Enzymatic hydrolysis of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) protein and sensory characterization of Maillard reaction products

Differential Enzymatic Hydrolysis: A Study on Its Impact on Soy Protein Structure, Function, and Soy Milk Powder Properties

Protein constitutes the primary nutrient in soy, and its modifications are intricately linked to the properties of the soy milk powder. This study employed six main commercial enzymes (bromelain, neutrase, papain, trypsin, flavourzyme, and alcalase) to investigate the impact of enzymatic hydrolysis on the structural and functional properties of soy protein isolate (SPI), as well as its influence on the physicochemical properties of soy milk powder. The findings indicated that each of enzymes exhibits distinct specificity, with the degree of hydrolysis following the order: alcalase > flavourzyme > papain > bromelain > neutrase > trypsin. Enzymatic hydrolysis facilitates the unfolding of SPI, leading to the exposure of chromogenic fluorophores and hydrophobic amino acid residues, which in turn promotes an increase in free sulfhydryl content. Concurrently, this process induces the transformation of α-helix and β-sheet into β-turn and random coil. The enzyme modification enhances the solubility, emulsification, and foaming activities of SPI and significantly augment its antioxidant properties (p < 0.05). However, this enzymatic treatment adversely affects the stability of its emulsification and foaming properties. Subsequent to enzymatic hydrolysis, soy milk powder demonstrated a reduction in particle size and an improvement in solubility, which significantly enhanced its flavor profile. In summary, alcalase offers substantial advantages in augmenting the functional properties of SPI and increasing the solubility of soy milk powder. However, this process adversely affects the flavor profile of soy milk powder, a consequence attributed to the broad hydrolysis specificity of alcalase.

Unveiling the potential of bean proteins: Extraction methods, functional and structural properties, modification techniques, physiological benefits, and diverse food applications

Bean proteins, known for their sustainability, versatility, and high nutritional value, represent a valuable yet underutilized resource, receiving less industrial attention compared to soy and pea proteins. This review examines the structural and molecular characteristics, functional properties, amino acid composition, nutritional value, antinutritional factors, and digestibility of bean proteins. Their applications in various food systems, including baked goods, juice and milk substitutes, meat alternatives, edible coatings, and 3D printing inks, are discussed. The physiological benefits of bean proteins, such as antidiabetic, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects, are also presented, highlighting their potential for promoting well-being. Our review emphasizes the diversity of bean proteins and highlights ultrasound as the most effective extraction method among available techniques. Beyond their physiological benefits, bean proteins significantly enhance the structural, technological, and nutritional properties of food systems. The functionality can be further improved through various modification techniques, thereby expanding their applicability in the food industry. While studies have explored the impact of bean protein structure on their nutritional and functional properties, further research is needed to investigate advanced modification techniques and the structure-function relationship. This will enhance the utilization of bean proteins in innovative and sustainable food applications.

Effects of different enzymatic hydrolysis techniques on volatile flavor compounds and nutritional metabolites of soybean meal yogurt

BACKGROUND

This study explores enzymatic hydrolysis as a method of modifying soybean meal (SM). It can reduce the particle size, improve flavor, and convert macromolecules into absorbable nutrients. The purpose is to provide technical information regarding the use of SM. Papain alone, and a combination of papain and acid protease, and a mixture of papain, acid protease, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum were employed for the enzymatic hydrolysis of SM.

RESULTS

Sensory evaluation and nutritional and flavor analyses were performed with yogurt produced after SM enzymatic hydrolysis. The enzymatic hydrolysis improved yogurt quality significantly in comparison with non-enzymatically hydrolyzed soybean meal yogurt (SMY) by accelerating the decrease in pH and shortening the duration of fermentation. Enzymatic hydrolysis also reduced beany flavors and bitterness and enhanced the aromatic compound, flavor-related amino acid, and organic acid content, rendering the yogurt more appealing to consumers. Microstructural analysis revealed favorable characteristics that textural and rheological properties of the yogurt produced after enzymatically hydrolyzed SM were improved.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the biotechnological approach was used to demonstrate the efficacy of enzymatic hydrolysis in improving the quality and value of SM, promoting the efficient application of SM in the food industry. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Enhancement of nutritional, organoleptic, and umami qualities of chicken soup induced by enzymatic pre-treatment of chicken

To enhance both the quality and cooking efficiency of chicken soup, the effect of enzymatic pre-treatment of chicken on the quality of the chicken soup was investigated in this study. Results indicated that the application of enzymatic pre-treatment markedly enhanced the sensory attributes, physicochemical properties, and nutritional value, compared with the control sample. Specifically, the chicken soup with enzymatic pre-treatment exhibited a significant increase in the concentration of water-soluble proteins, 5'-nucleotides, and umami amino acids (P < 0.05). There were 52 umami peptides identified in enzymatic pre-treatment chicken soup, and eight abundant umami peptides were chosen for molecular docking. The analysis revealed that the primary active sites for interaction between the umami peptide and the T1R1/T1R3 receptor were ASP-30, GLU-27, and MET-342. Therefore, enzymatic pre-treatment of chicken facilitates high-value-added chicken soup products and provides a new approach to improve the quality and efficiency of chicken soup.

