Optimisation and kinetic study of the ultrasonic-assisted extraction of total saponins from alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and its bioaccessibility using the response surface methodology

Enhanced deep eutectic solvent extraction of phenolic compounds from hawthorn seeds with ultrasonic and resin in-situ adsorption assistance: Process optimization, component analysis, and extraction mechanism

Extraction of bioactive substances from food processing waste is currently an important research topic. Ultrasonic and hyper-cross-linked resin in-situ adsorption method were proposed to synergistically assist in the extraction of phenolic antioxidants from hawthorn seeds using deep eutectic solvents (DESs). DES composed of choline chloride and oxalic acid outperforms other DESs in terms of extraction efficiency. The adsorption of non-polar resin XDA-1 increases the yield of polyphenols and flavonoids by 45.16 % and 3.61 times, respectively. The extraction kinetic curves conform to pseudo-second-order rate model. The extraction yield and rate using DES is markedly superior to that using conventional solvents. The components analyzed using UPLC-MS indicate that the phenolic compounds in extract are mainly ellagic acid, vanillin, hesperetin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and hesperidin, etc. The primary forces facilitating extraction are hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions found by the conductor-like screening model for real solvents calculation.

Green Extraction Strategies and Bioactivity of Rheum cordatum Losinsk: Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Molecular Docking Insights

This study aimed to compare the efficiency of different green extraction methods for obtaining bioactive compounds from the roots of Rheum cordatum Losinsk and to evaluate their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The presence of some important phytochemicals in the extracts obtained using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), subcritical ethanol extraction (Sbc-EtOH), and supercritical CO2 (ScCO2) extraction was determined by LC-MS/MS, and their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties were examined against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. The goal was to determine the optimal extraction conditions that maximize the yield of bioactive compounds while preserving their biological properties. Different pressures (100 bar and 400 bar) were tested in UAE extraction, different solvents and times were tested in Sbc-EtOH extraction, and different pressures were tested in ScCO2 extraction. Most of the 53 important phenolic compounds have been extracted using the ScCO2 extraction method, either exclusively or in the highest amounts. It has been observed that more and higher amounts of phenolic compounds were extracted at lower pressure. The highest antioxidant activity was exhibited by the ScCO2 extracts. Additionally, the ScCO2-100 extract obtained at 100 bar showed strong antimicrobial activity, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 31.25 to 250 μg/mL. Gallic acid, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate, and catechin were found in extracts. Additionally, molecular docking studies against the 1QWZ, 2ANQ, 3H77, and 6QXS proteins revealed that epicatechin exhibited docking scores of -6.127, -9.479, -5.836, and -7.067 kcal/mol, respectively.

Eco-Friendly Algicidal Potential of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Leaf Extracts: Extraction Optimization and Impact on Algal Growth

Zanthoxylum bungeanum leaves were regarded as a waste byproduct for a long period of time, yet their functional components presented potential as novel antimicrobial agents. However, their effectiveness in controlling algal blooms remains unexplored. In this study, the inhibition effect of Z. bungeanum leaf extracts on algal blooms was firstly demonstrated, and the flavonoid profiles of the leaf extract were identified using non-targeted metabolomics analysis. Then, response surface methodology was performed for extraction to further evaluate the feasibility of industrial application. Specifically, the effects of extracts on the cell density, photosynthetic efficiency, and antioxidant activity of Tetrodesmus obliquus was investigated. The results showed that the extraction yield of flavonoids from Z. bungeanum leaves reached 6.85% under the optimized conditions of an ultrasonic power of 600 W, an LSR of 20:1 mL/g, an ethanol concentration of 77.5%, an ultrasonic duration of 18 min, and an ultrasonic temperature of 80 °C, which significantly decreased the Fv/Fm and PIabs values by 54.60% and 98.22%, respectively, after exposure of T. obliquus to 40.0 mg/L Z. bungeanum leaf extract for 66 h. Meanwhile, treatment with Z. bungeanum leaf extract at a dose of 40.0 mg/L generated T-AOC values that were 4.0 times higher than the control without the addition of Z. bungeanum leaf extracts. These results suggest that Z. bungeanum leaf extracts could be used in the development of potentially effective biological algicides. Our study provides data to support the development of algicides and realizes the resource application of Z. bungeanum leaf waste, achieving a synergistic outcome of both economic and ecological benefits.

BuZhong YiQi Formula Alleviates Postprandial Hyperglycemia in T2DM Rats by Inhibiting α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase In Vitro and In Vivo

Background/Objectives: BuZhong YiQi Formula (BZYQF) can alleviate type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, its efficacy in managing postprandial hyperglycemia in T2DM needs to be further confirmed, and its underlying mechanism and pharmacodynamic material basis have not been sufficiently investigated. Methods: A T2DM rat model was induced to measure postprandial glycemic responses following glucose and starch ingestion. In vitro assays of enzymatic inhibition and the kinetic mode were performed to evaluate the inhibitory effect of BZYQF on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities. The main constituent contents of BZYQF in a simulated digestion assay were measured to screen the active constituents in BZYQF against α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities via Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analyses. Finally, the total flavonoids were purified from BZYQF to perform in vitro activity validation, and the flavonoid constituent activity was verified through molecular docking. Results: In vivo assays showed that BZYQF significantly reduced the blood glucose values of CON rats but not T2DM rats after glucose ingestion, while BZYQF significantly reduced the blood glucose levels by 15 min after starch ingestion in CON and T2DM rats, with more significant decreases in blood glucose levels in T2DM rats. In vitro enzymatic assays showed that BZYQF could inhibit the activities of α-amylase and α-glucosidase in competitive and non-competitive modes and in an uncompetitive mode, respectively. Furthermore, BZYQF showed a stronger inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase activity than on α-amylase activity. Simulated digestion showed that simulated gastric fluid and intestinal fluid changed the main constituent contents of BZYQF and their inhibition rates against α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities, and similar results were rarely found in simulated salivary fluid. Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analyses revealed that the total flavonoids were the active constituents in BZYQF inhibiting α-amylase and α-glycosidase activities. This result was verified by examining the total flavonoids purified from BZYQF. A total of 1909 compounds were identified in BZYQF using UPLC-MS/MS, among which flavones were the most abundant and consisted of 467 flavonoids. Molecular docking showed that flavonoids in BZYQF were bound to the active site of α-amylase, while they were bound to the inactive site of α-glucosidase. This result supported the results of the enzyme kinetic assay. Conclusions: BZYQF significantly alleviated postprandial hyperglycemia in T2DM rats by inhibiting α-amylase and α-glycosidase activities, in which flavonoids in BZYQF were the active constituents.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction and value of active substances in Muxu

