Psychoactive plant- and mushroom-associated alkaloids from two behavior modifying cicada pathogens

Signatures of transposon-mediated genome inflation, host specialization, and photoentrainment in Entomophthora muscae and allied entomophthoralean fungi

Despite over a century of observations, the obligate insect parasites within the order Entomophthorales remain poorly characterized at the genetic level. In this manuscript, we present a genome for a laboratory-tractable Entomophthora muscae isolate that infects fruit flies. Our E. muscae assembly is 1.03 Gb, consists of 7810 contigs and contains 81.3% complete fungal BUSCOs. Using a comparative approach with recent datasets from entomophthoralean fungi, we show that giant genomes are the norm within Entomophthoraceae owing to extensive, but not recent, Ty3 retrotransposon activity. In addition, we find that E. muscae and its closest allies possess genes that are likely homologs to the blue-light sensor white-collar 1, a Neurospora crassa gene that has a well-established role in maintaining circadian rhythms. We uncover evidence that E. muscae diverged from other entomophthoralean fungi by expansion of existing families, rather than loss of particular domains, and possesses a potentially unique suite of secreted catabolic enzymes, consistent with E. muscae's species-specific, biotrophic lifestyle. Finally, we offer a head-to-head comparison of morphological and molecular data for species within the E. muscae species complex that support the need for taxonomic revision within this group. Altogether, we provide a genetic and molecular foundation that we hope will provide a platform for the continued study of the unique biology of entomophthoralean fungi.

Signatures of transposon-mediated genome inflation, host specialization, and photoentrainment in Entomophthora muscae and allied entomophthoralean fungi

Despite over a century of observations, the obligate insect parasites within the order Entomophthorales remain poorly characterized at the genetic level. This is in part due to their large genome sizes and difficulty in obtaining sequenceable material. In this manuscript, we leveraged a recently-isolated, laboratory-tractable Entomophthora muscae isolate and improved long-read sequencing to obtain a largely-complete entomophthoralean genome. Our E. muscae assembly is 1.03 Gb, consists of 7,810 contigs and contains 81.3% complete fungal BUSCOs. Using a comparative approach with other available (transcriptomic and genomic) datasets from entomophthoralean fungi, we provide new insight into the biology of these understudied pathogens. We offer a head-to-head comparison of morphological and molecular data for species within the E. muscae species complex. Our findings suggest that substantial taxonomic revision is needed to define species within this group and we provide recommendations for differentiating strains and species in the context of the existing body of E. muscae scientific literature. We show that giant genomes are the norm within Entomophthoraceae owing to extensive, but not recent, Ty3 retrotransposon activity, despite the presence of machinery to defend against transposable elements(RNAi). In addition, we find that E. muscae and its closest allies are enriched for M16A peptidases and possess genes that are likely homologs to the blue-light sensor white-collar 1, a Neurospora crassa gene that has a well-established role in maintaining circadian rhythms. We find that E. muscae has an expanded group of acid-trehalases, consistent with trehalose being the primary sugar component of fly (and insect) hemolymph. We uncover evidence that E. muscae diverged from other entomophthoralean fungi by expansion of existing families, rather than loss of particular domains, and possesses a potentially unique suite of secreted catabolic enzymes, consistent with E. muscae's species-specific, biotrophic lifestyle. Altogether, we provide a genetic and molecular foundation that we hope will provide a platform for the continued study of the unique biology of entomophthoralean fungi.

Phylogenomics of the psychoactive mushroom genus Psilocybe and evolution of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster

Psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe have immense cultural value and have been used for centuries in Mesoamerica. Despite the recent surge of interest in these mushrooms due to the psychotherapeutic potential of their natural alkaloid psilocybin, their phylogeny and taxonomy remain substantially incomplete. Moreover, the recent elucidation of the psilocybin biosynthetic gene cluster is known for only five of ~165 species of Psilocybe, four of which belong to only one of two major clades. We set out to improve the phylogeny of Psilocybe using shotgun sequencing of fungarium specimens, from which we obtained 71 metagenomes including from 23 types, and conducting phylogenomic analysis of 2,983 single-copy gene families to generate a fully supported phylogeny. Molecular clock analysis suggests the stem lineage of Psilocybe arose ~67 mya and diversified ~56 mya. We also show that psilocybin biosynthesis first arose in Psilocybe, with 4 to 5 possible horizontal transfers to other mushrooms between 40 and 9 mya. Moreover, predicted orthologs of the psilocybin biosynthetic genes revealed two distinct gene orders within the biosynthetic gene cluster that corresponds to a deep split within the genus, possibly a signature of two independent acquisitions of the cluster within Psilocybe.

Exploring the Evolvability of Plant Specialized Metabolism: Uniqueness Out Of Uniformity and Uniqueness Behind Uniformity

The huge structural diversity exhibited by plant specialized metabolites has primarily been considered to result from the catalytic specificity of their biosynthetic enzymes. Accordingly, enzyme gene multiplication and functional differentiation through spontaneous mutations have been established as the molecular mechanisms that drive metabolic evolution. Nevertheless, how plants have assembled and maintained such metabolic enzyme genes and the typical clusters that are observed in plant genomes, as well as why identical specialized metabolites often exist in phylogenetically remote lineages, is currently only poorly explained by a concept known as convergent evolution. Here, we compile recent knowledge on the co-presence of metabolic modules that are common in the plant kingdom but have evolved under specific historical and contextual constraints defined by the physicochemical properties of each plant specialized metabolite and the genetic presets of the biosynthetic genes. Furthermore, we discuss a common manner to generate uncommon metabolites (uniqueness out of uniformity) and an uncommon manner to generate common metabolites (uniqueness behind uniformity). This review describes the emerging aspects of the evolvability of plant specialized metabolism that underlie the vast structural diversity of plant specialized metabolites in nature.