Structural and sensory characteristics of ultrasonic assisted wet-heating Maillard reaction products of Giant salamander protein hydrolysates

BACKGROUND

Chinese giant salamander protein hydrolysates (CGSPH) are beneficial to human health as a result of their high content of amino acids and peptides. However, the formation of bitter peptides in protein hydrolysates (PHs) would hinder their application in food industry. The ultrasound assisted wet-heating Maillard reaction (MR) is an effective way to improve the flavor of PHs. Thus, the effect of ultrasonic assisted wet-heating MR on the structure and flavor of CGSPH was investigated in the present study.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the ultrasound assisted wet-heating MR products (MRPs) exhibited a higher degree of graft and more significant changes in the secondary and tertiary structures of CGSPH compared to traditional wet-heating MRPs. Moreover, ultrasound assisted wet-heating MR could significantly increase the content of small molecule peptides and reduce the content of free amino acids of CGSPH, which resulted in more significant changes in flavor characteristics. The changed in flavor properties after MR (especially ultrasound assisted wet-heating MRPs) were mainly manifested by a significant reduction in bitterness, as well as a significant increase in the content of aromatic aldehyde ester compounds such as furan-2-carbaldehyde, butanal, benzaldehyde, furfural, etc. CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasound assisted wet-heating MR between CGSPH and xylose could be a promising way to improve the sensory characteristics of CGSPH. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

The potential meat flavoring derived from Maillard reaction products of rice protein isolate hydrolysate-xylose via the regulation of temperature and cysteine

Maillard reaction products (MRPs) derived from rice protein isolate hydrolysate and D-xylose, with or without L-cysteine, were developed as a potential meat flavoring. The combined impact of temperature (80-140 °C) and cysteine on fundamental physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant activity, and flavor of MRPs were investigated through assessments of pH, color, UV-visible spectra, fluorescence spectra, free amino acids, volatile compounds, E-nose, E-tongue, and sensory evaluation. Results suggested that increasing temperature would reduce pH, deepen color, promote volatile compounds formation, and reduce the overall umami and bitterness. Cysteine addition contributed to the color inhibition, enhancement of DPPH radical-scavenging activity and reducing power, improvement in mouthfulness and continuity, reduction of bitterness, and the formation of sulfur compounds responsible for meaty flavor. Overall, MRPs prepared at 120 °C with cysteine addition could be utilized as a potential meat flavoring with the highest antioxidant activity and relatively high mouthfulness, continuity, umami, meaty aroma, and relatively low bitterness.

Techno-Functions and Safety Concerns of Plant-Based Peptides in Food Matrices

Plant-based peptides (PBPs) benefit functional food development and environmental sustainability. Proteolysis remains the primary method of peptide production because it is a mild and nontoxic technique. However, potential safety concerns still emanate from toxic or allergenic sequences, amino acid racemization, iso-peptide bond formation, Maillard reaction, dose usage, and frequency. The main aim of this review is to investigate the techno-functions of PBPs in food matrices, as well as their safety concerns. The distinctive characteristics of PBPs exhibit their techno-functions for improving food quality and functionality by contributing to several crucial food formulations and processing. The techno-functions of PBPs include solubility, hydrophobicity, bitterness, foaming, oil-binding, and water-holding capacities, which subsequently affect food matrices. The safety and quality of foodstuff containing PBPs depend on the proper source of plant proteins, the selection of processing approaches, and compliance with legal regulations for allergen labeling and safety evaluations. The safety concerns in allergenicity and toxicity were discussed. The conclusion is that food technologists must apply safe limits and consider potential allergenic components generated during the development of food products with PBPs. Therefore, functional food products containing PBPs can be a promising strategy to provide consumers with wholesome health benefits.

Conjugation of gum Arabic and lentil protein hydrolysates through Maillard reaction: Antioxidant activity, volatile compounds, functional and sensory properties

Lentil protein hydrolysates (LPH) and lentil protein hydrolysates cross-linked (LPHC) were grafted with gum Arabic (GA) through a wet Maillard reaction at 100°C for 2 h and called MLPH and MLPHC. The samples were assessed for absorption, degree of grafting (DG), surface hydrophobicity, antioxidant activity, molecular weight (MW) profile, chemical alteration, volatile compounds, functional and sensory properties. Results showed that Maillard grafting led to increase in absorption and DG (maximum value: MLPHC), and led to the reduction of the surface hydrophobicity and antioxidant activity (minimum value: MLPHC). MW profiles indicated that MLPH and MLPHC formed new bands at MW >250 kDa. Regarding the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Maillard conjugation led to the occurrence of peaks at 1759 and 1765 cm-1, while the intensities of amide I bands at 1637 and 1659 cm-1 and amide II bands at 1498 and 1495 cm-1 were decreased. Hydrolysis, cross-linking, and especially Maillard grafting provided well-balanced content of volatile components. Indeed, the proportions of alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and acids were changed, thereby, the inherent grassy and planty tastes were diminished while new umami taste was developed. Maillard grafting led to significant improvement of functional properties, while MLPH and MLPHC indicated the highest emulsifying activity at pH 10.0 (73.76 and 70.12 m2/g, respectively) and stability (369.64 and 288.22 min), foaming capacity (88.57% and 142.86%) and stability (60.57% and 72%). Sensory analysis has demonstrated that umami taste was highly developed in MLPH and MLPHC, which can be well considered as meat proteins and flavor enhancers such as monosodium glutamate (MSG).

Flavor formation of tilapia byproduct hydrolysates in Maillard reaction

The Maillard reaction (MR) of tilapia byproduct protein hydrolysates was investigated for the use of byproduct protein as a food ingredient and to mask its fishy odor and bitter flavor. The flavor differences in tilapia byproduct hydrolysates before and after the MR were analyzed to explore the key flavor precursor peptides and amino acids involved in MR. The results suggested that eight key volatile substances, including 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-pentylfuran, hexanal, octanal, nonanal, (E)-2-decenal, decanal, and 1-octen-3-ol contributed most to the MR products group (ROAV > 1). Ten volatile compounds, including 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, 2-pentylfuran, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, methyl decanoate, and 2-octylfuran, were the flavor markers that distinguished the different samples (VIP > 1). The four most consumed peptides were VAPEEHPTL, GPIGPRGPAG, KSADDIKKAF, and VWEGQNIVK. Umami peptides and bitter free amino acids (FAAs) were the key flavor precursor peptide and FAAs, respectively. Overall, the hydrolysates of tilapia byproducts with flavor improved by MR are a promising strategy for the production of flavorings.

