEE2).

RESULTS

Our results showed that after 4 days of PPT administration at 20 mg/kg (HIE), serum levels of AST/ALT, TBA, TP, and ALB in SD rats were significantly increased (P < 0.05), indicating severe liver damage. SOD and T-AOC levels were significantly decreased (P < 0.05), suggesting an oxidative stress state. TNF-α levels were significantly elevated, while IL-10 and IL-3 levels were significantly reduced (P < 0.05), indicating strong activation of the inflammatory response in the liver. Histopathological examination revealed liver sinusoidal congestion in the liver tissue (AOE). Omics analysis revealed that hepatotoxicity primarily affected the complement-pyroptosis and cGMP-PKG-autophagy pathways. Western blot (WB) and RT-qPCR results showed significant upregulation of complement-pyroptosis pathway proteins (C5a, C5aR, NLRP3) and cGMP-PKG-autophagy pathway proteins (PKG, mTOR) in the PPT group (P < 0.05) (TEE1). In vitro cell experiments showed that PPT significantly reduced cell viability (P < 0.05) and increased the expression of proteins associated with pyroptosis and autophagy pathways, including ROS, NLRP3, PKG, and mTOR (P < 0.05) (TEE2).

CONCLUSION

PPT activates the complement system through the C5a/C5aR/ROS/NLRP3 pathway and induces the formation of inflammasomes, promoting pyroptosis. Simultaneously, PPT activates the cGMP-PKG pathway, inhibiting autophagy and further accelerating pyroptosis, ultimately leading to hepatotoxicity. In conclusion, this study comprehensively revealed the underlying mechanisms of PPT-induced hepatotoxicity using the TEC concept. This approach transforms fragmented toxicity indicators into systematic evidence of toxicity, presenting a hierarchical progression of toxicity evidence and avoiding data accumulation in natural drug toxicology. Our findings represent a significant breakthrough in the elucidation of the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by podophyllotoxin.

Advances in research on the impact and mechanisms of pathogenic microorganism infections on pyroptosis

Pyroptosis, also known as inflammatory necrosis, is a form of programmed cell death characterized by the activation of gasdermin proteins, leading to the formation of pores in the cell membrane, continuous cell swelling, and eventual membrane rupture. This process results in the release of intracellular contents, including pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β and IL-18, which subsequently trigger a robust inflammatory response. This process is a crucial component of the body's innate immune response and plays a significant role in combating infections. There are four main pathways through which pathogenic microorganisms induce pyroptosis: the canonical inflammasome pathway, the non-canonical inflammasome pathway, the apoptosis-associated caspase-mediated pathway, and the granzyme-mediated pathway. This article provides a brief overview of the effects and mechanisms of pathogen infections on pyroptosis.

MCC950 as a promising candidate for blocking NLRP3 inflammasome activation: A review of preclinical research and future directions

The NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a key component of the innate immune system that triggers inflammation and pyroptosis and contributes to the development of several diseases. Therefore, blocking the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome has therapeutic potential for the treatment of these diseases. MCC950, a selective small molecule inhibitor, has emerged as a promising candidate for blocking NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Ongoing research is focused on elucidating the specific targets of MCC950 as well as assessfing its metabolism and safety profile. This review discusses the diseases that have been studied in relation to MCC950, with a focus on stroke, Alzheimer's disease, liver injury, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and sepsis, using bibliometric analysis. It then summarizes the potential pharmacological targets of MCC950 and discusses its toxicity. Furthermore, it traces the progression from preclinical to clinical research for the treatment of these diseases. Overall, this review provides a solid foundation for the clinical therapeutic potential of MCC950 and offers insights for future research and therapeutic approaches.

Curcumin inhibits PAT-induced renal ferroptosis via the p62/Keap1/Nrf2 signalling pathway

Patulin (PAT), the most common mycotoxin, is widespread in foods and beverages which poses a serious food safety issue to human health. Our previous research confirmed that exposure to PAT can lead to acute kidney injury (AKI). Curcumin is the most abundant active ingredient in turmeric rhizome with various biological activities. The aim of this study is to investigate whether curcumin can prevent the renal injury caused by PAT, and to explore potential mechanisms. In vivo, supplementation with curcumin attenuated PAT-induced ferroptosis. Mechanically, curcumin inhibited autophagy, led to the accumulation of p62 and its interaction with Keap1, promoted the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor E2 related factor 2 (Nrf2), and increased the expression of antioxidant stress factors in the process of ferroptosis. These results have also been confirmed in HKC cell experiments. Furthermore, knockdown of Nrf2 in HKC cells abrogated the protective effect of curcumin on ferroptosis. In conclusion, we confirmed that curcumin mitigated PAT-induced AKI by inhibiting ferroptosis via activation of the p62/Keap1/Nrf2 pathway. This study provides new potential targets and ideas for the prevention and treatment of PAT.