A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond

Psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin and related tryptamines have long been used for ethnomycological purposes, but emerging evidence points to the potential therapeutic value of these mushrooms to address modern neurological, psychiatric health, and related disorders. As a result, psilocybin containing mushrooms represent a re-emerging frontier for mycological, biochemical, neuroscience, and pharmacology research. This work presents crucial information related to traditional use of psychedelic mushrooms, as well as research trends and knowledge gaps related to their diversity and distribution, technologies for quantification of tryptamines and other tryptophan-derived metabolites, as well as biosynthetic mechanisms for their production within mushrooms. In addition, we explore the current state of knowledge for how psilocybin and related tryptamines are metabolized in humans and their pharmacological effects, including beneficial and hazardous human health implications. Finally, we describe opportunities and challenges for investigating the production of psychedelic mushrooms and metabolic engineering approaches to alter secondary metabolite profiles using biotechnology integrated with machine learning. Ultimately, this critical review of all aspects related to psychedelic mushrooms represents a roadmap for future research efforts that will pave the way to new applications and refined protocols.

Histologic findings of Massospora cicadina infection in periodical cicadas (Magicicada septendecim)

Massospora cicadina, an obligate fungal pathogen in the subphylum Entomophthoromycotina (Zoopagomycota), infects periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.) during their adult emergence and modifies their sexual behavior to maximize fungal spore dissemination. In this study, 7 periodical cicadas from the Brood X emergence in 2021 infected by M. cicadina were histologically examined. In 7 of 7 cicadas, fungal masses replaced the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity, effacing portions of the body wall, reproductive organs, alimentary tract, and fat bodies. No appreciable inflammation was noted at the intersections of the fungal masses and host tissues. Fungal organisms were present in multiple morphologies including protoplasts, hyphal bodies, conidiophores, and mature conidia. Conidia were clustered into eosinophilic membrane-bound packets. These findings help uncover the pathogenesis of M. cicadina by suggesting there is evasion of the host immune response and by providing a more in-depth description of its relationship with Magicicada septendecim than previously documented.

Sequencing the Genomes of the First Terrestrial Fungal Lineages: What Have We Learned?

The first genome sequenced of a eukaryotic organism was for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as reported in 1996, but it was more than 10 years before any of the zygomycete fungi, which are the early-diverging terrestrial fungi currently placed in the phyla Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota, were sequenced. The genome for Rhizopus delemar was completed in 2008; currently, more than 1000 zygomycete genomes have been sequenced. Genomic data from these early-diverging terrestrial fungi revealed deep phylogenetic separation of the two major clades-primarily plant-associated saprotrophic and mycorrhizal Mucoromycota versus the primarily mycoparasitic or animal-associated parasites and commensals in the Zoopagomycota. Genomic studies provide many valuable insights into how these fungi evolved in response to the challenges of living on land, including adaptations to sensing light and gravity, development of hyphal growth, and co-existence with the first terrestrial plants. Genome sequence data have facilitated studies of genome architecture, including a history of genome duplications and horizontal gene transfer events, distribution and organization of mating type loci, rDNA genes and transposable elements, methylation processes, and genes useful for various industrial applications. Pathogenicity genes and specialized secondary metabolites have also been detected in soil saprobes and pathogenic fungi. Novel endosymbiotic bacteria and viruses have been discovered during several zygomycete genome projects. Overall, genomic information has helped to resolve a plethora of research questions, from the placement of zygomycetes on the evolutionary tree of life and in natural ecosystems, to the applied biotechnological and medical questions.

Diversity and Breadth of Host Specificity among Arthropod Pathogens in the Entomophthoromycotina

A meta-analysis based on the published literature was conducted to evaluate the breadth of host ranges of arthropod pathogens in the fungal subphylum Entomophthoromycotina. The majority of pathogens in this subphylum infect insects, although arachnids (especially mites), collembola, and myriapods are also used as hosts. Most species (76%) have specialized host ranges and only infect arthropods in one host family. The breadth of host ranges in the Entomophthoromycotina is generally greater for species in more basal groups (Conidiobolaceae and Neoconidiobolaceae), where most species are soil-borne saprobes and few are pathogens. The Batkoaceae is a transitionary family in which all species are pathogens and both generalists and specialists occur. Among pathogen-infecting insects, Hemiptera and Diptera are the most commonly infected insect orders. Within the Hemiptera, hosts in the suborder Sternorrhycha were infected by more fungal species than the Auchenorrhyncha and Heteroptera.

The evolution and ecology of psilocybin in nature

Fungi produce diverse metabolites that can have antimicrobial, antifungal, antifeedant, or psychoactive properties. Among these metabolites are the tryptamine-derived compounds psilocybin, its precursors, and natural derivatives (collectively referred to as psiloids), which have played significant roles in human society and culture. The high allocation of nitrogen to psiloids in mushrooms, along with evidence of convergent evolution and horizontal transfer of psilocybin genes, suggest they provide a selective benefit to some fungi. However, no precise ecological roles of psilocybin have been experimentally determined. The structural and functional similarities of psiloids to serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter in animals, suggest that they may enhance the fitness of fungi through interference with serotonergic processes. However, other ecological mechanisms of psiloids have been proposed. Here, we review the literature pertinent to psilocybin ecology and propose potential adaptive advantages psiloids may confer to fungi.