Antioxidant, aroma, and sensory characteristics of Maillard reaction products from Urechis unicinctus hydrolysates: development of food flavorings

To develop food flavorings with a delicious taste and an anti-oxidation effect, in this study, the glucose Maillard reaction was used for hydrolysates of Urechis unicinctus. The various biological activities of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) and their antioxidant capacity were evaluated. The results showed that the unique fishy odor substances of seafood in MRPs were reduced, indicating that the Maillard reaction improved the flavor of the hydrolysate of Urechis unicinctus. Meanwhile, MRPs exhibited more competitive radical scavenging activities compared to the hydrolysate. Moreover, MRPs demonstrated a considerable potential to protect against 2,2'-Azobis (2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride (AAPH)-induced oxidative stress in a cell model in vitro and in a zebrafish model in vivo. Finally, a novel food flavoring was produced with MRPs as raw material, while the sensory qualities were deemed acceptable. In consequence, during industrial production, MRPs of Urechis unicinctus hydrolysate act as a high-quality raw material for functional flavorings and provide an effective way for the utilization of marine resources.

Effects of cholesterol removal treatment on the flavor and physicochemical properties of hot gel egg yolk

The aim of this study was to investigate effects of cholesterol removal treatment (CRT) on the flavor, taste, texture, color, and nutritional value of hot gel egg yolk (EY). The off-odor, volatile components and taste of EY treated with CRT were studied by electronic nose (E-nose), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electronic tongue (E-tongue). The effect of CRT on the nutritional value of EY was studied by amino acid and fatty acid analysis. The CRT significantly reduced the content of hexanal, 2-amyl-furan, 1-octene-3-ol, styrene and heptanal in EY1-EY4, also decreased its bitter taste without affecting other taste and elasticity. In addition, the CRT did not affect the essential amino acids (EAA) content and L*, a* and b* values of EY1-EY4, but it led to the reduction in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content. In general, the CRT is an effective way to reduce the off-odor of EY without affecting consumer acceptance.

Changes in flavor and biological activities of Lentinula edodes hydrolysates after Maillard reaction

This study aimed to elucidate how the Maillard reaction (MR) affects the flavor and bioactivities of Lentinula edodes hydrolysates (LEHs). Changes in flavor were investigated using non-targeted metabolomics techniques (GC-MS and LC-MS/MS) and sensory evaluation. Simultaneously, UV absorption, fluorescence, and FT-IR spectra were used to characterize the process of MR. We also evaluated the effects of MR on the antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic activity and antimicrobial activity of LEHs in vitro. The results revealed that MR produced many volatile aldehydes and ketones and decreased the content of most amino acids, sugars and flavonoids in the LEHs while increasing the content of l-theanine and succinic acid. MRPs had a strong caramel and like-meat flavor and an obvious improvement in umami, taste continuity, and total acceptability. Furthermore, MR improved the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of LEHs. This research establishes a theoretical foundation for MR in the deep processing of edible mushrooms.

Techno-functional attributes of oilseed proteins: influence of extraction and modification techniques

Plant-based protein isolates and concentrates are nowadays becoming popular due to their nutritional, functional as well as religious concerns. Among plant proteins, oilseeds, a vital source of valuable proteins, are continuously being explored for producing protein isolates/concentrates. This article delineates the overview of conventional as well as novel methods for the extraction of protein and their potential impact on its hydration, surface properties, and rheological characteristics. Moreover, proteins undergo several modifications using physical, chemical, and biological techniques to enhance their functionality by altering their microstructure and physical performance. The modified proteins hold a pronounced scope in novel food formulations. An overview of these protein modification approaches and their effects on the functional properties of proteins have also been presented in this review.

Effects of Reducing Sugars on the Structural and Flavor Properties of the Maillard Reaction Products of Lycium barbarum Seed Meal

Lycium barbarum seed meal contains a variety of bioactive compounds, but the use of L. barbarum seed meal in the food industry is rare. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of reducing sugars on the structural and flavor properties of the Maillard reaction products (MRPs) of the Lycium barbarum seed meal hydrolysate (LSH). The results showed that the flavors and tastes of the MRPs were affected by reducing sugars. In comparison to oligosaccharides, monosaccharides were more suitable for the development of MRPs with good sensory qualities. The structural characteristics of L. barbarum seed meal precursor MRPs were also affected by reducing sugars. The MRPs produced with the participation of monosaccharides had higher ultraviolet absorption and browning than the MRPs produced with oligosaccharides. The molecular weights of the MRPs were found to be 128-500 Da and 500-1000 Da. Compared to the MRPs made from other sugars, xylose-meridian products (X-MRPs) had a stronger meaty flavor. The mellowness and continuity of the MRPs made from monosaccharides were superior to those made from oligosaccharides. The MRPs formed by L. barbarum seed meal exhibited the characteristics of umami and meat flavor. MRPs with better flavors may be used to develop new types of seasoning salts.

Improved secretory expression and characterization of thermostable xylanase and β-xylosidase from Pseudothermotoga thermarum and their application in synergistic degradation of lignocellulose

Xylanase and β-xylosidase are the key enzymes for hemicellulose hydrolysis. To further improve hydrolysis efficacy, high temperature hydrolysis with thermostable hemicellulases showed promise. In this study, thermostable xylanase (Xyn) and β-xylosidase (XynB) genes from Pseudothermotoga thermarum were cloned and secretory expressed in Bacillu subtilis. Compared with Escherichia coli expression host, B. subtilis resulted in a 1.5 time increase of enzymatic activity for both recombinant enzymes. The optimal temperature and pH were 95°C and 6.5 for Xyn, and 95°C and 6.0 for XynB. Thermostability of both recombinant enzymes was observed between the temperature range of 75-85°C. Molecular docking analysis through AutoDock showed the involvement of Glu525, Asn526, Trp774 and Arg784 in Xyn-ligand interaction, and Val237, Lys238, Val761 and Asn76 in XynB-ligand interaction, respectively. The recombinant Xyn and XynB exhibited synergistic hydrolysis of beechwood xylan and pretreated lignocellulose, where Xyn and XynB pre-hydrolysis achieved a better improvement of pretreated lignocellulose hydrolysis by commercial cellulase. The observed stability of the enzymes at high temperature and the synergistic effect on lignocellulosic substrates suggested possible application of these enzymes in the field of saccharification process.