The Novel Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Mycotoxin-Induced Toxicological Mechanisms

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungi and moulds that exert toxicological effects on animals including immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, and neurotoxicity. However, the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins are complex and unclear. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a multimeric cytosolic protein complex composed of the NLRP3 sensor, ASC adapter protein, and caspase-1 effector. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome plays a crucial role in innate immune defence and homeostatic maintenance. Recent studies have revealed that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is linked to tissue damage and inflammation induced by mycotoxin exposure. Thus, this review summarises the latest advancements in research on the roles of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the pathogenesis of mycotoxin exposure. The effects of exposure to multiple mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin A, and fumonisim B1, on pyroptosis-related factors and inflammation-related factors in vitro and in vivo and the pharmacological inhibition of specific and nonspecific NLRP3 inhibitors are summarized and examined. This comprehensive review contributes to a better understanding of the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in toxicity induced by mycotoxin exposure and provides novel insights for pharmacologically targeting NLRP3 as a novel anti-inflammatory agent against mycotoxin exposure.

Involvement of multiple forms of cell death in patulin-induced toxicities

Patulin (PAT) is the most common mycotoxin found in moldy fruits and their derived products, and is reported to cause diverse toxic effects, including hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity and dermal toxicity. The cell death induction by PAT is suggested to be a key cellular mechanism involved in PAT-induced toxicities. Accumulating evidence indicates that the multiple forms of cell death are induced in response to PAT exposure, including apoptosis, autophagic cell death, pyroptosis and ferroptosis. Mechanistically, the cell death induction by PAT is associated the oxidative stress induction via reducing the antioxidant capacity or inducing pro-oxidant NADPH oxidase, the activation of mitochondrial pathway via regulating BCL-2 family proteins, the disruption of iron metabolism through ferritinophagy-mediated ferritin degradation, and the induction of the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome/caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) pathway. In this review article, we summarize the present understanding of the cell death induction by PAT, discuss the potential signaling pathways underlying PAT-induced cell death, and propose the issues that need to be addressed to promote the development of cell death-based approach to counteract PAT-induced toxicities.

Elaidic acid induced hepatocyte pyroptosis via autophagy-CTSB-NLRP3 pathway

Elaidic acid (EA, C18:1 trans) is a kind of principal Trans fatty acid (TFA) and is widely found in processed food. Pyroptosis is a form of programmed cell death, distinct from apoptosis and traditional necrosis. Excessive pyroptosis could induce body injury and serious inflammation. However, the effect of EA on pyroptosis has not been reported. In the study, we found that EA exposure caused liver damage and hepatocyte pyroptosis by testing GSDMD-N, Caspase 1, IL-18, and IL-1β in mice and HepG2 cells. Further exploring the mechanisms, we found that EA-induced pyroptosis depended on Cathepsin B (CTSB)-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Cell autophagy was closely related to lysosomes. Our study revealed that EA promoted hepatocyte autophagy, and activated autophagy induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) and CTSB leakage. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-MA mitigated the CTSB leak, reduced the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and then attenuated the EA-induced pyroptosis. In summary, these results indicated that EA induced hepatocyte pyroptosis via autophagy-CTSB-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. The study revealed new insights into the toxicity mechanism of EA.

Ferritinophagy activation and sideroflexin1-dependent mitochondrial iron overload contribute to patulin-induced cardiac inflammation and fibrosis

Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin that is commonly present throughout the ecosystem where fungi grow and mainly contaminates food, soil, and water. PAT was found to be cardiotoxic in previous studies. However, the detailed mechanism has not been fully elucidated. The present study aimed to explore the role and underlying mechanism of ferroptosis in PAT-induced cardiac injury. Here, we confirmed in vivo and in vitro that ferroptosis is involved in PAT-induced myocardial inflammation and fibrosis. Mice exposed to PAT (1 and 2 mg/kg body weight/day for 14 days) exhibited myocardial inflammation and fibrosis along with disrupted iron homeostasis, elevated lipid peroxidation, depletion of glutathione peroxidase 4, and abnormal mitochondrial morphology. When primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) and H9c2 cells were exposed to PAT, ferroptosis was initiated in a dose-dependent manner, and this process could be significantly attenuated by ferrostatin-1. Mechanistically, we found that nuclear receptor coactivator (NCOA) 4, a master regulator of ferritinophagy, bound to and degraded ferritin in response to PAT treatment, thereby releasing large amounts of ferrous iron and further leading to sideroflexin (SFXN) 1-dependent mitochondrial iron overload. Conversely, knockdown of NCOA4 or SFXN1 with small interfering RNAs could effectively ameliorate ferroptotic cell death, cellular or mitochondrial iron overload and lipid peroxides accumulation. Furthermore, myocardial inflammation and fibrosis in PAT-exposed mice was alleviated by the mitochondrial iron chelator deferiprone. Overall, our findings underscore that ferritinophagy activation and SFXN1-dependent mitochondrial iron overload play critical roles in PAT-induced myocardial ferroptosis and consequent cardiotoxicity.

