Monkeypox: Prioritizing public health through early intervention and treatment

Lyophilized monkeypox mRNA lipid nanoparticle vaccines with long-term stability and robust immune responses in mice

The World Health Organization (WHO) has recently declared another global health emergency due to the rapidly spreading monkeypox (Mpox) outbreak in numerous African countries. To address the unmet need to contain the outbreak using the existing vaccines, this study developed a lyophilization process for an effective, scalable and affordable Mpox mRNA-LNP vaccine candidate to address the global health crisis. A comprehensive evaluation and optimization of the vaccine formulation (the type/concentration of cryoprotectants, the type/concentration of buffer system, as well as the mRNA concentration and reconstitution solvent) and the freeze-drying process parameters (freezing method, temperature, cooling rate and primary/secondary drying conditions) were conducted. The freeze-dried product exhibits a uniform appearance and a moisture content of less than 1%. Reconstitution of the lyophilized mRNA-LNP resulted in equivalent particle size/polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency and mRNA integrity compared to that of freshly prepared mRNA-LNP. Furthermore, the lyophilization process can be scaled up 100-fold to 2000 vials/batch. Notably, the lyophilized mRNA-LNP demonstrated a storage stability of at least 12 months at 4°C, and at ambient temperature for a minimum of 8 h post-reconstitution, exhibiting minimal deterioration in product quality. The in vitro biological activity and in vivo immunogenicity of the lyophilized mRNA-LNP was comparable to that of the freshly prepared mRNA-LNP. These results provide a compelling rationale for the utilization of lyophilization technology in enhancing the accessibility of the Mpox mRNA vaccine in developing countries, a strategy that is crucial for containing the global epidemic of Mpox infection.

Global epidemiology, viral evolution, and public health responses: a systematic review on Mpox (1958-2024)

Background

Monkeypox (Mpox), a zoonotic viral disease caused by the Mpox virus (MPOXV), was first identified in 1958 and remained largely confined to Central and West Africa for decades. While it usually exhibited limited international transmission, recent outbreaks, including in the USA in 2003 and globally in 2024, highlight significant epidemiological shifts. We aimed to systematically evaluate the evolution of Mpox from 1958 to 2024, focussing on its epidemiology, viral evolution, and public health responses.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review using data from global health reports, surveillance databases, and published literature. The analysis covered key outbreaks, transmission patterns, geographic distribution, public health responses, and the roles of viral mutations and vaccination in disease management.

Results

The 2022 Mpox outbreak, declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organization (WHO), was characterised by an unprecedented international spread of the virus. By July 2024, a total of 102 997 confirmed cases and 223 deaths were reported across 121 countries. Two distinct viral clades were identified: Central African (clade I) and West African (clade II), with the latter being the primary agent of global transmission. Research on Mpox has highlighted the protective effects of smallpox vaccination and emerging risk factors such as human-animal interactions and international travel.

Conclusions

Mpox has evolved from a regionally contained zoonotic disease to a global public health challenge. Enhanced surveillance, international collaboration, and targeted interventions in non-endemic regions are critical for mitigating future outbreaks and managing ongoing epidemiological changes.

Virology, epidemiology, transmissions, diagnostic tests, prophylaxis and treatments of human Mpox: Saudi Arabia perspective

Mpox (Monkeypox) is a highly contagious viral disease that can be transmitted from animal-to-human or human-to-human through intimate contact, Mpox is caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is an enveloped double-stranded DNA that belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus, Poxviridae family, and subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. Mpox cases were previously only reported in West and Central Africa, however in recent times non-endemic countries including Saudi Arabia (SA) also reported confirmed Mpox cases. The first laboratory-confirmed human Mpox case in SA was reported on 14 July 2022, since then a number of confirmed Mpox cases have been reported by WHO in SA. These confirmed Mpox cases in SA were observed among individuals with a history of visiting European Union countries. SA is not only at risk of importation of Mpox cases owing to travel to such countries, but also there are various other risk factors including geographic proximity to the African continent, trade in exotic animals, and massive inflow of tourists. Therefore, government health authorities of SA should continue to collaborate with various international health organizations including WHO to prevent, manage or monitor potential health risks at most of the entry points in SA including highways, seaports, and airports by ensuring adherence to hygiene protocols, vaccinations, and health screenings. There are a range of diagnostic tests are currently available that can be used in SA to confirm Mpox infections, including real-time PCR, loop-mediated isothermal amplification, serological testing, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR-Cas)-based systems, whole-genome sequencing, electron microscopy, and virus isolation and culture. There is no approved treatment specifically for Mpox, however multiple approved antiviral agents for smallpox treatment were found to be useful in Mpox treatment and in the management of Mpox outbreaks, such as- trifluridine, brincidofovir, tecovirimat, and cidofovir. The aim of this review is to provide valuable insights regarding virology, pathogenesis, epidemiology, transmissions, clinical presentation, diagnostic tests, prophylactic measures and therapeutic options of Mpox from SA perspective. Moreover, a side-by-side discussion on the global trend and scenarios of Mpox has been provided for comparison and further improvement in measures against Mpox in SA.