This article reviews the latest research progress on ultrasound-assisted extraction of active substances from Muxu, including polysaccharides, polyphenols, leaf proteins, anthocyanins, total flavonoids, and total saponins, in order to provide theoretical references for the extraction of active substances from Muxu. At the same time, its medicinal value, feeding value, ecological value, edible value, and ornamental value were analyzed and summarized. Flavonoids, saponins, and polysaccharides in the bioactive substances of Muxu have good effects on improving animal productivity, enhancing immune function, and improving animal health. Especially when applied to broiler chickens and laying hens, it can improve the quality of meat and eggs and increase the economic benefits of breeding. In addition, there are other beneficial substances in Muxu, such as natural pigments, coumarins, leaf protein, and chlorogenic acid, which also play an important role in livestock and poultry production and health status.

Short-term airborne ultrasound induced cell death in tobacco cells and changed their wall components

The effects of low-intensity ultrasound on plants such as piezoelectric and ultrasonic water baths, on plants have been extensively studied. However, the specific effect of airborne ultrasound on plant cells has yet to be reported. The present study was conducted to elucidate the physiological responses of plant cells to airborne US. Homogeneous suspension-cultured tobacco cells (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv Burley 21) were subjected to airborne US at 24 kHz in two pulsatile and continuous modes for 10 and 20 s. The study's outcome revealed that airborne US triggered the production of H2O2, elevated internal calcium concentration, and reduced antioxidant capacity upon cavitation. Alteration of covalently bound peroxidase and other wall-modifying enzyme activities was accompanied by reduced cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose B but increased lignin and hemicellulose A. The biomass and viability of tobacco cells were also significantly decreased by airborne US, which ultimately resulting in PCD and secondary necrosis. The results highlight the potential risks of even short-time exposure to the airborne US on plant physiology and cell wall chemical composition raising significant concerns about its implications.

Response surface methology for enzymatic ultrasound assisted sp-ICP-MS assessment of cuonps in seafood: Occurrence and bioaccumulation

A novel approach for a reliable extraction and analytical characterization of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) at trace levels on seafood samples was tuned up using single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (sp-ICP-MS). Variables for enzymatic extraction of CuONPs were optimised via response surface methodology (RSM) analysis, to maximize both the extracted CuONPs mass and number concentrations without altering their native size and morphology. Analytical performance features of the whole (enzymatic ultrasound-assisted/sp-ICP-MS) approach were thoroughly evaluated. Furthermore, the proposed extraction approach demonstrated higher efficiency compared to an alternative alkaline hydrolysis-based methodology. Finally, nine seafood samples from diverse nature were analysed for CuONPs content and particle size by sp-ICP-MS, revealing significant NPs concentrations in most cases. Attained results enabled the assessment of health risks associated with CuONPs bioaccumulation in seafood organisms.

Simultaneous quantitative screening of 53 phytochemicals from Rheum tataricum L. roots: a comparative study of supercritical CO2, subcritical ethanol, and ultrasound-assisted extraction for enhanced antioxidant, antibacterial activities, and molecular docking study

In this study, Rheum tataricum L. extracts were obtained using various green extraction techniques, including supercritical CO2, subcritical ethanol, and ultrasound-assisted extraction, each performed under optimized parameters. The phytochemical content of the extracts was analyzed using the LC-MS/MS technique, quantifying 53 phytochemicals. Additionally, the in vitro antioxidant properties and antibacterial activities of the extracts were evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis as gram-positive bacteria, and Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as gram-negative bacteria. According to the results, the extracts were rich in catechin, epicatechin, cyranoside, and chlorogenic acid. Extracts obtained via ultrasonic extraction demonstrated stronger antioxidant properties. The IC50 values for the DPPH radical scavenging activity of obtained extracts ranged between 0.0173 mg/mL and 0.0400 mg/mL. The highest total phenolic content was found in the UAE-M-4h extract (213.44 mg GAE/mL). The extracts prepared with UAE-MeOH-2h-4h, UAE-EtOH-2h-4h, Sbc-EtOH-E-140-60-80, Sc-90 atm, and Sc-400 atm showed antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at varying rates (MIC range: 31.25 to 250 μg/mL). Based on the all results, the ultrasound assisted extraction proved superior to the other techniques. This study, utilizing three different extraction methods with varying variables such as temperature, pressure, and extraction time, has provided significant insights into which extraction method should be employed for isolating specific phytochemicals or for therapeutic purposes, based on the differing antibacterial results observed. The findings highlight the importance of selecting the appropriate extraction method depending on the target phytochemical or desired antibacterial effect in treatment applications.

Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of total flavonoids from Oxalis corniculata by a hybrid response surface methodology-artificial neural network-genetic algorithm (RSM-ANN-GA) approach, coupled with an assessment of antioxidant activities

The objective of this research endeavor is to refine the ultrasonic-assisted extraction technique for total flavonoids from Oxalis corniculata (TFO), utilizing a synergistic approach combining response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network integrated with genetic algorithm (RSM-ANN-GA). The optimized extraction parameters determined through RSM yielded a TFO concentration of 13.538 mg g-1 under the following conditions: an ethanol concentration of 61.95%, a liquid-solid ratio of 41.06 mL g-1, an ultrasonic power setting of 351.57 W, and an ultrasonic exposure duration of 58.95 minutes. Conversely, the RSM-ANN-GA approach identified an even more refined set of conditions, achieving a TFO concentration of 13.7844 mg g-1, with an ethanol concentration of 58.93%, a liquid-solid ratio of 41.16 mL g-1, an ultrasonic power of 350.22 W, and an ultrasonic exposure time of 58.18 minutes. These findings underscore the superior predictive accuracy and enhanced extraction efficiency offered by the RSM-ANN-GA model over the conventional RSM method. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that TFO possesses a potent antioxidant effect, as evidenced by its ability to scavenge DPPH, hydroxyl, and superoxide anion free radicals in vitro, highlighting its potential as a valuable source of natural antioxidants.

Preparation and properties of thermal responsive 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine fragrance microcapsules with β-CD/CS as wall materials

2,3-Diethyl-5-methylpyrazine (DEMP) is recognized for its unique nutty scent but faces limitations due to rapid evaporation. The primary objective of this study was to explore the effect of incorporating DEMP with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and chitosan (CS) as wall material on the microstructure and thermal release behavior, antibacterial, and antioxidant characteristics. Initially, the microcapsules preparation process underwent optimization with embedding rate of 78.03 % through response surface by ultrasonic technique. The characterization of microcapsules was confirmed through SEM, FT-IR and TEM, with the majority exhibiting smooth and shell core structures that overlapped. Through sustained release kinetics analysis, the release of microcapsules under 80 °C, 50 °C and room temperature was more in line with the first-order kinetic and Avrami kinetic equation. The heat release kinetics analysis yielded a well-matched linear fitting curve. Additionally, microcapsules effectively suppressed the growth of S. aureus and E. coli germs, and demonstrated strong antioxidant properties, compared with DEMP. Adding 10 mg microcapsules to the Heat Not Burning (HNB) cigarette, the sensory quality was significantly improved. This discovery has the potential to pave a new route for the encapsulation of fragrance molecules, and expanding their multifunctional usages for enhancing the flavor of cigarettes and food.

Improving the bioactivity of water-soluble alfalfa saponins using biotransformation

Medicago sativa L. is gaining attention as a sustainable plant-based food protein. Alfalfa saponins (ASs) typically exist in a glycosylated form in nature, which has poor cell membrane permeability, while the deglycosylated saponins may show better bioactivity. The AS was deglycosylated by β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger, and the chemical structures and biological activities, including in vivo assays, of AS and deglycosylated AS (DAS) were determined. The results showed that the half maximal inhibitory concentration for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl inhibition of DAS was 29.5 µg/mL, demonstrating a significantly higher reducing capacity compared to AS (p < 0.05). The DAS induced 33.8% antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and enhanced the proliferation of human airway epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) at a concentration of 125 µg/mL. In vivo experiments on C57BL/6 mice fed a high-fat diet demonstrated that high-level DAS treatment produced significantly greater hypolipidemic effects compared to AS (p < 0.05). Thus, the AS can be deglycosylated, which leads to an improvement in biological activity, particularly since the DAS exhibits significantly enhanced hypolipidemic activity. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Alfalfa saponins were deglycosylated by β-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger, which contributed to increased bioactivity, particularly its hypolipidemic activity.

A Neutral Polysaccharide from Medicago Sativa L.: Structural Properties and Hypoglycemic Activity In Vitro and In Vivo

Medicago sativa polysaccharides (MSPs) are beneficial compounds extracted from Medicago sativa L. that exhibit multiple medicinal activities. However, little is known about their hypoglycemic effects. In this study, MSP-II-a, a neutral polysaccharide with an Mw of 4.3×104 Da, was isolated and purified from M. sativa L. Monosaccharide composition analysis determined that MSP-II-a was composed of arabinose, glucose, galactose, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose in a molar ratio of 2.1 : 4.0 : 1.1:0.4 : 1.4 : 1.1. Structural characterization of MSP-II was performed using a combination of methylation analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that MSP-II-a was mainly comprised of 1,4-p-Glc, 1,3,4-Rha, and 1,3-p-Gal glycosidic linkages, revealing a mesh-like texture with irregular blade shapes. In vitro assays demonstrated that MSP-II-a, at concentrations of 200 and 400 μg/mL, promoted glucose uptake in insulin-resistant 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In vivo studies have shown that MSP-II-a significantly alleviates insulin resistance by reducing fasting blood glucose levels and increasing hepatic glycogen synthesis in HFD/STZ-induced diabetic mice. These findings revealed that MSP-II-a is a promising source of bioactive polysaccharides with potential hypoglycemic activity.

Integration of glutathione disulfide-mediated extraction and capillary electrophoresis for determination of Cd(II) and Pb(II) in edible oils

A novel method is introduced for extracting and enriching Cd(II) and Pb(II) from edible oils using glutathione disulfide (GSSG) as both an extractant and a phase-separation agent. The ions in the oils were initially extracted into an aqueous solution containing GSSG. After mixing the solution with acetonitrile at the appropriate volume ratio, a new phase formed, resulting in enrichment of the analytes. The experimental conditions were optimized using response surface methodology with a central composite design. Under optimal conditions, the method offered a combined enrichment factor of >660, with combined extraction efficiencies of 84.31% and 83.35% for Cd(II) and Pb(II), respectively. Finally, the method was conjugated to capillary electrophoresis to determine Cd(II) and Pb(II) in edible oil samples, with detection limits of 0.45 and 1.24 ppb, respectively. In comparison to traditional approaches, the GSSG-based method demonstrates rapidity, efficiency, and recyclability in extracting heavy metal ions from complex matrices.