Down-regulated Smyd1 participated in the inhibition of myoblast differentiation induced by cigarette smoke extract

The histone methyltransferase Smyd1 is essential for muscle development; however, its role in smoking-induced skeletal muscle atrophy and dysfunction has not been investigated thus far. In this study, Smyd1 was overexpressed or knocked down in C2C12 myoblasts by an adenovirus vector and cultured in differentiation medium containing 5% cigarette smoke extract (CSE) for 4 days. CSE exposure resulted in inhibition of C2C12 cell differentiation and downregulation of Smyd1 expression, whereas Smyd1 overexpression reduced the degree of inhibition of myotube differentiation caused by CSE exposure. CSE exposure activated P2RX7-mediated apoptosis and pyroptosis, caused increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and impaired mitochondrial biogenesis and increased protein degradation by downregulating PGC1α, whereas Smyd1 overexpression partially restored the altered protein levels caused by CSE exposure. Smyd1 knockdown alone produced a phenotype similar to CSE exposure, and Smyd1 knockdown during CSE exposure aggravated the degree of inhibition of myotube differentiation and the degree of activation of P2RX7. CSE exposure suppressed H3K4me2 expression, and chromatin immunoprecipitation confirmed the transcriptional regulation of P2rx7 by H3K4me2 modification. Our findings suggest that CSE exposure mediates C2C12 cell apoptosis and pyroptosis through the Smyd1-H3K4me2-P2RX7 axis, and inhibits PGC1α expression to impair mitochondrial biosynthesis and increase protein degradation by inhibiting Smyd1 expression, ultimately leading to abnormal C2C12 myoblasts differentiation and impaired myotube formation.

The acute oral toxicity test of ethanol extract of salt-processed Psoraleae Fructus and its acute hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity risk assessment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Psoraleae Fructus is a well-known Traditional Chinese Medicine which has long been used to warm and tonify the kidney and treat diseases such as osteoporosis and diarrhea. However, it may cause multiorgan injury, which limited its use.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to identify the components of ethanol extract of salt-processed Psoraleae Fructus (EEPF) and systematically investigate its acute oral toxicity and the mechanism underlying its acute hepatotoxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the UHPLC-HRMS analysis was carried out for components identification. Followed by acute oral toxicity test in Kunming mice, which received oral gavage of EEPF from 3.85 to 78.00 g/kg. Body weight, organ indexes, biochemical analysis, morphology, histopathology, oxidative stress state, TUNEL, mRNA and protein expression of NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway were evaluated to study the EEPF-induced acute hepatotoxicity and its underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

The results showed that 107 compounds such as psoralen and isopsoralen were identified in EEPF. And the acute oral toxicity test demonstrated the LD₅₀ of EEPF was 15.95 g/kg in Kunming mice. The survival mice displayed non-significant difference in body weight compared with Control at the end of the observation period. And the organ indexes of heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney showed no significant difference. However, the morphological and histopathological changes of these organs in high-dose-groups mice indicated that the liver and kidney might be the main target toxic organs of EEPF, which showed hepatocyte degeneration with lipid droplets and protein cast in kidney. It could be confirmed by the significant increases of liver and kidney function parameters such as AST, ALT, LDH, BUN, and Crea. In addition, the oxidative stress markers, MDA in the liver and kidney was significantly increased while SOD, CAT, GSH-Px (only liver), and GSH were significantly decreased. Furthermore, EEPF increased the TUNEL-positive cells and the mRNA and protein expression of NLRP3, Caspase-1, ASC and GSDMD in liver with increased protein expression of IL-1β and IL-18. Notably, cell viability test showed that the specific inhibitor of Caspase-1 could reverse the Hep-G2 cell death induced by EEPF.

CONCLUSION

To summarize, this study analyzed the 107 compounds of EEPF. The acute oral toxicity test demonstrated the LD₅₀ value of EEPF was 15.95 g/kg in Kunming mice and the liver and kidney might be the main target toxic organs of EEPF. It caused liver injury through oxidative stress and pyroptotic damage via NLRP3/ASC/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway.

Identification of mouse metabolic variations related to patulin-induced acute and subacute hepatotoxicity by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry

Patulin (PAT), a toxin produced by molds in fruits and related products, has caused frequent food poisoning incidents worldwide. However, its potential mechanism of hepatotoxicity remains presently unclear. Herein, we intragastrically administered the C57BL/6J mice with 0, 1, 4, and 16 mg/kg b.wt of PAT on a single occasion (acute model), and 0, 50, 200, and 800 μg/kg b.wt of PAT daily over two weeks (subacute model). Assessments of histopathology and aminotransferase activities confirmed that significant hepatic damages were induced. Metabolic profiling on the liver using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry discovered 43 and 61 differential metabolites in two models, respectively. Notably, acute and subacute models shared the common 18 differential metabolites, among which N-acetyl-leucine, inosine, 2-O-methyladenosine, PC 40:7, PC 38:6, and PC 34:2 could be regarded as the biomarkers indicative of PAT exposure. Moreover, analysis of metabolic pathways demonstrated that pentose phosphate pathway and purine metabolism were the main altered pathways in the acute model. Nevertheless, more pathways related to amino acids were affected in the subacute model. These results reveal the comprehensive influence of PAT on hepatic metabolism and provide a deeper understanding of the hepatotoxicity mechanism of PAT.