Seeking the Psilocybiome: Psychedelics meet the microbiota-gut-brain axis

Moving towards a systems psychiatry paradigm embraces the inherent complex interactions across all levels from micro to macro and necessitates an integrated approach to treatment. Cortical 5-HT2A receptors are key primary targets for the effects of serotonergic psychedelics. However, the therapeutic mechanisms underlying psychedelic therapy are complex and traverse molecular, cellular, and network levels, under the influence of biofeedback signals from the periphery and the environment. At the interface between the individual and the environment, the gut microbiome, via the gut-brain axis, plays an important role in the unconscious parallel processing systems regulating host neurophysiology. While psychedelic and microbial signalling systems operate over different timescales, the microbiota-gut-brain (MGB) axis, as a convergence hub between multiple biofeedback systems may play a role in the preparatory phase, the acute administration phase, and the integration phase of psychedelic therapy. In keeping with an interconnected systems-based approach, this review will discuss the gut microbiome and mycobiome and pathways of the MGB axis, and then explore the potential interaction between psychedelic therapy and the MGB axis and how this might influence mechanism of action and treatment response. Finally, we will discuss the possible implications for a precision medicine-based psychedelic therapy paradigm.

Metagenomics Shines Light on the Evolution of "Sunscreen" Pigment Metabolism in the Teloschistales (Lichen-Forming Ascomycota)

Fungi produce a vast number of secondary metabolites that shape their interactions with other organisms and the environment. Characterizing the genes underpinning metabolite synthesis is therefore key to understanding fungal evolution and adaptation. Lichenized fungi represent almost one-third of Ascomycota diversity and boast impressive secondary metabolites repertoires. However, most lichen biosynthetic genes have not been linked to their metabolite products. Here we used metagenomic sequencing to survey gene families associated with production of anthraquinones, UV-protectant secondary metabolites present in various fungi, but especially abundant in a diverse order of lichens, the Teloschistales (class Lecanoromycetes, phylum Ascomycota). We successfully assembled 24 new, high-quality lichenized-fungal genomes de novo and combined them with publicly available Lecanoromycetes genomes from taxa with diverse secondary chemistry to produce a whole-genome tree. Secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) analysis showed that whilst lichen BGCs are numerous and highly dissimilar, core enzyme genes are generally conserved across taxa. This suggests metabolite diversification occurs via re-shuffling existing enzyme genes with novel accessory genes rather than BGC gains/losses or de novo gene evolution. We identified putative anthraquinone BGCs in our lichen dataset that appear homologous to anthraquinone clusters from non-lichenized fungi, suggesting these genes were present in the common ancestor of the subphylum Pezizomycotina. Finally, we identified unique transporter genes in Teloschistales anthraquinone BGCs that may explain why these metabolites are so abundant and ubiquitous in these lichens. Our results support the importance of metagenomics for understanding the secondary metabolism of non-model fungi such as lichens.

Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids

Since not only psilocybin (PSB) but also PSB-containing mushrooms are used for psychedelic therapy and microdosing, it is necessary to know their concentration variability in wild-grown mushrooms. This article aimed to determine the PSB, psilocin (PS), baeocystin (BA), norbaeocystin (NB), and aeruginascin (AE) concentrations in a large sample set of mushrooms belonging to genera previously reported to contain psychotropic tryptamines. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify tryptamine alkaloids in the mushroom samples. Most mushroom collections were documented by fungarium specimens and/or ITS rDNA/LSU/EF1-α sequencing. Concentrations of five tryptamine alkaloids were determined in a large sample set of 226 fruiting bodies of 82 individual collections from seven mushroom genera. For many mushroom species, concentrations of BA, NB, and AE are reported for the first time. The highest PSB/PS concentrations were found in Psilocybe species, but no tryptamines were detected in the P. fuscofulva and P. fimetaria collections. The tryptamine concentrations in mushrooms are extremely variable, representing a problem for mushroom consumers due to the apparent risk of overdose. The varied cocktail of tryptamines in wild mushrooms could influence the medicinal effect compared to therapy with chemically pure PSB, posing a serious problem for data interpretation.

Gut microbiome insights from 16S rRNA analysis of 17-year periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Magicicada spp.) Broods II, VI, and X

Periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Magicicada) have coevolved with obligate bacteriome-inhabiting microbial symbionts, yet little is known about gut microbial symbiont composition or differences in composition among allochronic Magicicada broods (year classes) which emerge parapatrically or allopatrically in the eastern United States. Here, 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing was performed to determine gut bacterial community profiles of three periodical broods, including II (Connecticut and Virginia, 2013), VI (North Carolina, 2017), and X (Maryland, 2021, and an early emerging nymph collected in Ohio, 2017). Results showed similarities among all nymphal gut microbiomes and between morphologically distinct 17-year Magicicada, namely Magicicada septendecim (Broods II and VI) and 17-year Magicicada cassini (Brood X) providing evidence of a core microbiome, distinct from the microbiome of burrow soil inhabited by the nymphs. Generally, phyla Bacteroidetes [Bacteroidota] (> 50% relative abundance), Actinobacteria [Actinomycetota], or Proteobacteria [Pseudomonadota] represented the core. Acidobacteria and genera Cupriavidus, Mesorhizobium, and Delftia were prevalent in nymphs but less frequent in adults. The primary obligate endosymbiont, Sulcia (Bacteroidetes), was dominant amongst core genera detected. Chryseobacterium were common in Broods VI and X. Chitinophaga, Arthrobacter, and Renibacterium were common in Brood X, and Pedobacter were common to nymphs of Broods II and VI. Further taxonomic assignment of unclassified Alphaproteobacteria sequencing reads allowed for detection of multiple copies of the Hodgkinia 16S rRNA gene, distinguishable as separate operational taxonomic units present simultaneously. As major emergences of the broods examined here occur at 17-year intervals, this study will provide a valuable comparative baseline in this era of a changing climate.