Microbial proteases and their applications

Proteases (proteinases or peptidases) are a class of hydrolases that cleave peptide chains in proteins. Endopeptidases are a type of protease that hydrolyze the internal peptide bonds of proteins, forming shorter peptides; exopeptidases hydrolyze the terminal peptide bonds from the C-terminal or N-terminal, forming free amino acids. Microbial proteases are a popular instrument in many industrial applications. In this review, the classification, detection, identification, and sources of microbial proteases are systematically introduced, as well as their applications in food, detergents, waste treatment, and biotechnology processes in the industry fields. In addition, recent studies on techniques used to express heterologous microbial proteases are summarized to describe the process of studying proteases. Finally, future developmental trends for microbial proteases are discussed.

Development of lentil peptides with potent antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic activities along with umami taste

Lentil peptides have shown promising bioactive properties regarding the antioxidant activity and also inhibitory activity of angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE). Sequential hydrolysis of proteins has shown a higher degree of hydrolysis with enhanced antioxidant and ACE-inhibitory activities. The lentil protein concentrate (LPC) was sequentially hydrolyzed using Alcalase and Flavourzyme at 2% w/w. The hydrolysate (LPH) was cross-linked (LPHC) or sonicated (LPHUS) and sequentially cross-linked (LPHUSC). Amino acid profile, molecular weight (MW) distribution, DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities (RSA; 7 mg/mL), ACE (0.1-2 mg/mL), α-glucosidase, and α-amylase inhibitory activities (10-500 μg/mL), and umami taste were determined. The highest DPPH RSA was obtained for LPH (68.75%), followed by LPHUSC (67.60%), and LPHUS (67.49%) while the highest ABTS RSA values were obtained for LPHC (97.28%) and LPHUSC (97.20%). Cross-linking and sonication led to the improvement of the ACE-inhibitory activity so that LPHUSC and LPHC had IC50 values of 0.23 and 0.27 mg/mL, respectively. LPHC and LPHUSC also indicated higher α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC50 of 1.2 and 1.23 mg/mL) compared to LPH (IC50 of 1.74 mg/mL) and LPHUS (IC50 of 1.75 mg/mL) while the IC50 value of acarbose indicated 0.51 mg/mL. Moreover, LPHC and LPHUSC exhibited higher α-amylase inhibitory activities (IC50 of 1.35 and 1.16 mg/mL) than LPHUS (IC50 of 1.95 mg/mL), and LPH (IC50 of 2.51 mg/mL) while acarbose had an IC50 value of 0.43 mg/mL. Umami taste analysis revealed that LPH and LPHC due to MW of 1.7 and 2.3 kDa and also high umami amino acids could be well considered as representative of meaty and umami analog flavors while indicating stronger antioxidant, antihypertension, and antidiabetic attributes.

Effect of fermentation methods on the quality and in vitro antioxidant properties of Lycium barbarum and Polygonatum cyrtonema compound wine

Lycium barbarum and Polygonatum cyrtonema are known for their medicinal, edible, and ornamental properties. The sensory indices of the novel high-quality L. barbarum and P. cyrtonema compound wine (LPCW) fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae RW and Debaryomyces hansenii AS2.45 under different inoculation methods were analyzed. The alcohol content of the LPCW ranged from 3.88 to 4.75 % under three mixed inoculations. The total saponin and total polysaccharide contents in LPCW inoculated with D. hansenii first and S. cerevisiae after 24 h were 4.39 mg/mL and 0.21 mg/mL, respectively. Ethyl butyrate, citronellol, and 3-(methylthio) propanol were unique metabolites of D. hansenii. 4-Methoxybenzoic acid was the core product of brewing of by S. cerevisiae. Except for wine inoculated with S. cerevisiae only, the acceptability scores of all the LPCW samples were higher than 7.3. Our data provided the foundation for the development and application of medicinal and food homologous substances in food fermentation.

Identification of Novel Umami Peptides in Chicken Breast Soup through a Sensory-Guided Approach and Molecular Docking to the T1R1/T1R3 Taste Receptor

Ultrafiltration combined with nanoliquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (nano-LC-QTOF-MS) and sensory evaluation was used to separate and identify umami peptides in chicken breast soup. Fifteen peptides with umami propensity scores of >588 were identified from the fraction (molecular weight ≤1 kDa) using nano-LC-QTOF-MS, and their concentrations ranged from 0.02 ± 0.01 to 6.94 ± 0.41 μg/L in chicken breast soup. AEEHVEAVN, PKESEKPN, VGNEFVTKG, GIQKELQF, FTERVQ, and AEINKILGN were considered as umami peptides according to sensory analysis results (detection threshold: 0.18-0.91 mmol/L). The measurement of point of subjective equality showed that these six umami peptides (2.00 g/L) were equivalent to 0.53-0.66 g/L of monosodium glutamate (MSG) in terms of umami intensity. Notably, the sensory evaluation results showed that the peptide of AEEHVEAVN significantly enhanced the umami intensity of the MSG solution and chicken soup models. The molecular docking results showed that the serine residues were the most frequently observed binding sites in T1R1/T1R3. The binding site Ser276 particularly contributed to the formation of the umami peptide-T1R1 complexes. The acidic glutamate residues observed in the umami peptides were also involved in their binding to the T1R1 and T1R3 subunits.

The potential meat flavoring generated from Maillard reaction products of wheat gluten protein hydrolysates-xylose: Impacts of different thermal treatment temperatures on flavor

Wheat gluten protein hydrolysates were prepared by Flavourzyme, followed by xylose-induced Maillard reaction at different temperatures (80 °C, 100 °C and 120 °C). The MRPs were subjected to analysis of physicochemical characteristics, taste profile and volatile compounds. The results demonstrated that UV absorption and fluorescence intensity of MRPs significantly increased at 120 °C, suggesting formation of a large amount of Maillard reaction intermediates. Thermal degradation and cross-linking simultaneously occurred during Maillard reaction, while thermal degradation of MRPs played a more predominant role at 120 °C. MRPs exhibited high umami and low bitter taste at 120 °C, accompanied by the high content of umami amino acids and low content of bitter amino acids. Furans and furanthiols with pronounced meaty flavor served as the main volatile compounds in MRPs at 120 °C. Overall, high temperature-induced Maillard reaction of wheat gluten protein hydrolysates and xylose is a promising strategy for the generation of potential plant-based meat flavoring.