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction to enhance the recovery of bioactive phenolic compounds from Commiphora gileadensis leaves

The "ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE)" method was utilized in this work to assess how different process parameters affected the yield and recovery of phenolic compounds from the leaf of Commiphora gileadensis, which is one of the medicinal plants with a variety of biological functions. Its leaf is used for a various of therapeutic applications, such as the treatment of bacterial infections, inflammation, and wound healing. The "One-Factor-At-a-Time (OFAT)" approach was employed to examine the impacts of various UAE process parameters on the process of extraction, which include time of extraction, sample/solvent ratio, ultrasonic frequency, and solvent (ethanol) concentration. The extracts were then investigated for the presence of several phytochemicals using analytical techniques such as "Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS)" and "Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)" studies. The findings showed that the maximum extraction yield, the total phenolic content (TPC), and the total flavonoids content (TFC) of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of C. gileadensis using the UAE method were at 31.80 ± 0.41 %, 96.55 ± 2.81 mg GAE/g d.w. and 31.66 ± 2.01 mg QE/g d.w. accordingly under a procedure duration of 15 min, ultrasonic frequency of 20 kHz, solvent/sample ratio of 1:20 g/mL, and solvent concentration of 40 % v/v. The leaves extract of C. gileadensis included 25 phenolic compounds that were previously unreported, and GC-MS analysis confirmed their presence. Hence, it follows that the UAE technique can successfully extract the phytochemicals from C. gileadensis for a variety of therapeutic uses.

Sustainable strategies for using natural extracts in smart food packaging

The growing demand for sustainable and eco-friendly food packaging has prompted research on innovative solutions to environmental and consumer health issues. To enhance the properties of smart packaging, the incorporation of bioactive compounds derived from various natural sources has attracted considerable interest because of their functional properties, including antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. However, extracting these compounds from natural sources poses challenges because of their complex chemical structures and low concentrations. Traditional extraction methods are often environmentally harmful, expensive and time-consuming. Thus, green extraction techniques have emerged as promising alternatives, offering sustainable and eco-friendly approaches that minimise the use of hazardous solvents and reduce environmental impact. This review explores cutting-edge research on the green extraction of bioactive compounds and their incorporation into smart packaging systems in the last 10 years. Then, an overview of bioactive compounds, green extraction techniques, integrated techniques, green extraction solvents and their application in smart packaging was provided, and the impact of bioactive compounds incorporated in smart packaging on the shelf lives of food products was explored. Furthermore, it highlights the challenges and opportunities within this field and presents recommendations for future research, aiming to contribute to the advancement of sustainable and efficient smart packaging solutions.

Kinetic Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction as a Sustainable Approach for the Recovery of Phenolics Accumulated through UVA Treatment in Strawberry By-Products

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is an efficient and sustainable method for extracting bioactive compounds from agro-industrial by-products. Moreover, it has been reported that ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation can induce the biosynthesis and accumulation of bioactive phenolic compounds. This study optimized the efficiency of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) for recovering ultraviolet A (UVA)-induced phenolic compounds in strawberry by-products (RF-N). The impact of three factors (solid-liquid ratio, ethanol concentration, and ultrasound power) on total phenolic compound (TPC) kinetics using Peleg's model was investigated. The developed model showed a suitable fit for both RF-N and strawberry by-products treated with UVA (RF-E). The optimal UAE conditions obtained were of a 1:30 ratio, 46% ethanol, and 100% ultrasound power, resulting in an average yield of 13 g total phenolics kg-1. The bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds during in-vitro digestion was 36.5%, with agrimoniin being the predominant compound. UAE combined with UVA treatment increased the bioactivity of RF extracts, displaying significant anti-proliferative effects on HT29 and Caco-2 cancer cell lines, as well as anti-inflammatory potential and cellular antioxidant activity. The ultrasound proved to be a sustainable and effective technique for extracting phenolic compounds from RF, contributing to the valorization of strawberry agro-industrial by-products, and maximizing their nutraceutical potential.

Inhalation bioaccessibility of inhaled triazole fungicides and health risk assessment during spraying

BACKGROUND

Ambient air pollution caused by pesticide drift has received great attention. To accurately evaluate the health risk of inhaled pesticides, bioaccessibility should be considered. However, methods to reliably assess pesticide residues remain limited, hindering the precise estimation of exposure assessment. We aimed to optimize an in vitro method for the inhalation bioaccessibility (IBA) measurement of triazole fungicides and to incorporate this into inhalation exposure assessment during pesticide spraying.

RESULTS

The IBA of triazole fungicides increased logarithmically with extraction duration, plateauing after 6 h. The frequency of agitation displayed a similar pattern, whereas the ratio of solid to liquid between 1/1500 and 1/250 was considerably negatively associated. The predicted values (35.9-53.5%) for IBA based on optimized methodological parameters determined using a response surface methodology showed an acceptable deviation from experimental values (30.7-50.8%), suggesting feasibility for in vitro IBA measurement. Incorporating IBA into calculations of inhalation exposure amount (IE) yielded a value of 8.5 × 10^-7 -2.1 × 10^-5  mg kg^-1  day^-1 , a 50-68% reduction compared to IE based on total amount. Additionally, the safety exposure threshold was determined for triazole fungicides using benchmark dose modelling of data from lung A549 cell proliferation toxicity assays, and in this context, margin of exposure (MOE) values were calculated to be within an acceptable level.

CONCLUSION

This in vitro method supplements bioaccessibility evaluation based on pesticide inhalation exposure, along with the risk to human health. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Microwave-ultrasonic technique development coupled with natural deep eutectic solvents in anthocyanin extraction from perilla leaves (Perilla frutescens var. Acuta)

BACKGROUND

As potent antioxidants, anthocyanins can protect the body from free radicals. However, the traditional solvent extraction method has the disadvantages of requiring a high extraction temperature and long extraction time, so it is necessary to develop an efficient extraction method for anthocyanins.