Assessing global fungal threats to humans

Fungi are an integral part of the earth's biosphere. They are broadly distributed in all continents and ecosystems and play a diversity of roles. Here, I review our current understanding of fungal threats to humans and describe the major factors that contribute to various threats. Among the 140,000 or so known species out of the estimated six million fungal species on Earth, about 10% directly or indirectly threaten human health and welfare. Major threats include mushroom poisoning, fungal allergies, infections of crop plants, food contamination by mycotoxins, and mycoses in humans. A growing number of factors have been identified to impact various fungal threats, including human demographics, crop distributions, anthropogenic activities, pathogen dispersals, global climate change, and/or the applications of antifungal drugs and agricultural fungicides. However, while models have been developed for analyzing various processes of individual threats and threat managements, current data are primarily descriptive and incomplete, and there are significant obstacles to integration of the diverse factors into accurate quantitative assessments of fungal threats. With increasing technological advances and concerted efforts to track the spatial and temporal data on climate and environmental variables; mycotoxins in the feed and food supply chains; fungal population dynamics in crop fields, human and animal populations, and the environment; human population demographics; and the prevalence and severities of fungal allergies and diseases, our ability to accurately assess fungal threats will improve. Such improvements should help us develop holistic strategies to manage fungal threats in the future.

An Improved 1.5-Gigabase Draft Assembly of Massospora cicadina (Zoopagomycota), an Obligate Fungal Parasite of 13- and 17-Year Cicadas

A 1.488-Gb draft genome sequence was assembled for the fungus Massospora cicadina , an obligate parasite of periodical cicadas. The M. cicadina genome has experienced massive expansion via transposable elements (TEs), which account for 92% of the genome.

Metagenome-Assembled Genomes of Bacteria Associated with Massospora cicadina Fungal Plugs from Infected Brood VIII Periodical Cicadas

We report six metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) associated with Massospora cicadina strain MCPNR19 (ARSEF 14555), an obligate entomopathogenic fungus of periodical cicadas. The MAGs include representatives of Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Lactococcus, and one potential new Chryseobacterium species. Future research is needed to resolve the ecology of these MAGs and determine whether they represent symbionts or contaminants.

Cystathionine Gamma-Lyase Regulate Psilocybin Biosynthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis Mushroom via Amino Acid Metabolism Pathways

As a potential medicine for the treatment of depression, psilocybin has gradually attracted attention. To elucidate the molecular mechanism regulating psilocybin synthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) was used to detect the changes in psilocybin content after S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH) treatment and the changes of psilocybin content in different parts (stipe and pileus), and RNA-Seq was used to explore the mechanism of psilocybin content changes. In this study, the psilocybin content in G. dilepis mycelia treated with SAH was significantly lower than that in the control group, and the content of psilocybin in the stipe was significantly higher than that in the pileus. Transcriptome analysis revealed that differential expression genes (DEGs) were associated with cysteine and methionine metabolism. In particular, the transcription levels of genes encoding Cystathionine gamma-lyase (CTH) in different treatments and different parts were positively correlated with psilocybin content. In addition, we found that the exogenous addition of CTH activity inhibitor (DL-propargylglycine, PAG) could reduce the content of psilocybin and L-serine, and the content of psilocybin and L-serine returned to normal levels after L-cysteine supplementation, suggesting that psilocybin synthesis may be positively correlated with L-cysteine or CTH, and L-cysteine regulates the synthesis of psilocybin by affecting L-serine and 4-hydroxy-L-tryptophan. In conclusion, this study revealed a new molecular mechanism that affects psilocybin biosynthesis, which can provide a theoretical basis for improving psilocybin synthesis and the possibility for the development of biomedicine.

A genomic journey in the secondary metabolite diversity of fungal plant and insect pathogens: from functional to population genomics

Fungal pathogens produce a broad array of secondary metabolites (SMs), which allow the fungus to thrive in its natural habitat and gain competitive advantage. Analysis of the genetically encoded blueprints for SM assembly highlighted that only a small portion of the SMs these fungi are capable of producing are known, and even fewer have been investigated for their natural function. Using molecular tools, a lot of progress has been made recently in identifying the blueprint products and linking them to their ecological purpose such as the peptide virulence factor fusaoctaxin A released by Fusarium graminearum during infection of wheat or the F. oxysporum polyketide bikaverin that provides competitive advantage against bacteria in tomato. In addition, population genomics have given particularly important insights into the species-specific plasticity of the SM blueprint arsenal, showcasing the ongoing evolution and adaptation of fungal pathogens. This approach holds promise in inferring roles in pathogenicity of many more fungal SMs.

Mammalian Mycophagy: a Global Review of Ecosystem Interactions Between Mammals and Fungi

The consumption of fungi by animals is a significant trophic interaction in most terrestrial ecosystems, yet the role mammals play in these associations has been incompletely studied. In this review, we compile 1 154 references published over the last 146 years and provide the first comprehensive global review of mammal species known to eat fungi (508 species in 15 orders). We review experimental studies that found viable fungal inoculum in the scats of at least 40 mammal species, including spores from at least 58 mycorrhizal fungal species that remained viable after ingestion by mammals. We provide a summary of mammal behaviours relating to the consumption of fungi, the nutritional importance of fungi for mammals, and the role of mammals in fungal spore dispersal. We also provide evidence to suggest that the morphological evolution of sequestrate fungal sporocarps (fruiting bodies) has likely been driven in part by the dispersal advantages provided by mammals. Finally, we demonstrate how these interconnected associations are widespread globally and have far-reaching ecological implications for mammals, fungi and associated plants in most terrestrial ecosystems.