Antioxidant effects and reaction volatiles from heated mixture of soy protein hydrolysates and coconut oil

Soy protein hydrolysates (SPHs) are prepared from soybean meal using commercially available protease enzymes and acid/alkali treatment. The antioxidant properties of SPHs were evaluated by measuring headspace oxygen consumption and conjugated diene formation in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions. In addition, volatile profiles were analyzed for the heated mixture of SPHs and the coconut oil (SPHCO). Total amino acid content was the highest in double proteases. SPHs prepared from enzymes acted as better antioxidants than those prepared from acid/alkali treatments in O/W emulsions. SPHs prepared from double proteases generated the highest amounts of total volatiles and nitrogen-containing compounds in SPHCO. 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one, 2-methyl-butanal, benzeneacetaldehyde, and 2,6-dimethylpyrazine were the major volatiles in SPHCO. Enzymatic SPHs act as natural antioxidants in the O/W emulsion matrix, and thermal reaction products from SPHCO may contribute to the production of a unique volatile flavor in plant protein-based foods.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01189-7.

Industrial Application of Protein Hydrolysates in Food

Protein hydrolysates, which may be produced by the protein in the middle of the process or added as an ingredient, are part of the food formula. In food, protein hydrolysates are found in many forms, which can regulate the texture and functionality of food, including emulsifying properties, foaming properties, and gelation. Therefore, the relationship between the physicochemical and structural characteristics of protein hydrolysates and their functional characteristics is of significant importance. In recent years, researchers have conducted many studies on the role of protein hydrolysates in food processing. This Review explains the relationship between the structure and function of protein hydrolysates, and their interaction with the main ingredients of food, to provide reference for their development and further research.

Antioxidant Activity and Cell Protection of Glycosylated Products in Different Reducing Sugar Duck Liver Protein Systems

Duck liver is an important by-product of duck food. In this study, we investigated the effects of glucose, fructose, and xylose on the antioxidant properties of glycosylated products of duck liver protein and their protective effects on HepG2 cells. The results show that the glycosylation products of the three duck liver proteins (DLP-G, DLP-F, and DLP-X) all exhibit strong antioxidant activity; among three groups, DLP-X shows the strongest ability to scavenge DPPH, ·OH free radicals, and ABTS⁺ free radicals. The glycosylated products of duck liver protein are not toxic to HepG2 cells and significantly increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px in HepG2 cells at the concentration of 2.0 g/L, reducing oxidative stress damage of cells (p < 0.05). DLP-X has a better effect in reducing oxidative damage and increasing cellular activity in HepG2 cells than DLP-G and DLP-F (p < 0.05). In this study, the duck liver protein glycosylated products by glucose, fructose, and xylose were named as DLP-G, DLP-F, and DLP-X, respectively.

Composition, processing, and quality control of whole flaxseed products used to fortify foods

Whole flaxseed (flour) as a good source of omega-3 fatty acid and phytochemicals with excellent nutritional and functional attributes has been used to enrich foods for health promotion and disease prevention. However, several limitations and contemporary challenges still impact the development of whole flaxseed (flour)-enriched products on the global market, such as naturally occurring antinutritional factors and entrapment of nutrients within food matrix. Whole flaxseed (flour) with different existing forms could variably alter the techno-functional performance of food matrix, and ultimately affect the edible qualities of fortified food products. The potential interaction mechanism between the subject and object components in fortified products has not been elucidated yet. Hence, in this paper, the physical structure and component changes of flaxseed (flour) by pretreatments coupled with their potential influences on the edible qualities of multiple fortified food products were summarized and analyzed. In addition, several typical food products, including baked, noodle, and dairy products were preferentially selected to investigate the potential influencing mechanisms of flaxseed (flour) on different substrate components. In particular, the altered balance between water absorption of flaxseed protein/gum polysaccharides and the interruption of gluten network, lipid lubrication, lipid-amylose complexes, syneresis, and so forth, were thoroughly elucidated. The overall impact of incorporating whole flaxseed (flour) on the quality and nutritional attributes of fortified food products, coupled with the possible solutions against negative influences are aimed. This paper could provide useful information for expanding the application of whole flaxseed (flour) based on the optimal edible and nutritional properties of fortified food products.

Protein Characteristics and Bioactivity of Fish Protein Hydrolysates from Tra Catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) Side Stream Isolates

Enzymatic hydrolysis is a novel method to recover highly potent bioactive fish protein hydrolysates (FPHs) from fish processing side-streams. The common way of producing FPHs directly from fish side-streams may be inappropriate due to the excess of lipids and pro-oxidants, especially in lipid-rich streams, as obtained from Tra catfish. This study aimed to optimise the hydrolysis conditions for a commercial enzyme (Alcalase® 2.4 L) (enzyme concentrate, temperature, and time) in FPH production from the fish protein isolate obtained from Tra catfish dark muscle (DM-FPI) using the pH-shift method. The degree of hydrolysis (DH), protein recovery (PR), and antioxidant properties, including DPPH radical scavenging activity (DPPH-RSA) and total reducing power capacity (TRPC), were measured to evaluate the effects of the hydrolysis conditions on the FPHs. Optimal hydrolysis was obtained at an enzyme/substrate protein ratio of 3% (v/w) and a hydrolysis temperature of 50 °C for 3 h. The FPHs obtained from different substrates, including DM-FPI, abdominal cut-off (ACO) FPI, and head and backbone blend (HBB) FPI, had similar DHs under these optimum conditions, ranging from 22.5% to 24.0%. However, the FPH obtained from abdominal cut-off isolate (ACO-FPH) showed the highest PR of 81.5 ± 4.3% and the highest antioxidant properties, with a DPPH-RSA of 86.1 ± 1.6% and a TRPC of 6.4 ± 0.4 equivalent mg vitamin C/g protein. The resulting FPHs present a natural source of antioxidants with great potential for food applications, especially the ACO-FPH. In addition, all FPHs had excellent amino acid profiles, indicating strong potential for their use as supplements. Tra catfish protein-rich side-streams can thus be processed into high-value bioactive FPHs using Alcalase for human consumption.