Transmission dynamics, complications and mitigation strategies of the current mpox outbreak: A comprehensive review with bibliometric study

As the mankind counters the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), it simultaneously witnesses the emergence of mpox virus (MPXV) that signals at global spread and could potentially lead to another pandemic. Although MPXV has existed for more than 50 years now with most of the human cases being reported from the endemic West and Central African regions, the disease is recently being reported in non-endemic regions too that affect more than 50 countries. Controlling the spread of MPXV is important due to its potential danger of a global spread, causing severe morbidity and mortality. The article highlights the transmission dynamics, zoonosis potential, complication and mitigation strategies for MPXV infection, and concludes with suggested 'one health' approach for better management, control and prevention. Bibliometric analyses of the data extend the understanding and provide leads on the research trends, the global spread, and the need to revamp the critical research and healthcare interventions. Globally published mpox-related literature does not align well with endemic areas/regions of occurrence which should ideally have been the scenario. Such demographic and geographic gaps between the location of the research work and the endemic epicentres of the disease need to be bridged for greater and effective translation of the research outputs to pubic healthcare systems, it is suggested.

A Review of Mpox Outbreak and Public Health Response in Spain

Objective

In May 2022, an unprecedented Mpox outbreak was reported in several non-endemic countries with unknown epidemiological links. Since May 2022, more than 20,000 cases have been reported in Europe. Spain has been the most affected country in Europe. We aim to describe the Mpox epidemiological profile in Spain, identify its outbreak risks, and describe public health interventions implemented by the Spanish authorities.

Methods

A literature review was conducted, using specific selection criteria to obtain relevant publications describing Mpox clinical presentation and risk factors and the public health response in Spain to the ongoing outbreak.

Results

63.1% of the cases presented an anogenital rash, considered a specific and early symptom in this outbreak. Low case fatality rate is observed, mainly in risk groups, such as the immunocompromised population. Patients evolution was generally favorable, although 3-8% required hospitalization and two deaths occurred; 40% of patients were previously diagnosed with HIV infection. Most of the cases were seen among young population and concentrated in men who had sex with other men, mainly with multiple sexual partners, who did not practice safe sex such as using condoms, and those attending mass event parties.

Conclusion

To date, the Mpox outbreak is not considered a public health emergency of international concern. The epidemiological trend of the virus in Spain shows that public health response interventions (health education, contact tracing, vaccination, etc.) have adequately controlled the epidemic curve in high-risk populations and avoided spreading the virus to other groups within the community.

Mpox knowledge and vaccination hesitancy among healthcare workers in Beijing, China: A cross-sectional survey

Background

Mpox, one of the most serious threats to global health, is now being seen in small but rising numbers in Beijing, China. Our study aimed to investigate healthcare workers' (HCWs) knowledge of Mpox and to explore reasons associated with their hesitancy to vaccinate against Mpox in Beijing, China.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among HCWs in Beijing from July 24 to August 2, 2023, through an online questionnaire. Participants answered questions about sociodemographic characteristics, Mpox information sources, Mpox knowledge, perception of vaccines, and attitudes toward Mpox vaccination. We used Chi-squared test to compare difference in Mpox vaccination hesitancy between different groups. Multivariable logistic regression models were applied to analyze correlates of vaccination hesitancy among HCWs.

Results

A total of 2331 HCWs completed the questionnaire, with an effective response rate of 92.45 % (2155/2331). Most of the HCWs in this study worked at tertiary hospitals (89.65 %), with a mean age of 36.69 ± 9.08 years. Among the 2155 participants, 52.99 % had over ten years of working experience, and 16.66 % were from high-risk departments relevant to Mpox treatment. Approximately 84.41 % knew about Mpox before this study, 80.79 % exhibited a high level of knowledge about Mpox, whereas 42.37 % were hesitant to be vaccinated against Mpox. Moreover, the hesitancy rate of HCWs in high-risk departments (47.91 %) was higher than in lower-risk departments (41.26 %). Higher educational level (aOR = 1.75, 95 %CI: 1.17-2.62), longer working years (1.71, 1.32-2.22), working at high-risk departments (1.34, 1.05-1.71), and lower level of knowledge about Mpox (1.78, 1.13-2.85) appeared as the most significant determinants of Mpox vaccination hesitancy among HCWs who knew about Mpox. For the HCWs who did not know about Mpox, longer working years (1.96, 1.02-3.78) were significant factors associated with their hesitancy. The predominant reason for hesitancy toward Mpox vaccination among HCWs encompassed apprehensions about vaccine side effects.