Detecting and removing sample contamination in phylogenomic data: an example and its implications for Cicadidae phylogeny (Insecta: Hemiptera)

Contamination of a genetic sample with DNA from one or more non-target species is a continuing concern of molecular phylogenetic studies, both Sanger sequencing studies and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) studies. We developed an automated pipeline for identifying and excluding likely cross-contaminated loci based on detection of bimodal distributions of patristic distances across gene trees. When the contamination occurs between samples within a dataset, comparisons between a contaminated sample and its contaminant taxon will yield bimodal distributions with one peak close to zero patristic distance. This new method does not rely on a priori knowledge of taxon relatedness nor does it determine the causes(s) of the contamination. Exclusion of putatively contaminated loci from a dataset generated for the insect family Cicadidae showed that these sequences were affecting some topological patterns and branch supports, although the effects were sometimes subtle, with some contamination-influenced relationships exhibiting strong bootstrap support. Long tip branches and outlier values for one anchored phylogenomic pipeline statistic (AvgNHomologs) were correlated with the presence of contamination. While the AHE markers used here, which target hemipteroid taxa, proved effective in resolving deep and shallow level Cicadidae relationships in aggregate, individual markers contained inadequate phylogenetic signal, in part probably due to short length. The cleaned dataset, consisting of 429 loci, from 90 genera representing 44 of 56 current Cicadidae tribes, supported three of the four sampled Cicadidae subfamilies in concatenated-matrix maximum likelihood (ML) and multispecies coalescent-based species tree analyses, with the fourth subfamily weakly supported in the ML trees. No well-supported patterns from previous family-level Sanger sequencing studies of Cicadidae phylogeny were contradicted. One taxon (Aragualna plenalinea) did not fall with its current subfamily in the genetic tree, and this genus and its tribe Aragualnini is reclassified to Tibicininae following morphological re-examination. Only subtle differences were observed in trees after removal of loci for which divergent base frequencies were detected. Greater success may be achieved by increased taxon sampling and developing a probe set targeting a more recent common ancestor and longer loci. Searches for contamination are an essential step in phylogenomic analyses of all kinds and our pipeline is an effective solution.

Diet Fermentation Leads to Microbial Adaptation in Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens; Linnaeus, 1758) Larvae Reared on Palm Oil Side Streams

Insects offer a promising alternative source of protein to mitigate the environmental consequences of conventional livestock farming. Larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; Linnaeus, 1758) efficiently convert a variety of organic side streams and residues into valuable proteins, lipids, and chitin. Here, we evaluated the suitability of two palm oil industry side streams—empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm kernel meal (PKM)—as larval feed, and their impact on the larval gut microbiome. Among 69 fungal species we screened, Marasmius palmivorus, Irpex consors, and Bjerkandera adusta achieved the fastest growth and lignin degradation, so these fungi were used for the pretreatment of 7:3 mixtures of EFB and PKM. Larvae reared on the mixture pretreated with B. adusta (BAD) developed significantly more quickly and reached a higher final weight than those reared on the other pretreatments or the non-fermented reference (NFR). Amplicon sequencing of the BAD and NFR groups revealed major differences in the larval gut microbiome. The NFR group was dominated by facultatively anaerobic Enterobacteriaceae (typical of H. illucens larvae) whereas the BAD group favored obligately anaerobic, cellulolytic bacteria (Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae). We hypothesize that fungal lignin degradation led to an accumulation of mycelia and subsequent cellulolytic breakdown of fiber residues, thus improving substrate digestibility.

Changes in white oak ( Quercus alba ) phytochemistry in response to periodical cicadas: Before, during, and after an emergence

Periodical cicadas have mass emergences once every 13 or 17 years. Plants may need to upregulate defense production in response to an emergence. Defense production is energetically expensive, so plants may downregulate their production after periodical cicada populations dissipate. We examined the defensive responses in leaves, branches, and roots of a common host, white oak (Quercus alba), prior to, during, and after a 17-year periodical cicada (Magicicada spp.) emergence in western Pennsylvania, United States. During the emergence, total tannins and condensed tannins increased in foliar tissue, while simultaneously decreasing in root tissue compared to the prior and subsequent years. Non-structural carbohydrates were low prior to the mass emergence but were re-allocated to belowground storage during the emergence year and dropped thereafter. In the year after the emergence, there was a relaxation of foliar defenses, and root defenses returned to pre-emergence concentrations. We also tested for differences in damaged and undamaged branches on the same tree during (2019) and the year after the emergence (2020). Both damaged and undamaged branches had significantly greater chemical defenses (polyphenols, total tannins, and condensed tannins) during the emergence than in the following year when there was no emergence. We propose that re-allocation of resources may help maximize oak tree fitness by moving resources away from areas that are not in immediate threat to areas that are under immediate threat. Changes in aboveground and belowground phytochemistry in response to periodical cicada mass emergences may help us better understand which resource re-allocation strategies are used by plants to minimize the effects of insect emergencies.

Hijacking time: How Ophiocordyceps fungi could be using ant host clocks to manipulate behavior

Ophiocordyceps fungi manipulate ant behaviour as a transmission strategy. Conspicuous changes in the daily timing of disease phenotypes suggest that Ophiocordyceps and other manipulators could be hijacking the host clock. We discuss the available data that support the notion that Ophiocordyceps fungi could be hijacking ant host clocks and consider how altering daily behavioural rhythms could benefit the fungal infection cycle. By reviewing time‐course transcriptomics data for the parasite and the host, we argue that Ophiocordyceps has a light‐entrainable clock that might drive daily expression of candidate manipulation genes. Moreover, ant rhythms are seemingly highly plastic and involved in behavioural division of labour, which could make them susceptible to parasite hijacking. To provisionally test whether the expression of ant behavioural plasticity and rhythmicity genes could be affected by fungal manipulation, we performed a gene co‐expression network analysis on ant time‐course data and linked it to available behavioural manipulation data. We found that behavioural plasticity genes reside in the same modules as those affected during fungal manipulation. These modules showed significant connectivity with rhythmic gene modules, suggesting that Ophiocordyceps could be indirectly affecting the expression of those genes as well.