Influence of Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Molecular Weight Fractionation on the Antioxidant and Lipase / α-Amylase Inhibitory Activities In Vitro of Watermelon Seed Protein Hydrolysates

This study aims to evaluate the potential in vitro antioxidant and anti-obesity activities of watermelon seed protein hydrolysates (WSPH) obtained using different combinations of enzymes alcalase−proteinase K (ALC-PK) and alcalase−actinidin (ALC-ACT). There was a direct relationship between the degree of hydrolysis (DH) and the biological activities of the WSPH, with the highest DPPH (approximately 85%) and lipase inhibitory activities (≈59%) appreciated at DH of 36−37% and 33−35% when using ALC-PK and ALC-ACT, respectively. Following molecular weight fractionation, the ALC-PK WSPH < 3 kDa (F1) assayed at 1 mg.mL−1 had the highest DPPH-radical scavenging (89.22%), ferrous chelating (FC) (79.83%), reducing power (RP) (A 0.51), lipase inhibitory (71.36%), and α-amylase inhibitory (62.08%) activities. The amino acid analysis of ALC-PK WSPH and its fractions revealed a relationship between the biological activity of the extracts and their composition. High contents of hydrophobic amino acids, arginine, and aromatic amino acids were related to high antioxidant, lipase inhibitory, and α-amylase inhibitory activities in the extracts, respectively. Overall, this study revealed that underutilized protein sources such as WSPH, using the appropriate combination of enzymes, could result in the generation of new ingredients and compounds with powerful antioxidant and anti-obesity activities with promising applications as nutraceuticals or functional foods.

Insights into flavor and key influencing factors of Maillard reaction products: A recent update

During food processing, especially heating, the flavor and color of food change to a great extent due to Maillard reaction (MR). MR is a natural process for improving the flavor in various model systems and food products. Maillard reaction Products (MRPs) serve as ideal materials for the production of diverse flavors, which ultimately improve the flavor or reduce the odor of raw materials. Due to the complexity of the reaction, MR is affected by various factors, such as protein source, hydrolysis conditions, polypeptide molecular weight, temperature, and pH. In the recent years, much emphasis is given on conditional MR that could be used in producing of flavor-enhancing peptides and other compounds to increase the consumer preference and acceptability of processed foods. Recent reviews have highlighted the effects of MR on the functional and biological properties, without elaborating the flavor compounds obtained by the MR. In this review, we have mainly introduced the Maillard reaction-derived flavors (MF), the main substances producing MF, and detection methods. Subsequently, the main factors influencing MF, from the selection of materials (sugar sources, protein sources, enzymatic hydrolysis methods, molecular weights of peptides) to the reaction conditions (temperature, pH), are also described. In addition, the existing adverse effects of MR on the biological properties of protein are also pointed out.

Characterization of Pleurotus citrinopileatus hydrolysates obtained from Actinomucor elegans proteases compared with that by commercial proteases

Pleurotus citrinopileatus, a nutritious and palatable edible mushroom, can be used as an appropriate material to prepare high-grade flavoring agents. Based on this, the current study aimed to investigate the feasibility of a productive protease system from Actinomucor elegans to prepare P. citrinopileatus hydrolysate (PCH). The Actinomucor elegans crude protease (AECP) was prepared from the solid-state fermentation product of P. citrinopileatus by A. elegans. AECP and four commercial proteases (alcalase, neutrase, papain, and protamex) were applied to acquire five kinds of PCHs. The physical-chemical properties of PCHs as well as its concentration and composition of nonvolatile compounds were comparatively analyzed. Sensory evaluation and electronic tongue analysis were utilized to evaluate sensory characteristics. AECP was found to be the most effective protease, with the highest hydrolysis degree (35.91%) and protein recovery (81.46%). The result of molecular weight distribution indicated that peptides below 500 Da were the main fraction of AECP hydrolysates, while AECP hydrolysates showed the highest content of monosodium glutamate-like (20.23 ± 0.16 mg/g) and flavor 5'-nucleotide (4.30 ± 0.07 mg/g) peptides. In summary, the AECP hydrolysate had superior sensory profiles compared with other hydrolysates. In addition, AECP hydrolysates exhibited favorable kokumi taste in which peptides below 500 Da showed the highest correlation with kokumi by the results of partial least-squares regression. These results indicated the feasibility of applying PCHs as flavor additives or seasoning in the food industry. AECP might be used as an alternative enzyme choice because of its low cost and high hydrolysis efficiency. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Pleurotus citrinopileatus served as a potential raw material for natural seasonings because of its high protein content and appropriate ratio of umami amino acids to total amino acids. Enzymatic hydrolysis was an efficient approach to improve the flavor of P. citrinopileatus, where the choice of enzyme was one of the most critical factors. The research indicated that P. citrinopileatus hydrolysate prepared by A. elegans crude protease (AECP) exhibited an acceptable flavor, which provided theoretical support for the high-value utilization of P. citrinopileatus as food seasoning. AECP might be applied as an alternative enzyme resource because of its low cost and high hydrolysis efficiency.

Production of Cardamine violifolia selenium-enriched peptide using immobilized Alcalase on Fe3O4 modified by tannic acid and polyethyleneimine

Enzymatic synthesis of selenium (Se)-enriched peptides is vital for their application in supplementing organic Se. However, the poor stability and reusability of the free enzyme impedes the reaction. In this work, a highly stable immobilized Alcalase was synthesized by immobilizing Alcalase on tannic acid (TA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI) modified Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs). The optimal immobilization conditions for immobilized Alcalase were found at a TA/PEI (v/v) ratio of 1 : 1, pH of 10, and temperature of 40 °C, and the results from scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization confirmed the successful immobilization of Alcalase. The results of an enzyme property test showed that immobilized Alcalase had higher thermal and pH stability than free Alcalase, and retained 61.0% of the initial enzyme activity after 10 repetitions. Furthermore, the organic Se content of Se-enriched peptide prepared through enzymatic hydrolysis of Cardamine violifolia (CV) protein with immobilized Alcalase was 2914 mg kg-1, and the molecular weight was mainly concentrated in 924.4 Da with complete amino acid components. Therefore, this study proposes the feasibility of immobilized enzymes for the production of Se-enriched peptides.