RESULTS

In this study, the technique of natural deep eutectic solvents (DESs) was applied to extract anthocyanins from purple perilla leaves with the aid of microwave-ultrasonic assisted extraction (MUAE). The response surface methodology (RSM), based on the Box-Behnken design (BBD), predicted the maximum extraction yield of anthocyanins to be 619.62 mg (100 g)^-1 under the following conditions: x₁ (ultrasonic extraction power) = 357.25 W, x₂ (time) = 25.62 min, and x₃ (temperature) = 57.80 °C. The biological activity of the extract obtained was evaluated by examining its radical-scavenging effect on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, hydroxyl radical, and superoxide anion radicals. Its bacteriostatic impact was investigated on four typical bacteria: Shewanella putrefaciens (S. putrefaciens), Pseudomonas fluorescens (P. fluorescens), Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus).

CONCLUSION

The integrated extraction method of DESs with MUAE was efficient, energy-saving, green, and sustainable. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction and the Encapsulation of Bioactive Components for Food Applications

Various potential sources of bioactive components exist in nature which are fairly underutilized due to the lack of a scientific approach that can be sustainable as well as practically feasible. The recovery of bioactive compounds is a big challenge and its use in food industry to develop functional foods is a promising area of research. Various techniques are available for the extraction of these bioactives but due to their thermolabile nature, there is demand for nonthermal or green technologies which can lower the cost of operation and decrease operational time and energy consumption as compared to conventional methods. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is gaining popularity due to its relative advantages over solvent extraction. Thereafter, ultrasonication as an encapsulating tool helps in protecting the core components against adverse food environmental conditions during processing and storage. The review mainly aims to discuss ultrasound technology, its applications, the fundamental principles of ultrasonic-assisted extraction and encapsulation, the parameters affecting them, and applications of ultrasound-assisted extraction and encapsulation in food systems. Additionally, future research areas are highlighted with an emphasis on the energy sustainability of the whole process.

Effect of Storage Temperature and Time on Biogenic Amines in Canned Seafood

Biogenic amines in canned seafood are associated with food quality and human health. In this study, a total of nine biogenic amines (histamine (HIS), phenylethylamine (PHE), tyramine (TYM), putrescine (PUT), cadaverine (CAD), tryptamine (TRY), spermine (SPM), spermidine (SPD), and octopamine (OCT)) were used as standards. The biogenic amines of five canned seafood species (canned mud carp, canned sardine, canned mantis shrimp, canned scallop, and canned oyster) were investigated every three months for 12 months at different storage temperatures (4, 10, 25, and 30 °C). The biogenic amine contents were determined by the ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction method combined with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection (UADSPE-RPLC-PDA). These results showed a detection rate of 100, 60, and 40% for HIS, PHE, PUT, and TYM; CAD, SPM, and SPD; OCT in all the samples, respectively. The contents of histamine and tyramine exceeded the recommended maximum limits (50 and 100 mg kg−1) in the canned mud carp and canned scallop when stored at 30 °C, indicating their potential health risks (p < 0.05). This result also indicates that low temperatures could inhibit the BAs content of canned seafood during storage. Overall, storage temperature and time can be used as the primary means to monitor and control the quality and safety of canned seafood.

Nutraceutical Properties of Medicago sativa L., Agave Spp., Zea mays L. and Avena sativa L.: A Review of Metabolites and Mechanisms

Plants are the main sources of bioactive compounds (nutraceuticals) that function under different mechanisms of action for the benefit of human health. Mexico ranks fifth in the world in biodiversity, offering opportunities for healthy food. An important variety of crops are produced in the state of Hidalgo, e.g., based on the 2021 production, alfalfa, oats, maguey, and corn. The present review presents the latest findings of these crops, regarding the benefits they provide to health (bioactivity, nutraceuticals), and presents the compounds and mechanisms identified by which the benefit is provided. The knowledge compiled here is for the benefit of the recovery of the crops, the recognition of their bioactivities, in search of identifying the best routes of action for prevention, treatment and possible cure of chronic degenerative diseases (thereby promoting crop valorization). Exhaustive bibliographic research was carried out by means of engines and scientific databases. Articles published between 2001 and 2022 that included specific keywords (Scopus, EMBASE, EBSCO, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar). Outstanding activities have been identified for the compounds in the crops, such as antiinflammatory, anticholesterolemic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and chelating. The compounds that provide these properties are total phenols, phenolic acids, tannins, anthocyanins, carotenoids, iso-flavones, phytosterols, saponins, fructans, glycosides, glucans, avenanthramides, and polysaccharides.

Effects of alfalfa saponins on the production performance, serum biochemical factors, and immune factors in Small-Tailed Han sheep

This study aimed to determine the potential effects of alfalfa saponins on the production performance, serum biochemical factors, and immune factors in sheep. Twenty Small-Tailed Han sheep were equally and randomly divided into Groups 1-4, fed with diets containing 0, 5, 10, and 20 g alfalfa saponins per kg, respectively, for 40 consecutive days. During the treatments, the body weight change was recorded for each sheep. Before, during, and after the treatments of alfalfa saponins, serum was collected from each group to compare the levels of biochemical and immune factors. All sheep were killed after the treatments, and the longissimus dorsi muscle was collected to compare the meat quality. The results validated the effects of alfalfa saponins on the growth performance and meat quality in Small-Tailed Han sheep, and the supplementation level of 10 g/kg was the best. Alfalfa saponins also had effects on the levels of biochemical factors in serum. However, both dose- and time-dependent effects were observed. After a shorter feeding period (14 days), the concentrations of cholesterol (CHOL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in Groups 2, 3, and 4 were all lower than those in the control group; however, when alfalfa saponins were continuously fed, this effect was not apparent or even gone. Supplying alfalfa saponins increased serum concentrations of IgA, IgG, IgE, IgM, IL-1, IFN-α, and IFN-β. And this effect was distinctly observed in Groups 3 and 4. Based on the current results, the alfalfa saponins concentration of 10 g/kg (for 14 consecutive days) could be suggested as the optimum ratio for good health conditions of Small-Tailed Han sheep.