Phylogenetic Revision and Patterns of Host Specificity in the Fungal Subphylum Entomophthoromycotina

The Entomophthoromycotina, a subphylum close to the root of terrestrial fungi with a bias toward insects as their primary hosts, has been notoriously difficult to categorize taxonomically for decades. Here, we reassess the phylogeny of this group based on conserved genes encoding ribosomal RNA and RNA polymerase II subunits, confirming their general monophyly, but challenging previously assumed taxonomic relationships within and between particular clades. Furthermore, for the prominent, partially human-pathogenic taxon Conidiobolus, a new type species C. coronatus is proposed in order to compensate for the unclear, presumably lost previous type species C. utriculosus Brefeld 1884. We also performed an exhaustive survey of the broad host spectrum of the Entomophthoromycotina, which is not restricted to insects alone, and investigated potential patterns of co-evolution across their megadiverse host range. Our results suggest multiple independent origins of parasitism within this subphylum and no apparent co-evolutionary events with any particular host lineage. However, Pterygota (i.e., winged insects) clearly constitute the most dominantly parasitized superordinate host group. This appears to be in accordance with an increased dispersal capacity mediated by the radiation of the Pterygota during insect evolution, which has likely greatly facilitated the spread, infection opportunities, and evolutionary divergence of the Entomophthoromycotina as well.

Advances in the Evolution and Ecology of 13- and 17-Year Periodical Cicadas

Apart from model organisms, 13- and 17-year periodical cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada) are among the most studied insects in evolution and ecology. They are attractive subjects because they predictably emerge in large numbers; have a complex biogeography shaped by both spatial and temporal isolation; and include three largely sympatric, parallel species groups that are, in a sense, evolutionary replicates. Magicicada are also relatively easy to capture and manipulate, and their spectacular, synchronized mass emergences facilitate outreach and citizen science opportunities. Since the last major review, studies of Magicicada have revealed insights into reproductive character displacement and the nature of species boundaries, provided additional examples of allochronic speciation, found evidence for repeated and parallel (but noncontemporaneous) evolution of 13- and 17-year life cycles, quantified the amount and direction of gene flow through time, revealed phylogeographic patterning resulting from paleoclimate change, examined the timing of juvenile development, and created hypotheses for the evolution of life-cycle control and the future effects of climate changeon Magicicada life cycles. New ecological studies have supported and questioned the role of prime numbers in Magicicada ecology and evolution, found bidirectional shifts in population size over generations, quantified the contribution of Magicicada to nutrient flow in forest ecosystems, and examined behavioral and biochemical interactions between Magicicada and their fungal parasites and bacterial endosymbionts.

Diversification of ergot alkaloids and heritable fungal symbionts in morning glories

Heritable microorganisms play critical roles in life cycles of many macro-organisms but their prevalence and functional roles are unknown for most plants. Bioactive ergot alkaloids produced by heritable Periglandula fungi occur in some morning glories (Convolvulaceae), similar to ergot alkaloids in grasses infected with related fungi. Ergot alkaloids have been of longstanding interest given their toxic effects, psychoactive properties, and medical applications. Here we show that ergot alkaloids are concentrated in four morning glory clades exhibiting differences in alkaloid profiles and are more prevalent in species with larger seeds than those with smaller seeds. Further, we found a phylogenetically-independent, positive correlation between seed mass and alkaloid concentrations in symbiotic species. Our findings suggest that heritable symbiosis has diversified among particular clades by vertical transmission through seeds combined with host speciation, and that ergot alkaloids are particularly beneficial to species with larger seeds. Our results are consistent with the defensive symbiosis hypothesis where bioactive ergot alkaloids from Periglandula symbionts protect seeds and seedlings from natural enemies, and provide a framework for exploring microbial chemistry in other plant-microbe interactions.

The genus Entomophthora: bringing the insect destroyers into the twenty-first century

The fungal genus Entomophthora consists of highly host-specific pathogens that cause deadly epizootics in their various insect hosts. The most well-known among these is the "zombie fly" fungus E. muscae, which, like other Entomophthora species, elicits a series of dramatic behaviors in infected hosts to promote optimal spore dispersal. Despite having been first described more than 160 years ago, there are still many open questions about Entomophthora biology, including the molecular underpinnings of host behavior manipulation and host specificity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of our current understanding of the biology of Entomophthora fungi and enumerates the most pressing outstanding questions that should be addressed in the field. We briefly review the discovery of Entomophthora and provide a summary of the 21 recognized Entomophthora species, including their type hosts, methods of transmission (ejection of spores after or before host death), and for which molecular data are available. Further, we argue that this genus is globally distributed, based on a compilation of Entomophthora records in the literature and in online naturalist databases, and likely to contain additional species. Evidence for strain-level specificity of hosts is summarized and directly compared to phylogenies of Entomophthora and the class Insecta. A detailed description of Entomophthora's life-cycle and observed manipulated behaviors is provided and used to summarize a consensus for ideal growth conditions. We discuss evidence for Entomophthora's adaptation to growth exclusively inside insects, such as producing wall-less hyphal bodies and a unique set of subtilisin-like proteases to penetrate the insect cuticle. However, we are only starting to understand the functions of unusual molecular and genomic characteristics, such as having large > 1 Gb genomes full of repetitive elements and potential functional diploidy. We argue that the high host-specificity and obligate life-style of most Entomophthora species provides ample scope for having been shaped by close coevolution with insects despite the current general lack of such evidence. Finally, we propose six major directions for future Entomophthora research and in doing so hope to provide a foundation for future studies of these fungi and their interaction with insects.

Mechanisms behind the Madness: How Do Zombie-Making Fungal Entomopathogens Affect Host Behavior To Increase Transmission?