Structural Characterization and Functional Properties of Flaxseed Hydrocolloids and Their Application

Flaxseed is an excellent source of valuable nutrients and is also considered a functional food. There are two types of hydrocolloids in flaxseed: flaxseed gum and proteins. Flaxseed gum exhibits emulsifying and foaming activities or can be used as a thickening and gelling agent. Due to its form of soluble fiber, flaxseed gum is related to many health benefits. Flaxseed proteins have various functional properties based on their physicochemical properties. While albumins possess the emulsion-forming ability, globulins better serve as foaming agents. Flaxseed proteins may also serve as a source of functional peptides with interesting biological and health-related activities. Functional properties and health-related benefits predetermine the application of these hydrocolloids, mainly in the food industry or medicine. Although these properties of flaxseed hydrocolloids have been recently and extensively studied, they are still not widely used on the industrial scale compared to other popular plant gums and proteins. The aim of this review was to present, discuss and highlight the recent discoveries in the structural characteristics and functional and biological properties of these versatile hydrocolloids with respect to factors affecting their characteristics and offer new insights into their potential applications as comparable alternatives to the other natural hydrocolloids or as the sources of novel functional products.

Advances in Protein-Based Nanocarriers of Bioactive Compounds: From Microscopic Molecular Principles to Macroscopical Structural and Functional Attributes

Many proteins can be used to fabricate nanocarriers for encapsulation, protection, and controlled release of nutraceuticals. This review examined the protein-based nanocarriers from microscopic molecular characteristics to the macroscopical structural and functional attributes. Structural, physical, and chemical properties of protein-based nanocarriers were introduced in detail. The spatial size, shape, water dispersibility, colloidal stability, etc. of protein-based nanocarriers were largely determined by the molecular physicochemical principles of protein. Different preparative techniques, including antisolvent precipitation, pH-driven, electrospray, and gelation methods, among others, can be used to fabricate different protein-based nanocarriers. Various modifications based on physical, chemical, and enzymatic approaches can be used to improve the functional performance of these nanocarriers. Protein is a natural resource with a wide range of sources, including plant, animal, and microbial, which are usually used to fabricate the nanocarriers. Protein-based nanocarriers have many advantages in aid of the application of bioactive ingredients to the medical, food, and cosmetic industries.

Effect of beef tallow, phospholipid and microwave combined ultrasonic pretreatment on Maillard reaction of bovine bone enzymatic hydrolysate

The effects of beef tallow, phospholipid, microwave, and ultrasonic pretreatment (MUP) on the Maillard reaction process, the sensory characteristics of Maillard reaction products (MRPs), and the composition and content of volatile compounds were studied. Maillard reaction of the sample was more intense after MUP, but more hydrophobic amino acids were generated, resulting in relatively high sourness in MRPs. Beef tallow encapsulation has no significant effect on the sensory characteristics of MRPs. The content of volatile compounds in MRPs added with phospholipids increased significantly, and the content of sulfur compounds (especially furan and furanthiol) increased most significantly. Hexanal, Nonanal, 2-Hexylfuran, 2-Hexylthiophene, and 1-Octanol were positively correlated with the value of umami and saltiness of MRPs. The addition of phospholipids after MUP and beef tallow encapsulation helps to increase the saltiness and umami of MRPs, reduce astringency, and produce more sulfur and other flavor compounds.

Bioactive Peptides: From Basic Research to Clinical Trials and Commercialization

Chronic diseases, including metabolic diseases, have become a worldwide public health issue. Research regarding the use of bioactive peptides or protein hydrolysates derived from food, as the diet-based strategies for the prevention and mitigation of chronic diseases, has increased exponentially in the past decades. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies report the efficacy and safety of food-derived bioactive peptides and protein hydrolysates as antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antioxidant agents. However, despite promising preclinical results, an inadequate understanding of their mechanisms of action and pharmacokinetics restrict their clinical translation. Commercialization of bioactive peptides can be further hindered due to scarce information regarding their efficacy, safety, bitter taste, as well as the lack of a cost-effective method of production. This review provides an overview of the current clinical evidence and challenges to commercial applications of food-derived bioactive peptides and protein hydrolysates for the prevention and alleviation of chronic diseases.

Analysis of key precursor peptides and flavor components of flaxseed derived Maillard reaction products based on iBAQ mass spectrometry and molecular sensory science

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Peptides-MRPs had high umami, mouthfulness, and continuity enhancement.

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DLSFIP and ELPGSP accounted for 42.22% and 20.41% of total consumption.

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Sulfur and nitrogen flavors was dependent on cysteine and peptides, respectively.

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This study also revealed the flavor formation mechanism of flaxseed derived MRPs.

Flaxseed derived Maillard reaction products (MRPs) have typical meaty flavor, but there is no report on comparison of their amino acids and peptides reactivity. The peptides and amino acids of flaxseed protein hydrolysates were separately collected by G-15 gel chromatography. Taste dilution analysis (TDA) showed that peptides-MRPs had high umami, mouthfulness, and continuity enhancement. Further, LC-MS/MS revealed that flaxseed protein hydrolysates consumed 41 peptides after Maillard reaction. Particularly, DLSFIP (Asp-Leu-Ser-Phe-Ile-Pro) and ELPGSP (Glu-Leu-Pro-Gly-Ser-Pro) accounted for 42.22% and 20.41% of total consumption, respectively. Aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) indicated that formation of sulfur-containing flavors was dependent on cysteine, while peptides were more reactive than amino acids for nitrogen-containing heterocycles. On the other hand, 11 flavor compounds with flavor dilution (FD) ≥ 64 were identified for flaxseed derived MRPs, such as 2-methylthiophene, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, furfural, 2-furfurylthiol, 3-thiophenethiol, thieno[3,2-b] thiophene, 2,5-thiophenedicarboxaldehyde, 2-methylthieno[2,3-b] thiophene, 1-(2-methyl-3-furylthio)-ethanethiol, 2-methylthieno[3,2-b] thiophene, and bis(2-methyl-3-furyl)-disulfide. In addition, we further demonstrated the flavors formation mechanism of flaxseed derived MRPs.