TFEB coordinates autophagy and pyroptosis as hepatotoxicity responses to ZnO nanoparticles

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have drawn serious concerns about their biotoxicity due to their extensive applications in biological medicine, clinical therapeutic, daily chemical production, food and agricultural additives. In our present study, we clarified hepatotoxic mechanism of ZnO NPs through investigating the crosstalk between autophagy and pyroptosis, a remaining enigma in hepatocyte stimulated by ZnO NPs. Based on the effects of autophagy intervention by Rapamycin (Rap) and 3-Methyladenine (3-MA), and the observation of pyroptosis morphology and related indexes, the autophagy and pyroptosis simultaneously initiated by ZnO NPs were interrelated and the autophagy characterized by autophagosome production and increased expression of autophagy proteins was identified as a protective response of ZnO NPs against pyroptosis. According to the analysis of protein expression and fluorescence localization, the NLRP3 inflammasome assemble and the classical Caspase-1/GSDMD-dependent pyroptosis induced by ZnO NPs was modulated by autophagy. In this process, the adjustment of TFEB expression and nuclear translocation by gene knockout and gene overexpression, further altered the tendency of ZnO NPs-induced pyroptosis via the regulation of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis. The knockout of TFEB gene exacerbated the pyroptosis via autophagy elimination and lysosome inhibition. While the alleviation of NLRP3 generation and pyroptosis activation was observed after treatment of TFEB gene overexpression. Additionally, the siRNA interference confirmed that TRAF-6 was involved in the TFEB-mediated global regulation of autophagy-lysosome-pyroptosis in response to ZnO NPs. Accordingly, pyroptosis induced by ZnO NPs in hepatocyte could be significantly avoided by TFEB-regulated autophagy and lysosome, further providing new insights for the risk assessment and therapeutic strategy.

Mechanism of fungal inhibition activity of Nα-lauroyl-L-arginine ethyl ester (LAE) and potential in control of Penicillium expansum on postharvest citrus 'Benimadonna' (Citrus reticulata × Citrus sinensis)

BACKGROUND

Citrus 'Benimadonna' (Citrus reticulata × Citrus sinensis) is a high-value perishable fruit; thus there is an urgent need for a preservation technology with high effectiveness and low safety risk from industries. Nα-Lauroyl-l-arginine ethyl ester hydrochloride (LAE) was applied to enhance preservability by compounding with natamycin, and a possible fungal inhibition mechanism based on the hypothesis of an impact on the cell membrane by surfactant was investigated.

RESULTS

In vitro testing showed that the minimum inhibitory concentration of LAE against Penicillium expansum (PE), isolated as the predominant spoilage-inducing fungus, was 32 mg L^-1 and it was partially synergistic with natamycin. Subsequent in vivo testing proved the inhibition capacity. During 90 days' refrigerated preservation, spoilage rate was significantly decreased by preharvest spraying versus control without extra taste loss, and LAE showed an alleviating benefit on total pectin loss. Subsequently, electron microscopic imaging and intracellular protein levels of PE exposed to LAE indicated that LAE stress led to increased permeability and decreased cell integrity. Moreover, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase revealed that LAE enhanced oxidative stress, while pectinase was antagonized.

CONCLUSION

The present investigation first introduced LAE as a candidate active ingredient for citrus preservative. A theoretical basis was provided for the development of preservation technology for high-value perishable fruit. According to the authors' knowledge this study is the first report on the inhibition mechanism of LAE in terms of oxidative stress. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Combined toxicity of food-borne mycotoxins and heavy metals or pesticides

Food can be contaminated by multiple classes of toxic substances, mainly including mycotoxins, heavy metals and pesticides, which leads to a possibility of simultaneous exposure to two or more food contaminants for humans. Thus, it is necessary to examine whether the combined exposure could result in enhanced toxicity. Initially, the studies on the combined toxicity of food contaminants mainly focus on the mixtures of same classes of food contaminants due to their co-occurrence feature in foodstuffs, such as mixtures of mycotoxins or mixtures of heavy metals. Given the possibility that consumers are likely exposed to mixtures of different classes of food contaminants, recently, studies on the combined toxicity of different classes of food contaminants have been receiving increasing attentions. In this review article, we summarize the findings of combined toxicity studies related to co-exposure to food-borne mycotoxins and other classes of food contaminants mainly heavy metals or pesticides, and propose issues that need to be addressed in future studies for more accurately performing risk assessment of co-exposure to mycotoxins and other classes of food contaminants.