Transmission is a crucial step in all pathogen life cycles. As such, certain species have evolved complex traits that increase their chances to find and invade new hosts. Fungal species that hijack insect behaviors are evident examples. Many of these "zombie-making" entomopathogens cause their hosts to exhibit heightened activity, seek out elevated positions, and display body postures that promote spore dispersal, all with specific circadian timing. Answering how fungal entomopathogens manipulate their hosts will increase our understanding of molecular aspects underlying fungus-insect interactions, pathogen-host coevolution, and the regulation of animal behavior. It may also lead to the discovery of novel bioactive compounds, given that the fungi involved have traditionally been understudied. This minireview summarizes and discusses recent work on zombie-making fungi of the orders Hypocreales and Entomophthorales that has resulted in hypotheses regarding the mechanisms that drive fungal manipulation of insect behavior. We discuss mechanical processes, host chemical signaling pathways, and fungal secreted effectors proposed to be involved in establishing pathogen-adaptive behaviors. Additionally, we touch on effectors' possible modes of action and how the convergent evolution of host manipulation could have given rise to the many parallels in observed behaviors across fungus-insect systems and beyond. However, the hypothesized mechanisms of behavior manipulation have yet to be proven. We, therefore, also suggest avenues of research that would move the field toward a more quantitative future.

A whole genome atlas of 81 Psilocybe genomes as a resource for psilocybin production

The Psilocybe genus is well known for the synthesis of valuable psychoactive compounds such as Psilocybin, Psilocin, Baeocystin and Aeruginascin. The ubiquity of Psilocybin synthesis in Psilocybe has been attributed to a horizontal gene transfer mechanism of a ~20Kb gene cassette. A recently published highly contiguous reference genome derived from long read single molecule sequencing has underscored interesting variation in this Psilocybin synthesis gene cassette. This reference genome has also enabled the shotgun sequencing of spores from many Psilocybe strains to better catalog the genomic diversity in the Psilocybin synthesis pathway. Here we present the de novo assembly of genomes of 81 Psilocybe genomes compared to the P.envy reference genome. Surprisingly, the genomes of Psilocybe galindoi, Psilocybe tampanensis and Psilocybe azurescens lack sequence coverage over the previously described Psilocybin synthesis pathway but do demonstrate amino acid sequence homology to an alternative pathway and may illuminate previously proposed convergent evolution of Psilocybin synthesis.

Microbial Toxins in Insect and Nematode Pest Biocontrol

Invertebrate pests, such as insects and nematodes, not only cause or transmit human and livestock diseases but also impose serious crop losses by direct injury as well as vectoring pathogenic microbes. The damage is global but greater in developing countries, where human health and food security are more at risk. Although synthetic pesticides have been in use, biological control measures offer advantages via their biodegradability, environmental safety and precise targeting. This is amply demonstrated by the successful and widespread use of Bacillusthuringiensis to control mosquitos and many plant pests, the latter by the transgenic expression of insecticidal proteins from B. thuringiensis in crop plants. Here, I discuss the prospects of using bacterial and fungal toxins for pest control, including the molecular basis of their biocidal activity.

Insect Behavioral Change and the Potential Contributions of Neuroinflammation-A Call for Future Research

Many organisms are able to elicit behavioral change in other organisms. Examples include different microbes (e.g., viruses and fungi), parasites (e.g., hairworms and trematodes), and parasitoid wasps. In most cases, the mechanisms underlying host behavioral change remain relatively unclear. There is a growing body of literature linking alterations in immune signaling with neuron health, communication, and function; however, there is a paucity of data detailing the effects of altered neuroimmune signaling on insect neuron function and how glial cells may contribute toward neuron dysregulation. It is important to consider the potential impacts of altered neuroimmune communication on host behavior and reflect on its potential role as an important tool in the "neuro-engineer" toolkit. In this review, we examine what is known about the relationships between the insect immune and nervous systems. We highlight organisms that are able to influence insect behavior and discuss possible mechanisms of behavioral manipulation, including potentially dysregulated neuroimmune communication. We close by identifying opportunities for integrating research in insect innate immunity, glial cell physiology, and neurobiology in the investigation of behavioral manipulation.

Taking Different Roads: l-Tryptophan as the Origin of Psilocybe Natural Products

Psychotropic fungi of the genus Psilocybe, colloquially referred to as "magic mushrooms", are best known for their l-tryptophan-derived major natural product, psilocybin. Yet, recent research has revealed a more diverse secondary metabolism that originates from this amino acid. In this minireview, the focus is laid on l-tryptophan and the various Psilocybe natural products and their metabolic routes are highlighted. Psilocybin and its congeners, the heterogeneous blue-colored psilocyl oligomers, alongside β-carbolines and N,N-dimethyl-l-tryptophan, are presented as well as current knowledge on their biosynthesis is provided. The multidisciplinary character of natural product research is demonstrated, and pharmacological, medicinal, ecological, biochemical, and evolutionary aspects are included.

Fungal evolution: cellular, genomic and metabolic complexity

The question of how phenotypic and genomic complexity are inter-related and how they are shaped through evolution is a central question in biology that historically has been approached from the perspective of animals and plants. In recent years, however, fungi have emerged as a promising alternative system to address such questions. Key to their ecological success, fungi present a broad and diverse range of phenotypic traits. Fungal cells can adopt many different shapes, often within a single species, providing them with great adaptive potential. Fungal cellular organizations span from unicellular forms to complex, macroscopic multicellularity, with multiple transitions to higher or lower levels of cellular complexity occurring throughout the evolutionary history of fungi. Similarly, fungal genomes are very diverse in their architecture. Deep changes in genome organization can occur very quickly, and these phenomena are known to mediate rapid adaptations to environmental changes. Finally, the biochemical complexity of fungi is huge, particularly with regard to their secondary metabolites, chemical products that mediate many aspects of fungal biology, including ecological interactions. Herein, we explore how the interplay of these cellular, genomic and metabolic traits mediates the emergence of complex phenotypes, and how this complexity is shaped throughout the evolutionary history of Fungi.

Strongwellsea tigrinae and Strongwellsea acerosa (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae), two new species infecting dipteran hosts from the genus Coenosia (Muscidae)

Two new species from the genus Strongwellsea (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) are described: Strongwellsea tigrinae from adult Coenosia tigrina (Diptera: Muscidae) and Strongwellsea acerosa from adult Coenosia testacea. The descriptions are based on pathobiological, phenotypical and genotypical characters. Further, the circumscription of the genus Strongwellsea is emended. Our findings suggest that Strongwellsea harbors a high number of species, of which now only five have been described.