Conclusion

HCWs had good knowledge of Mpox, whereas their Mpox vaccination hesitancy was also relatively high in Beijing, China. Increasing HCWs' vaccination confidence and knowledge level about Mpox, especially for those working in high-risk departments, may be an essential way of reducing their hesitancy.

Mpox Outbreak in Previously Non-Endemic Countries: A Review on Impact on Asia

Mpox (human mpox) is an opportunistic viral zoonosis that bears a strong resemblance to smallpox. The virus is divided into 2 distinct clades, clade I and clade II, which were originally confined to the moist forest regions of Africa. However, due to air travel and the exotic pet trade, these clades have spread globally. As immunity from smallpox vaccination declined, Mpox emerged as the most significant viral infection affecting humans within the Orthopoxvirus genus. While sporadic cases occurred worldwide, the largest Mpox outbreak outside Africa took place in 2022, prompting the WHO to declare a global public health emergency. Asia plays a pivotal role in both hosting and contributing to the spread of Mpox, driven by socio-economic factors such as high population density, widespread illegal wildlife trade, and a continuous rise in air travel. The increasing number of Mpox cases in Asia poses a significant challenge to healthcare systems, especially during times of global economic crisis. Strengthening diagnostic capabilities and infrastructure, while sustainably utilizing available resources to target high-risk populations, will be essential in addressing the Mpox threat in the region.

Plausible reasons for the resurgence of Mpox (formerly Monkeypox): an overview

Poxviruses are large and diversified viruses that cause an emerging zoonotic disease known as monkeypox (mpox). In the past, mpox predominated primarily in the rural rainforests of Central and West Africa. Recently, the exportation of mpoxv from Africa to other continents has been progressively reported. However, the lack of travel history to Africa in most of the currently reported cases in 2022 promotes the sign of changing epidemiology of this disease. Concerns over the geographic distribution and continued resurgence of mpox is growing. In this review, we addressed the geographic distribution, transmission, reasons for the resurgence of mpox, and vaccination. Although the precise cause of the resurgence in mpox cases is mostly unknown, several suggested factors are believed to be waning immunity, accumulation of unvaccinated people, ecological conditions, risk behaviors of men who have sex with men, and genetic evolution.

Monkeypox Knowledge Investigation and Knowledge Gap Analysis: An Online Cross-Sectional Survey in China

Background

Monkeypox, as a significant public health concern, warrants a thorough investigation into public knowledge and understanding. Especially in non-endemic areas like China, exploring the factors contributing to knowledge and understanding gaps is crucial for effective disease management and prevention strategies.

Objective

This study aims to assess the level of monkeypox knowledge among the Chinese public and to identify the factors that influence this knowledge, particularly focusing on the knowledge gaps between different educational groups.

Methods

An online cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 720 participants stratified by age, between July and August 2023. The survey used a modified monkeypox knowledge questionnaire, and hierarchical regression analysis was employed to analyze the data.

Results

The study revealed a significant knowledge gap in the understanding of monkeypox among the Chinese public. Key factors influencing this knowledge included educational level, perceived relevance of information, interpersonal communication, and exposure to social media and official health websites. Notably, exposure to social media was found to widen the knowledge gap between different educational groups, with its positive impact more pronounced in individuals with at least a junior high school education.

Conclusion

The findings emphasize the need for varied communication strategies to effectively disseminate information about monkeypox and bridge the existing knowledge gaps. Tailoring health communication to different educational levels and utilizing diverse information sources are crucial for improving public understanding and containment of monkeypox.

Comprehensive overview of 2022 human monkeypox outbreak and its pathology, prevention, and treatment: A strategy for disease control

The 2022 Monkeypox virus, an evolved DNA strain originating in Africa, exhibits heightened human-to-human transmissibility and potential animal transmission. Its host remains unidentified. While its initial slow transmission rate restrained global impact, 2022 saw a surge in cases, causing widespread concern in over 103 countries by September. This virus's distinctive human-to-human transmission marks a crucial shift, demanding a prompt revaluation of containment strategies. However, the host source for this shift requires urgent research attention. Regrettably, no universal preventive or curative methods have emerged for this evolved virus. Repurposed from smallpox vaccines, only some vaccinations offer a partial defense. Solely one therapeutic drug is available. The article's essence is to provide a comprehensive grasp of the virus's epidemiology, morphology, immune invasion mechanisms, and existing preventive and treatment measures. This knowledge equips researchers to devise strategies against its spread and potential public health implications.