Study on the preparation conditions and degradation performance of an efficient immobilized microbial agent for marine oil pollution

In the process of handling marine oil spills accidents, the biological method has attracted wide attention due to its low cost and no secondary pollution. However, in the process of practical application, there are problems such as low microbial density and great influence of environmental factors when the oil is treated by spraying microorganisms on the sea surface. This study used immobilized microorganism technology to solve the above-mentioned problems. In this study, the bacteria immobilized on cinnamon shell (CS) with good degradation performance were obtained by optimizing preparation conditions. Under the optimal conditions of sodium alginate (SA) concentration of 4.57%, CS concentration of 1.28%, and the CaCl₂ concentration of 2.45%, the degradation rate of diesel in 5 days reached 74.04%. The reusability of immobilized microbial agents was further studied. The study designed three cycles of repeated degradation experiments. The results showed that the degradation rate of diesel can still reach 60.12% after three times of reuse, which indicated the reusability of the immobilized microbial agents was excellent. The decrease in degradation rate of diesel was mainly related to the fragmentation of immobilized microbial agents and the decrease in microbial biomass.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Total Saponins from Aralia taibaiensis: Process Optimization, Phytochemical Characterization, and Mechanism of α-Glucosidase Inhibition

Purpose

Aralia taibaiensis, a medicinal food plant, and total saponins from its root bark extract inhibit α-glucosidase activity, which is associated with type 2 diabetes; however, the inhibitory mechanism is unknown. Furthermore, a green extraction technique superior to conventional hot reflux extraction (HRE) is needed for the rapid and easy extraction of A. taibaiensis total saponins (TSAT) to exploit and utilize this resource. Our aim was to develop a green extraction method for obtaining TSAT and to investigate the mechanism by which TSAT inhibits α-glucosidase.

Materials and Methods

In this study, the ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) process was optimized using a Box–Behnken design, and the extraction mechanism was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used for qualitative and quantitative analyses of TSAT. In vitro glycosylation assays, enzyme kinetics, fluorescence spectroscopy measurements, atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and molecular docking techniques were used to investigate the mechanism by which the A. taibaiensis active ingredients inhibit α-glucosidase.

Results

The optimal parameters for the extraction yield were obtained as an ethanol concentration of 73%, ultrasound time of 34 min, ultrasound temperature of 61 °C and solid–liquid ratio of 16 g/mL, which were better than HRE. The SEM analysis showed that UAE effectively disrupted plant cells, thus increasing the TSAT yield. In vitro α-glucosidase inhibition experiments showed that both TSAT and its active ingredient, araloside A, inhibited α-glucosidase activity by binding to α-glucosidase, thereby changing the conformation and microenvironment of α-glucosidase to subsequently inhibit enzyme activity.

Conclusion

The optimal extraction conditions identified here established a basis for future scale-up of ultrasound extraction parameters with the potential for obtaining maximum yields. In vitro enzyme inhibition experiments investigated the mechanism of the TSAT interaction with α-glucosidase and further explored whether araloside A may be the main contributor to the good inhibition of α-glucosidase activity by TSAT.

Optimization of Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction of Total Flavonoids from Abrus Cantoniensis (Abriherba) by Response Surface Methodology and Evaluation of Its Anti-Inflammatory Effect

Abrus cantoniensis is a Chinese herbal medicine with efficacy in clearing heat and detoxification, as well as relieving liver pain. The whole plant, except the seeds, can be used and consumed. Flavonoids have been found in modern pharmacological studies to have important biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The antibacterial and antioxidant bioactivities of the total flavonoids of Abrus cantoniensis (ATF) have been widely reported in national and international journals, but there are fewer studies on their anti-inflammatory effects. The present study focused on the optimization of the ultrasonic extraction process of ATF by response surface methodology and the study of its anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the factors that had a great impact on the ATF extraction were the material-to-liquid ratio, ultrasonic extraction cycles and ethanol concentration. The best extraction process used a material-to-liquid ratio of 1:47, ultrasonic extraction cycles of 4 times, an ethanol concentration of 50%, an ultrasonic extraction time of 40 min and an ultrasonic power of 125 W. Under these conditions, the actual extraction rate of total flavonoids was 3.68%, which was not significantly different from the predicted value of 3.71%. In an in vitro anti-inflammatory assay, ATF was found to be effective in alleviating LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-induced inflammation in mouse peritoneal macrophages. In an in vivo anti-inflammatory assay, ATF was found to have a significant inhibitory effect on xylene-induced ear swelling in mice and cotton ball granuloma in mice, and the inhibitory effect was close to that of the positive control drug dexamethasone. This may provide a theoretical basis for the further development of the medicinal value of Abrus cantoniensis.

Integrating diverse plant bioactive ingredients with cyclodextrins to fabricate functional films for food application: a critical review

The popularity of plant bioactive ingredients has become increasingly apparent in the food industry. However, these plant bioactive ingredients have many deficiencies, including low water solubility, poor stability, and unacceptable odor. Cyclodextrins (CDs), as cyclic molecules, have been extensively studied as superb vehicles of plant bioactive ingredients. These CD inclusion compounds could be added into various film matrices to fabricate bioactive food packaging materials. Therefore, in the present review, we summarized the extraction methods of plant bioactive ingredients, the addition of these CD inclusion compounds into thin-film materials, and their applications in food packaging. Furthermore, the release model and mechanism of active film materials based on various plant bioactive ingredients with CDs were highlighted. Finally, the current challenges and new opportunities based on these film materials have been discussed.