Co-exposure of chronic stress and alumina nanoparticles aggravates hippocampal microglia pyroptosis by activating cathepsin B/NLRP3 signaling pathway

Combined exposure of chronic stress and alumina nanoparticles (AlNPs) aggravates hippocampal injury, but the pathogenesis is unevaluated. This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of co-exposure to chronic stress and AlNPs on hippocampal microglia pyroptosis. In this study, chronic restraint stress (CRS) alone caused NLRP3-mediated hippocampal microglia pyroptosis, but AlNPs did not. Moreover, co-exposure to CRS and AlNPs exacerbated hippocampal microglia pyroptosis, resulting in more severe hippocampal damage and behavioral deficits in rats. Protein-protein interaction network predicted that cathepsin B was a potential regulatory protein of NLRP3. CRS up-regulated cathepsin B expression which had a more pronounced increase in co-exposure group. Whereas, caspase-1 inhibitor VX-765 alleviated hippocampal microglia pyroptosis and behavioral deficits in rats. Consistent with in vivo results, co-exposure of corticosterone and AlNPs aggravated NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis and cathepsin B expression in HAPI cells. Nevertheless, the pyroptosis of HAPI cells was inhibited by cathepsin B inhibitor CA-074Me and NLRP3 knockout, respectively. NLRP3 agonist nigericin failed to promote the pyroptosis of HAPI cells in the presence of cathepsin B inhibition. These results demonstrated that co-exposure to chronic stress and AlNPs could aggravate hippocampal microglia pyroptosis by activating cathepsin B/NLRP3 signaling pathway, resulting in hippocampal damage and behavioral deficits.

Deoxynivalenol induces caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis and inflammation in mouse liver and HepaRG cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a frequent food and feed contaminant, poses a severe threat to human and livestock health. Some studies have demonstrated that DON could induce liver damage and cell death. However, novel cell death styles and detailed mechanisms to explain DON-induced liver inflammatory injury are still lacking. Here, we found both chronic and subacute oral administration of DON (3 mg/kg for 4 weeks and 4 mg/kg for 8 days) induced mouse liver inflammatory injury and activated caspase-3, PARP and gasdermin E (GSDME), which were inhibited by caspase-3 inhibitor Z-DEVD and Ac-DEVD. In vitro, HepaRG cells showed typical pyroptotic characteristics after 32 and 64 μM DON exposure for 24 h, including balloon-like bubbling emerging, release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 and activation of caspase-3 and GSDME. Furthermore, knocking down GSDME and inhibiting caspases activity by Z-VAD and Z-DEVD dramatically blocked DON-induced pyroptotic characteristics, while over-expressed GSDME prompted that. These data demonstrate that caspase-3/GSDME pathway plays a key factor in DON-induced pyroptosis and inflammation in liver. Interestingly, knocking down GSDME could inhibit DON-induced pyroptosis but prompt DON-induced apoptosis, while opposite results were obtained when over-expressed GSDME, indicating the critical role of GSDME in DON-induced crosstalk between apoptosis and pyroptosis. Taken together, our data determine DON-induced caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis in liver and its role in DON-induced liver inflammatory injury, which provide a novel mechanistic view into DON-induced hepatotoxicity and may offer a new target to reduce latent harm of DON to both humans and animals.

mTOR-Mediated Autophagy Regulates Fumonisin B1-Induced Intestinal Inflammation via Pyroptosis In Vivo and In Vitro

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is a fungal metabolite, which has an incremental detection rate in grains and feed worldwide. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like pyrin domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a critical element in pyroptosis activation, which participates in regulating enteritis. Meanwhile, autophagy is also engaged in intestinal inflammation. However, the function of pyroptosis and autophagy in FB₁-mediated enterotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we explored the effects of FB₁ on enteritis and the underlying mechanism in vivo and in vitro. Our data showed that FB₁ exposure damaged the intestinal epithelium and promoted the secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Meanwhile, FB₁ exposure significantly upregulated the expression of pyroptosis-related genes. Then, MCC950, an inhibitor of NLRP3, significantly blocked FB₁-induced pyroptosis in IPEC-J2 cells. In addition, FB₁ treatment elevated the levels of autophagy. Moreover, the phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), an upstream protein of the autophagy pathway, was inhibited by FB₁ exposure. Notably, rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, instead of MHY1485, an agonist of mTOR, could ameliorate FB₁-induced intestinal inflammatory injury and inhibit the upregulation of pyroptosis-related genes. In summary, we demonstrated that autophagy exhibited a protective effect against NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent pyroptosis on FB₁-induced enteritis. Our data clarify a favorable protective role for the activation of autophagy in FB₁ poisoning.

Patulin disrupts SLC7A11-cystine-cysteine-GSH antioxidant system and promotes renal cell ferroptosis both in vitro and in vivo

Patulin (PAT) is a common food-borne mycotoxin with diverse toxic effects including nephrotoxicity. The induction of oxidative stress is suggested to be a key mechanism contributed to toxicities of PAT. Reduced glutathione (GSH), a sulfhydryl-containing tripeptide, is a key reason for PAT-mediated oxidative stress. Cystine/glutamate antiporter (system x_c^-)-mediated cystine uptake plays a critical role in maintaining redox balance via promoting GSH biosynthesis. In this study, we addressed if GSH reduction by PAT was associated with inhibition of system x_c^--mediated GSH biosynthesis. Results showed that PAT significantly decreased activity of SLC7A11, a core subunit of system x_c^-, through activating AMPK-mediated formation of beclin1-SLC7A11 complex. Furthermore, PAT promoted ferroptosis induced by a known ferroptosis inducer RSL3 in normal renal cells, and exacerbated folic acid-induced nephrotoxicity in a mouse model of acute kidney injury. The findings of the present study provide new insights into PAT-induced kidney toxicity, and implicate that patients with ferroptosis-associated diseases maybe more susceptible to PAT.