Research progress in the screening and evaluation of umami peptides

Umami is an important element affecting food taste, and the development of umami peptides is a topic of interest in food-flavoring research. The existing technology used for traditional screening of umami peptides is time-consuming and labor-intensive, making it difficult to meet the requirements of high-throughput screening, which limits the rapid development of umami peptides. The difficulty in performing a standard measurement of umami intensity is another problem that restricts the development of umami peptides. The existing methods are not sensitive and specific, making it difficult to achieve a standard evaluation of umami taste. This review summarizes the umami receptors and umami peptides, focusing on the problems restricting the development of umami peptides, high-throughput screening, and establishment of evaluation standards. The rapid screening of umami peptides was realized based on molecular docking technology and a machine learning method, and the standard evaluation of umami could be realized with a bionic taste sensor. The progress of rapid screening and evaluation methods significantly promotes the study of umami peptides and increases its application in the seasoning industry.

Influence of dry air and infrared pre-treatments on oxidative stability, Maillard reaction products and other chemical properties of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) oil

In this study, the influence of dry air and infrared pre-treatments on linseed oil (LO) yield, chemical properties, colour, pigment content, total phenolic content (TPC), Maillard reaction products (MRPs), fatty acid composition (FAC), radical scavenging activity (RSA), and oxidative stability index (OSI) were investigated. An increase in dry air and infrared roasting temperature had increased the LO yield, pigment content, a* value, TPC, RSA, OSI, and browning index (BI) while lowered the L* and b* values of LO. Higher OSI (2.24 h), chlorophylls (2.29 mg/kg), carotenoids (3.87 mg/kg), TPC (63.67 mg GAE/100 g), RSA (62.53%), BI (0.330), and MRPs (2.10 mg/kg) were detected in LO by dry air roasting at 180°C for 10 min. Dry air and infrared roasting had slightly affected the FAC of LO. Both dry air and infrared pre-treatments had influenced the LO quality characteristics. However, dry air roasting of linseed at 180°C for 10 min proved more effective in improving oxidative stability, antioxidant activity and other quality characteristics of LO.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version of this article at 10.1007/s13197-021-05023-6.

The structure and flavor of low sodium seasoning salts in combination with different sesame seed meal protein hydrolysate derived Maillard reaction products

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The structural and physicochemical properties of a low sodium MRPs were investigated..

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Different MRPs low sodium seasoning salts had better flavor characteristics.

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CMS had the largest bulk density and the highest sensory score.

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SMS had good hygroscopicity and thermal stability during storage.

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TMS had the highest solubility, which is significant for its use as seasoning salt.

In recent years, Maillard peptides have attracted considerable attention of food researchers due to their distinct flavor properties in food processing. We investigated the structure and flavor properties of the newly developed low-sodium seasoning salt with sesame seed hydrolysate Maillard products (SSH-MRPs), cysteine Maillard products (Cys-MRPs), methionine Maillard products (Met-MRPs), and thiamine Maillard products (Thi-MRPs). Compared to the control group, the Cys-MRPs salt (CMS) had the smallest angle of repose, the highest bulk density, and the highest sensory score. The seasoning salt with SSH-MRPs (SMS) had appreciable hygroscopicity and thermal stability. The seasoning salt with Thi-MRPs (TMS) had the highest solubility. These MRPs seasoning salts showed better flavor characteristics and physicochemical properties, suggesting that MRPs can replace part of NaCl to develop new low sodium seasoning salts and promote their application in food flavoring systems.

Assessment the flavor of soybean meal hydrolyzed with Alcalase enzyme under different hydrolysis conditions by E-nose, E-tongue and HS-SPME-GC-MS

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Enzymatic hydrolysis with Alcalase reduced soybean odor substance 1-octene-3-ol.

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Excessive enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in the deterioration of the hydrolysate flavor.

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The flavour of soybean meal hydrolysates with different hydrolysis conditions could be distinguished by E-tongue.

In the present study, E-nose, E-tongue, and headspace-solid phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC–MS) technology combined with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were employed to evaluate the flavor characteristics of the volatile and the non-volatile substances generated during the enzymatic hydrolysis of the soybean meal by Alcalase. The results showed that the enzymatic hydrolysis effectively reduced the content of soybean odorous substance 1-octene-3-ol and led to better flavor. However, the excessive enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in the deterioration of the enzymatic hydrolysates flavor. In addition, both radar graph and PCA of E-tongue were able to provide the distribution of flavor substances during the enzymatic hydrolysis of the soybean meal. These results provided a theoretical basis for the improvement of the flavors of the soybean meal and its derived products.

Effects of sugars on the flavor and antioxidant properties of the Maillard reaction products of camellia seed meals

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MRPs were obtained by heating camellia seed meal hydrolysates, and different sugars.

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The ratio of essential amino acids in R-MRPs was increased and the antioxidant activity was the highest.

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MR could improve the flavor and antioxidant activity of camellia seed meal.

In the present study, camellia seed meal Maillard reaction products (MRPs) were prepared using camellia seed meal protein as a raw material. The effects of MR on protein structure and volatile components of camellia seed meal were investigated by fluorescence, UV absorption, infrared spectroscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Not only the change of amino acid content in MRPs, but also the antioxidant capacity of MRPs and the antioxidant capacity after in vitro digestion were determined. Our result showed that the ratio of essential amino acids in R-MRPs was increased and the antioxidant activity was the highest. For the potential of MRPs as flavoring, our sensory evaluation results showed improved flavor and antioxidant activity of camellia seed meal after MR which can be used as flavoring agents at industrial level.