Widening the Perspectives for Legume Consumption: The Case of Bioactive Non-nutrients

Legume grains have provided essential nutrients in human diets for centuries, being excellent sources of proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, and fibers. They also contain several non-nutrients that historically have been connotated as toxic but that in recent years have been shown to have interesting bioactive properties. The discussion on the role of bioactive non-nutrients is becoming more important due to increasing science-based evidence on their potential antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anticarcinogenic properties. At a time when legume-based products consumption is being strongly promoted by national governments and health authorities, there is a need to clearly define the recommended levels of such non-nutrients in human diets. However, there is insufficient data determining the ideal amount of non-nutrients in legume grains, which will exert the most positive health benefits. This is aligned with insufficient studies that clearly demonstrate if the positive health effects are due to the presence of specific non-nutrients or a result of a dietary balance. In fact, rather than looking directly at the individual food components, most nutritional epidemiology studies relate disease risk with the food and dietary patterns. The purpose of this perspective paper is to explore different types of non-nutrients present in legume grains, discuss the current evidence on their health benefits, and provide awareness for the need for more studies to define a recommended amount of each compound to identify the best approaches, either to enhance or reduce their levels.

Optimization of the extraction process of high levels of chlorogenic acid and ginsenosides from short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng and evaluation of the extract for the prevention of atopic dermatitis

Background

Short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng (sHCG), which is 1-year-old ginseng seedlings cultivated for 4 weeks in a hydroponic system, is a functional food item with several biological effects. However, the optimal extraction conditions for sHCG, and the bioactivity of its extracts, have not been evaluated.

Methods

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) and ginsenoside contents were evaluated in sHCG, white ginseng (WG), and red ginseng (RG) using high-performance liquid chromatography. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction conditions (temperature and ethanol concentration) to maximize the yield of dry matter, CGA, and four ginsenosides (Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd) from sHCG. The optimal extraction conditions were applied to pilot-scale production of sHCG extracts. The expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-induced thymic and activation-regulated chemokines (TARC/CCL17) were measured after treatment with sHCG, WG, and RG extracts, and the effects of their bioactive compounds (CGA and four ginsenosides) on human skin keratinocytes (HaCaTs) were evaluated.

Results

CGA and four ginsenosides, which are bioactive compounds of sHCG, significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 expression. The optimal sHCG extraction conditions predicted by the RSM models were 80 °C and 60% ethanol (v/v). The sHCG extracts produced at the pilot scale under optimal conditions greatly alleviated TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 production compared with WG and RG extracts.

Conclusions

Pesticide-free sHCG extracts, which contain high levels of CGA and the ginsenosides Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd as bioactive compounds, may have therapeutic potential for atopic diseases.

Enzyme-Assisted Ultrasonic Extraction of Total Flavonoids from Acanthopanax senticosus and Their Enrichment and Antioxidant Properties

Flavonoids are one of the important active ingredients from Acanthopanax senticosus, with a variety of biological functions, such as antioxidant and antibacterial properties. The aim of this work was to investigate enzyme-assisted ultrasonic extraction of A. senticosus flavonoids and their enrichment and antioxidant properties. We found that the optimal extraction process after Box–Behnken response surface optimization had the following parameters: a 3:2 ratio of cellulase to pectinase, enzyme mixture amount of 6960 U g−1, enzyme treatment time of 59.80 min; temperature of 53.70 °C, and pH value of 6.05. The yield of total flavonoids reached 36.95 ± 0.05 mg g−1. The results for different polar solvent enrichments showed that the highest flavonoid (61.0 ± 0.344 mg g−1), polyphenol (24.93 ± 0.234 mg g−1), and saponin (17.80 ± 0.586 mg g−1) contents were observed in the 1-butanol fraction, and the highest polysaccharide content (20.04 ± 0.783 mg g−1) was in the water fraction. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that the antioxidant potential of the extract was related to the higher amount of flavonoids and phenolics in the extract. We thus found an effective A. senticosus flavonoid extraction and enrichment procedure, which can serve as a reference method.

Recent innovations of ultrasound green technology in herbal phytochemistry: A review

Ultrasound (US) has become one of the most important techniques in green chemistry and emerging technologies. Many research investigations documented the usefulness of US in a wide range of applications in food science, nanotechnology, and complementary medicine, where effective extraction of natural products is important. However, as with all novel technologies, US has advantages and limitations that require clarification for full adaptation at an industrial scale. The present review discusses recent applications of US in herbal phytochemistry with the emphasis on US effects on chemical structures of bioactive compounds extracted from herbs and their bioactivities. The impact of different US processing conditions such as frequency, intensity, duration, temperature, and pressure on the effectiveness of the extraction process and the properties of the extracted materials are also discussed. Different frequencies and intensities of US have demonstrated its potential applications in modifying, determining, and predicting the physicochemical properties of herbs and their extracts. US has important applications in nanotechnology where it supports the fabrication of inexpensive and eco-friendly herbal nanostructures, as well as acoustic-based biosensors for chemical imaging of the herbal tissues. The application of US enhances the rates of chemical processes such as hydrolysis of herbal fibers, which reduces the time and energy consumed without affecting the quality of the final products. Overall, the use of US in herbal science has great potential to create novel chemical constructions and to be used as an innovative diagnostic system in various biomedical, food, and analytical applications.

Polysaccharides of Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl.: Extraction, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Evaluation

The roots of Scrophularia ningpoensis Hemsl. are a famous traditional Chinese medicinal herb and are also used as health food. However, information about polysaccharides from S. ningpoensis (SNPS) is very limited. We applied the ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) process to extract SNPS. The UAE conditions were optimized using single-factor experiments and response surface analysis. Under the optimized conditions of ultrasonic power of 550 W, extraction time of 26 min, and extraction temperature at 50°C, the highest yield of 13.47% ± 1.63% was obtained, which was in accordance with the predicted value of 13.71%. In comparison with traditional hot water extraction, the optimized UAE method significantly increased the extraction yield with lower extraction temperature and shorter extraction time. Furthermore, the in vitro antioxidant evaluation showed that EC50 values of SNPS were 2.43 ± 0.21, 4.40 ± 0.35, and 0.56 ± 0.062 mg/mL for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) radical, hydroxyl free radical, and 2,2'-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assay, respectively. The anti-inflammatory potential of SNPS was detected in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced ICR mice. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed that SNPS significantly improved LPS-stimulated inflammatory response by decreasing mRNA and protein expression of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, the extraction process of SNPS established in this study is reliable, and SNPS possesses potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, which will provide a theoretical basis for guiding the clinical application of S. ningpoensis.