The Role of Autophagy and Pyroptosis in Liver Disorders

Pyroptosis is a programmed cell death caused by inflammasomes, which can detect cell cytosolic contamination or disturbance. In pyroptosis, caspase-1 or caspase-11/4/5 is activated, cleaving gasdermin D to separate its N-terminal pore-forming domain (PFD). The oligomerization of PFD forms macropores in the membrane, resulting in swelling and membrane rupture. According to the different mechanisms, pyroptosis can be divided into three types: canonical pathway-mediated pyroptosis, non-canonical pathway-mediated pyroptosis, and caspase-3-induced pyroptosis. Pyroptosis has been reported to play an important role in many tissues and organs, including the liver. Autophagy is a highly conserved process of the eukaryotic cell cycle. It plays an important role in cell survival and maintenance by degrading organelles, proteins and macromolecules in the cytoplasm. Therefore, the dysfunction of this process is involved in a variety of pathological processes. In recent years, autophagy and pyroptosis and their interactions have been proven to play an important role in various physiological and pathological processes, and have gradually attracted more and more attention to become a research hotspot. Therefore, this review summarized the role of autophagy and pyroptosis in liver disorders, and analyzed the related mechanism to provide a basis for future research.

Downregulation of the NLRP3/Caspse-1 Pathway Ameliorates Ketamine-Induced Liver Injury and Inflammation in Developing Rats

Ketamine is an anesthetic drug that is widely used in human and veterinary medicine. In the developmental stage, long-term exposure to ketamine may cause serious side effects. MCC950 and VX765 play protective roles in many disease models by regulating the NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway. This study aims to explore the potential protective effect of MCC950 and VX765 on ketamine-induced liver injury in neonatal rats and clarify its underlying mechanism. After administration of MCC950 and VX765 in a ketamine-induced liver injury rat model, liver function and inflammatory factors were determined, and immunohistochemistry and western blotting were performed. We found that ketamine caused liver injury in 7-day-old SD rats, decreased liver function indexes, and increased inflammation. MCC950 and VX765 effectively alleviated liver damage and inflammation, and downregulated the expression of proteins such as NLRP3, Caspase-1, and GSDMD-N. In summary, these results indicated that MCC950 and VX765 could have potential protective effects on ketamine-induced liver injury through inhibiting the NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway.

Selenium-Enriched Pediococcus acidilactici MRS-7 Alleviates Patulin-Induced Jejunum Injuries in Mice and Its Possible Mechanisms

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin. Oral ingestion of PAT could damage the intestinal mucosa. Both selenium and probiotics can alleviate intestinal damage, but there are few reports on selenium-enriched probiotics. Here, we studied the protective effects of a new selenium-enriched Pediococcus acidilactici MRS-7 (SeP) on PAT-induced jejunum injuries in mice. Results show that PAT induced jejunum injuries such as loss of crypts, ulceration of the mucosa, and intestinal epithelial barrier function impairment. However, SeP could protect against PAT-induced jejunum injuries and significantly inhibit the reduction of goblet cell numbers. SeP could not only alleviate PAT-induced oxidative stress by decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) and increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) levels in the jejunum tissues but also alleviate the inflammatory response caused by PAT by reducing the levels of inflammatory factors (interleukin (IL)-6 snd IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)) in the serum and jejunum tissues. In addition, SeP also inhibited the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), increased the expression of tight junction proteins (occludin, ZO-1, and claudin-1), and increased the selenium content in the jejunum, thereby antagonizing the jejunum injuries caused by PAT exposure. Finally, SeP rebalanced the intestinal microbiota and improved probiotic abundance such as Turicibacter, Bifidobacterium, Ileibacterium, and Pediococcus in PAT-treated mice. These results support the possibility of SeP as a novel protective agent to mitigate the toxicity of PAT.

Effects of Selenium Nanoparticles on Preventing Patulin-Induced Liver, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Damage

Patulin (PAT) is a toxic fungal metabolite, and oxidative damage was proved to be its important toxicity mechanism. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) were prepared by reducing sodium selenite with chitosan as a stabilizer and used for preventing PAT-induced liver, kidney and gastrointestinal damage. SeNPs have good dispersibility, in vitro antioxidant activity, and are much less cytotoxic than sodium selenite. Cell culture studies indicated that SeNPs can effectively alleviate PAT-induced excessive production of intracellular ROS, the decline of glutathione peroxidase activity, and the suppression of cell viability. Evaluation of serum biochemical parameters, histopathology, oxidative stress biomarkers and activities of antioxidant enzymes in a mouse model showed that pre-treatment with SeNPs (2 mg Se/kg body weight) could ameliorate PAT-induced oxidative damage to the liver and kidneys of mice, but PAT-induced gastrointestinal oxidative damage and barrier dysfunction were not recovered by SeNPs, possibly because the toxin doses suffered by the gastrointestinal as the first exposed tissues exceeded the regulatory capacity of SeNPs. These results suggested that a combination of other strategies may be required to completely block PAT toxicity.