Using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to assess the effect of age, high-fat diet, and rat strain on the liver metabolome

The goal of this study was to use liquid chromatography mass spectrometry to assess metabolic changes of two different diets in three distinct rat strains. Sprague-Dawley, Fischer 344, and Brown-Norway male rats were maintained on a high-fat, or regular diet for 24 weeks. Liver tissue was collected at 4, 12, and 24 weeks to assess global small molecule metabolite changes using high resolution accurate mass spectrometry coupled to ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. The results of the global metabolomics analysis revealed significant changes based on both age and diet within all three strains. Principal component analysis revealed that the influence of diet caused a greater variation in significantly changing metabolites than that of age for the Brown Norway and Fisher 344 strains, whereas diet had the greatest influence in the Sprague Dawley strain only at the 4-week time point. As expected, metabolites involved in lipid metabolism were changed in the animals maintained on a high fat diet compared to the regular diet. There were also significant changes observed in the concentration of Tri carboxylic acid cycle intermediates that were extracted from the liver of all three strains based on diet. The results of this study showed that a high fat diet caused significant liver and metabolic changes compared to a regular diet in multiple rat strains. The inbred Fisher 344 and Brown Norway rats were more metabolically sensitive to the diet changes than outbred Sprague Dawley strain. The study also showed that age, as was the case for Sprague Dawley, is an important variable to consider when assessing metabolic changes.

Evolutionary relationships among Massospora spp. (Entomophthorales), obligate pathogens of cicadas

The fungal genus Massospora (Zoopagomycota: Entomophthorales) includes more than a dozen obligate, sexually transmissible pathogenic species that infect cicadas (Hemiptera) worldwide. At least two species are known to produce psychoactive compounds during infection, which has garnered considerable interest for this enigmatic genus. As with many Entomophthorales, the evolutionary relationships and host associations of Massospora spp. are not well understood. The acquisition of M. diceroproctae from Arizona, M. tettigatis from Chile, and M. platypediae from California and Colorado provided an opportunity to conduct molecular phylogenetic analyses and morphological studies to investigate whether these fungi represent a monophyletic group and delimit species boundaries. In a three-locus phylogenetic analysis including the D1-D2 domains of the nuclear 28S rRNA gene (28S), elongation factor 1 alpha-like (EFL), and beta-tubulin (BTUB), Massospora was resolved in a strongly supported monophyletic group containing four well-supported genealogically exclusive lineages, based on two of three methods of phylogenetic inference. There was incongruence among the single-gene trees: two methods of phylogenetic inference recovered trees with either the same topology as the three-gene concatenated tree (EFL) or a basal polytomy (28S, BTUB). Massospora levispora and M. platypediae isolates formed a single lineage in all analyses and are synonymized here as M. levispora. Massospora diceroproctae was sister to M. cicadina in all three single-gene trees and on an extremely long branch relative to the other Massospora, and even the outgroup taxa, which may reflect an accelerated rate of molecular evolution and/or incomplete taxon sampling. The results of the morphological study presented here indicate that spore measurements may not be phylogenetically or diagnostically informative. Despite recent advances in understanding the ecology of Massospora, much about its host range and diversity remains unexplored. The emerging phylogenetic framework can provide a foundation for exploring coevolutionary relationships with cicada hosts and the evolution of behavior-altering compounds.

Plants make galls to accommodate foreigners: some are friends, most are foes

At the colonization site of a foreign entity, plant cells alter their trajectory of growth and development. The resulting structure - a plant gall - accommodates various needs of the foreigner, which are phylogenetically diverse: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, oomycetes, true fungi, parasitic plants, and many types of animals, including rotifers, nematodes, insects, and mites. The plant species that make galls also are diverse. We assume gall production costs the plant. All is well if the foreigner provides a gift that makes up for the cost. Nitrogen-fixing nodule-inducing bacteria provide nutritional services. Gall wasps pollinate fig trees. Unfortunately for plants, most galls are made for foes, some of which are deeply studied pathogens and pests: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Rhodococcus fascians, Xanthomonas citri, Pseudomonas savastanoi, Pantoea agglomerans, 'Candidatus' phytoplasma, rust fungi, Ustilago smuts, root knot and cyst nematodes, and gall midges. Galls are an understudied phenomenon in plant developmental biology. We propose gall inception for discovering unifying features of the galls that plants make for friends and foes, talk about molecules that plants and gall-inducers use to get what they want from each other, raise the question of whether plants colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi respond in a gall-like manner, and present a research agenda.

Specialist and Generalist Fungal Parasites Induce Distinct Biochemical Changes in the Mandible Muscles of Their Host

Some parasites have evolved the ability to adaptively manipulate host behavior. One notable example is the fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis sensu lato, which has evolved the ability to alter the behavior of ants in ways that enable fungal transmission and lifecycle completion. Because host mandibles are affected by the fungi, we focused on understanding changes in the metabolites of muscles during behavioral modification. We used High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass/Mass (HPLC-MS/MS) to detect the metabolite difference between controls and O. unilateralis-infected ants. There was a significant difference between the global metabolome of O. unilateralis-infected ants and healthy ants, while there was no significant difference between the Beauveria bassiana treatment ants group compared to the healthy ants. A total of 31 and 16 of metabolites were putatively identified from comparisons of healthy ants with O. unilateralis-infected ants and comparisons of B. bassiana with O. unilateralis-infected samples, respectively. This result indicates that the concentrations of sugars, purines, ergothioneine, and hypoxanthine were significantly increased in O. unilateralis-infected ants in comparison to healthy ants and B. bassiana-infected ants. This study provides a comprehensive metabolic approach for understanding the interactions, at the level of host muscles, between healthy ants and fungal parasites.