Combination of liquid-phase pulsed discharge and ultrasonic for saponins extraction from lychee seeds

A skillfully combined method of liquid-phase pulsed discharge and ultrasonic (LPDU) had been developed for saponins extraction from lychee seeds. Single factor and response surface methods were used to optimize the system, respectively. The optimized conditions included 30% aqueous ethanol, 62.66 mL/g ratio of liquid to solid, 3 mm centre hole diameter of hollow electrode, 123 mL/min flow velocity, length of serpentine pipe of 15 cm, 276 W ultrasonic power, 47 °C ultrasonic temperature, and discharge voltage was fixed at 14 kV. Under these conditions, it obtained a maximum saponins yield of 51.30 ± 0.08 mg/g with 10 min, which was higher than those of LPD (42.33 ± 0.98 mg/g) with 24 min, ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) (41.80 ± 1.31 mg/g) with 30 min and maceration (38.72 ± 1.13 mg/g) with 180 min. Meanwhile, the energy consumption of LPDU was 7560 kJ/kg, which was notably lower than those of LPD (8820 kJ/kg), UAE (25875 kJ/kg) and maceration (10248 kJ/kg). We found that the saponin constituents of LPDU were similar to LPD, UAE, ME by HPLC content detection method, and found that LPDU had the highest degree of tissue damage after scanning electron microscope (SEM) comparison, which verified the reason for its high extraction efficiency. The results showed that LPDU was an effective technology for saponins extraction, which may be potentially applied in cosmetics, medicines and food chemistry.

Copper nanowires as nanofertilizers for alfalfa plants: Understanding nano-bio systems interactions from microbial genomics, plant molecular responses and spectroscopic studies

The recent application of nano copper (Cu) compounds in the agrosystem has shown potential to improve the physiological performance and agronomical parameters of crops. We grew alfalfa (Medicago sativa) in potting mix amended with bulk, nano, and ionic Cu compounds at 80 and 280 mg Cu/kg; then, we evaluated plant performance at physiological and molecular levels. Plants treated with bulk/nano Cu presented better agronomical responses. The P and S content was reduced in bulk and ionic Cu-exposed plants, compared to controls (p ≤ .05). All Cu forms increased the content of Fe and Zn in roots and Fe in leaves, compared to controls (p ≤ .05). Leaf-superoxide dismutase expression was augmented ~27-fold and rubisco mRNA was unaffected in bulk/nano Cu-treated plants, compared to controls (p ≤ .05). Bulk/nano Cu incremented the relative abundance of microorganisms involved in the elemental uptake. These results indicate that nano Cu improved the physiology of alfalfa and can be considered as potential nanofertilizers.

Optimization Ultrasound-Assisted Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction of Anthocyanins from Raspberry Using Response Surface Methodology Coupled with Genetic Algorithm

Raspberries have been reported to contain abundant anthocyanins and other active compounds. To extract anthocyanins from raspberries more efficiently, a novel procedure of ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvent extraction (UADESE) was proposed in this paper. The extraction process was optimized by response surface methodology coupled with a genetic algorithm. The optimum extraction parameters to achieve the highest yield of anthocyanins 1.378 ± 0.009 mg/g from raspberry powder via UADESE were obtained at a water content of 29%, ultrasonic power of 210 W, extraction temperature of 51 °C and extraction time of 32 min. The AB-8 macroporous resin combined with the high-speed counter current chromatography (HSCCC) method were further used to isolate and purify the anthocyanins extracts obtained under optimum extraction conditions, and the structure of purified anthocyanins components were identified by UV-Visible spectrophotometer (UV-Vis), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS), ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and ¹³C-NMR spectra. The two anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside with a purity of 92.25% and cyanidin-3-rutinoside with a purity of 93.07%) identified were consistent with those present in raspberries. These findings provided an effective and feasible method for extraction, isolation and purification of anthocyanins from natural plant resources.

Chemical Characterization and Bioaccessibility of Bioactive Compounds from Saponin-Rich Extracts and Their Acid-Hydrolysates Obtained from Fenugreek and Quinoa

Saponin-rich extracts from edible seeds have gained increasing interest and their hydrolysis to sapogenin-rich extracts may be an effective strategy to enhance their potential bioactivity. However, it remains necessary to study the resulting chemical modifications of the extracts after hydrolysis as well as their impact on the subsequent bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds. The chemical composition of non-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed extracts from fenugreek (FE, HFE) and quinoa (QE, HQE), and the bioaccessibility of saponins, sapogenins and other bioactive compounds after an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was assessed. In general, FE mainly contained saponins (31%), amino acids (6%) and glycerides (5.9%), followed by carbohydrates (3.4%), fatty acids (FFA) (2.3%), phytosterols (0.8%), tocols (0.1%) and phenolics (0.05%). HFE consisted of FFA (35%), sapogenins (8%) and partial glycerides (7%), and were richer in phytosterols (1.9%) and tocols (0.3%). QE mainly contained glycerides (33%), FFA (19%), carbohydrates (16%) and saponins (7.9%), and to a lesser extent alkylresorcinols (1.8%), phytosterols (1.5%), amino acids (1.1%), tocols (0.5%) and phenolics (0.5%). HQE mainly consisted of FFA (57%), partial glycerides (23%) and sapogenins (5.4%), were richer in phytosterols (2.4%), phenolics (1.2%) and tocols (0.7%) but poorer in alkylresorcinols (1%). After in vitro digestion, saponins from FE and QE were fully bioaccessible, sapogenins from HFE displayed a good bioaccessibility (76%) and the sapogenin from HQE was moderately bioaccesible (38%). Digestion of saponin and sapogenin standards suggested that other components of the extracts were enhancing the bioaccessibility. Other minor bioactive compounds (phytosterols, alkylresorcinols, tocols and some phenolics) also displayed optimal bioaccessibility values (70–100%).