The potential role of methyltransferase-like 5 in deficient mismatch repair of uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma

To explore the potential function of methyltransferase-like 5 (METTL5) in uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) and verify the relationship between deficient DNA mismatch repair (MMR) and METTL5. We used bioinformatics to predict the possible role of METTL5 and molecular biology methods to analyze METTL5 expression. We observed UCEC proliferation, development, and apoptosis using a METTL5 knockdown lentivirus and, coupled with METTL5 bioinformatics and Western blot analysis, detected microsatellite instability (MSI) and MMR. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were performed. Finally, some METTL5-associated gene mutations in UCECs were detected. Results show that METTL5 expression in UCEC tumor tissue was increased, and UCEC patients with high METTL5 expression had worse prognostic outcomes. We also observed the highest METTL5 expression level in KLE cells. Furthermore, knocking down METTL5 weakened the proliferation, reduced tumor volume and biomarkers, and increased apoptosis. Moreover, METTL5 knockdown induced the MSH2, MSH6 and PMS2 expression in MMR. METTL5 was negatively correlated with gene silencing, mRNA binding, olfactory receptor activity, antigen processing and presentation, cytosolic DNA sensing, olfactory transduction, and RIG-1-like and Toll-like receptor signaling pathways. METTL5 may regulate MMR protein levels in UCECs, thus enhancing UCEC proliferation, development, and prognosis.

Transmembrane p24 trafficking protein 2 regulates inflammation through the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in lung adenocarcinoma

Background

To investigate the role of transmembrane p24 trafficking protein 2 (TMED2) in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and determine whether TMED2 knockdown could inhibit LUAD in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

TIMER2.0, Kaplan-Meier plotter, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), Target Gene, and pan-cancer systems were used to predict the potential function of TMED2. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry were performed to analyze TMED2 expression in different tissues or cell lines. The proliferation, development, and apoptosis of LUAD were observed using a lentivirus-mediated TMED2 knockdown. Bioinformatics and western blot analysis of TMED2 against inflammation via the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway were conducted.

Results

TMED2 expression in LUAD tumor tissues was higher than that in normal tissues and positively correlated with poor survival in lung cancer and negatively correlated with apoptosis in LUAD. The expression of TMED2 was higher in tumors or HCC827 cells. TMED2 knockdown inhibited LUAD development in vitro and in vivo and increased the levels of inflammatory factors via the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. TMED2 was correlated with TME, immune score, TME-associated immune cells, their target markers, and some mechanisms and pathways, as determined using the TIMER2.0, GO, and KEGG assays.

Conclusions

TMED2 may regulate inflammation in LUAD through the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and enhance the proliferation, development, and prognosis of LUAD by regulating inflammation, which provide a new strategy for treating LUAD by regulating inflammation.

Modulatory Properties of Food and Nutraceutical Components Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Inflammasomes are key intracellular multimeric proteins able to initiate the cellular inflammatory signaling pathway. NLRP3 inflammasome represents one of the main protein complexes involved in the development of inflammatory events, and its activity has been largely demonstrated to be connected with inflammatory or autoinflammatory disorders, including diabetes, gouty arthritis, liver fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease, respiratory syndromes, atherosclerosis, and cancer initiation. In recent years, it has been demonstrated how dietary intake and nutritional status represent important environmental elements that can modulate metabolic inflammation, since food matrices are an important source of several bioactive compounds. In this review, an updated status of knowledge regarding food bioactive compounds as NLRP3 inflammasome modulators is discussed. Several chemical classes, namely polyphenols, organosulfurs, terpenes, fatty acids, proteins, amino acids, saponins, sterols, polysaccharides, carotenoids, vitamins, and probiotics, have been shown to possess NLRP3 inflammasome-modulating activity through in vitro and in vivo assays, mainly demonstrating an anti-NLRP3 inflammasome activity. Plant foods are particularly rich in important bioactive compounds, each of them can have different effects on the pathway of inflammatory response, confirming the importance of the nutritional pattern (food model) as a whole rather than any single nutrient or functional compound.

OUP accepted manuscript

Background

Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are clinically severe respiratory disorders, and there are currently no Food and Drug Administration-approved drug therapies. It is of great interest to us that dimethyl fumarate (DMF) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of this study was to investigate whether DMF could alleviate lipopolysaccharide(LPS)-induced ALI, and to explore its mechanism of action.

Materials and methods

We established a mice model of ALI with intratracheal instillation of LPS and intraperitoneal injection of DMF to treat ALI. The pathological damage and inflammatory response of lung tissues were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, ELISA assay and western blot. ATP plus LPS was used for the establishment of ALI in vitro model, the therapeutic effects of DMF was explored by ELISA assay, RT-qPCR, western blot, and flow cytometry, and the therapeutic mechanisms of DMF was explored by administration of Brusatol (BT), a nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) inhibitor.

Results

We found that intraperitoneal injection of DMF significantly reduced LPS-induced the pulmonary injury, pulmonary edema, and infiltration of inflammatory mediators. In LPS-induced ALI, NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis was markedly activated, followed by cleavage of caspase-1 and GSDMD. DMF inhibited the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis in both lung of ALI mice and ATP plus LPS-induced BEAS-2B cells. Mechanistically, DMF enhanced expressions of Nrf2, leading to inactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome and reduced pyroptosis in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, BT reduced the inhibitory effects of DMF on NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis, and consequently blocked the improvement roles of DMF on ALI.

Conclusions

DMF could improve LPS-induced ALI via inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis, and that these effects were mediated by triggering Nrf2 expression, suggesting a therapeutic potential of DMF as an anti-inflammatory agent for ALI/ARDS treatment.

Cardiotoxicity of patulin was found in H9c2 cells

Patulin (PAT) is a kind of mycotoxins that is universally found at rotten fruits, especially apples and apple products. Previous studies have shown that PAT has hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. However, cardiotoxicity of PAT is rarely reported. Present study aimed at investigate the cardiotoxicity and relevant mechanisms of PAT on H9c2 cells. Cytotoxicity of PAT were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH. Hoechst 33258 staining was used to examine the nuclear morphology and AV/PI double staining was employed for apoptosis on H9c2 cells. Expression level of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2 were quantified to verify the potential mechanism of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were quantified to determine the inflammatory response by using ELISA assay. ROS, SOD, MDA, GSH levels were measured to determine the oxidative stress status. Results demonstrated that PAT significantly induced cell injury, as evidenced by the down-regulated of cell viability, and the increase of LDH release. Hoesst33258 staining and flow cytometry showed that apoptosis rate was elevated by PAT. PAT treatment up-regulated the expression of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax level and down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 level. TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 levels showed that PAT increased the pro-inflammatory response. As PAT concentration increased, intracellular MDA, ROS content were elevated, while GSH content and the activity of SOD were significantly decreased. Thus, it is concluded that PAT may induce apoptosis of H9c2 cells through oxidative stress.

Mold, Mycotoxins and a Dysregulated Immune System: A Combination of Concern?

Fungi represent one of the most diverse and abundant eukaryotes on earth. The interplay between mold exposure and the host immune system is still not fully elucidated. Literature research focusing on up-to-date publications is providing a heterogenous picture of evidence and opinions regarding the role of mold and mycotoxins in the development of immune diseases. While the induction of allergic immune responses by molds is generally acknowledged, other direct health effects like the toxic mold syndrome are controversially discussed. However, recent observations indicate a particular importance of mold/mycotoxin exposure in individuals with pre-existing dysregulation of the immune system, due to exacerbation of underlying pathophysiology including allergic and non-allergic chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. In this review, we focus on the impact of mycotoxins regarding their impact on disease progression in pre-existing immune dysregulation. This is complemented by experimental in vivo and in vitro findings to present cellular and molecular modes of action. Furthermore, we discuss hypothetical mechanisms of action, where evidence is missing since much remains to be discovered.

New insights into crosstalk between pyroptosis and autophagy co-induced by molybdenum and cadmium in duck renal tubular epithelial cells

Pyroptosis and autophagy are two different biological processes that determine cell fates. Our previous studies revealed that pyroptosis and autophagy were involved in cytotoxicity co-induced by molybdenum (Mo) and cadmium (Cd) in duck renal tubular epithelial cells, but crosstalk between them is unclear. Hence, the cells were treated with 500.0 μM Mo, 4.0 μM Cd, 10.0 μM Z-YVAD-fluoromethylketone (YVAD), 2.5 μM 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and 10.0 μM chloroquine (CQ) alone or in combination for 12 h (CQ for the last 4 h). Under Mo and Cd co-stress, data evidenced that YVAD addition decreased the number of autophagosomes, LC3 puncta, and AMPKα-1, Atg5, Beclin-1, LC3A, LC3B mRNA levels and LC3-II/LC3-I, Beclin-1 protein levels, and increased p62 expression levels. Besides, both 3-MA and CQ addition increased NLRP3, Caspase-1, NEK7, ASC, GSDMA, GSDME, IL-1β, IL-18 mRNA levels, NLRP3, Caspase-1 p20, ASC, GSDMD protein and ROS levels, and NO, LDH, IL-1β, IL-18 releases. Collectively, our results revealed that pyroptosis and autophagy co-induced by Mo and Cd were interrelated in duck renal tubular epithelial cells, and inhibiting pyroptosis might attenuate Mo and Cd co-induced autophagy, but inhibiting autophagy might promote Mo and Cd co-induced pyroptosis.

Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem and a serious threat to people's health. Most food-borne mycotoxins have strong hepatotoxicity. However, no effective methods have been found to prevent or treat Mycotoxin- Induced Liver Injury (MILI) in clinical and animal husbandry. In this paper, the molecular mechanisms and potential anti-MILI medicines of six food-borne MILI are reviewed, and their targets are predicted by network toxicology, which provides a theoretical basis for further study of the toxicity mechanism of MILI and the development of effective strategies to manage MILI-related health problems in the future and accelerate the development of food safety.