Exploring the dynamics of the 2022 mpox outbreak in Canada

The 2022 mpox outbreak predominantly impacted gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM). Two models were developed to support situational awareness and management decisions in Canada. A compartmental model characterized epidemic drivers at national/provincial levels, while an agent-based model (ABM) assessed municipal-level impacts of vaccination. The models were parameterized and calibrated using empirical case and vaccination data between 2022 and 2023. The compartmental model explored: (1) the epidemic trajectory through community transmission, (2) the potential for transmission among non-gbMSM, and (3) impacts of vaccination and the proportion of gbMSM contributing to disease transmission. The ABM incorporated sexual-contact data and modeled: (1) effects of vaccine uptake on disease dynamics, and (2) impacts of case importation on outbreak resurgence. The calibrated, compartmental model followed the trajectory of the epidemic, which peaked in July 2022, and died out in December 2022. Most cases occurred among gbMSM, and epidemic trajectories were not consistent with sustained transmission among non-gbMSM. The ABM suggested that unprioritized vaccination strategies could increase the outbreak size by 47%, and that consistent importation (≥5 cases per 10 000) is necessary for outbreak resurgence. These models can inform time-sensitive situational awareness and policy decisions for similar future outbreaks.

[Monkeypox and men who have sex with men: we need to treat it with a destigmatizing perspective.]

Monkeypox is a zoonosis, which is transmitted by direct and close contact, and has recently produced a large epidemic outbreak in non-endemic areas, classified as a Public Health Emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization. The global doubting and delayed response, and the stigmatizing approach to men who have sex with men promoted by public opinion, some scientists, socio-political agents, and the media, could be some of the reasons why the epidemic has not yet been contained. The stigma around the disease produces severe injuries to its victims and obstructs actions aimed at controlling the disease, as occurred with HIV in the past. To limit stigma and contain the outbreak, scientists should lead the diffusion of scientifically validated information, educate the population about prevention, symptoms, how to react in case of suspicion and the importance of not contributing to others' stigmatization. Interventions must also be conducted on victims of stigma to counter act its consequences and encourage their self-efficacy. Public health interventions should be carried out in collaboration with political and social actors to integrate evidence into regulations and procedures and facilitate public health interventions. Experts should also work together with the media to facilitate proper health communication and warn about bad practices. Similarly, the relationship between organizations and health professionals and stigmatized individuals must be improved to optimize their access and retention in health systems. The objective of this study was to review the stigmatizing response of some political agents, the media and social opinion to the Monkeypox epidemic, to highlight the consequences of stigma on the patients and the control of the disease. And to establish a series of recommendations to treat this situation effectively through a non-stigmatizing approach.

Monkeypox virus-induced upregulation of interleukin-10 signaling: could epigenetics be involved in long-term viral persistence?

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Chain-Engineering-Based De Novo Drug Design against MPXVgp169 Virulent Protein of Monkeypox Virus: A Molecular Modification Approach

The unexpected appearance of the monkeypox virus and the extensive geographic dispersal of cases have prompted researchers to concentrate on potential therapeutic approaches. In addition to its vaccine build techniques, there should be some multiple integrated antiviral active compounds because of the MPV (monkeypox virus) outbreak in 2022. This study offers a computational engineering-based de novo drug discovery mediated by random antiviral active compounds that were screened against the virulent protein MPXVgp169, as one of the key players directing the pathogenesis of the virus. The screening of these candidates was supported by the use of 72 antiviral active compounds. The top candidate with the lowest binding affinity was selected for the engineering of chains or atoms. Literature assisted to identify toxic chains or atoms that were impeding the stability and effectiveness of antiviral compounds to modify them for enhanced efficacy. With a binding affinity of -9.4 Kcal/mol after chain, the lipophilicity of 0.41, the water solubility of 2.51 as soluble, and synthetic accessibility of 6.6, chain-engineered dolutegravir was one of the best active compounds, as proved by the computational engineering analysis. This study will revolutionize the era of drug engineering as a potential therapeutic strategy for monkeypox infection.

Disease History, Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics for Human Monkeypox Disease: A Comprehensive Review

The monkeypox disease is a zoonotic-infectious disease that transmits between animals and humans. It is caused by a double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus that is closely related to the variola virus -the causative agent of smallpox. Although monkeypox infections were endemic to Western and Central Africa, the newly emerging monkeypox outbreak spread to more than 90 non-African countries. With the exception of the PCR-confirmed case of a return from Nigeria to the United Kingdom, the ongoing outbreak is largely unrelated to travel. In the most recent wave, cases are characteristically males in their thirties. Risk factors include close and particularly sexual contact with an infected person, and contact with fomites, infected animals or aerosolized-infectious material. Clinical diagnosis of monkeypox is confirmed with nucleic-acid amplification testing of samples originating from vesicles or genital lesions and using real-time or conventional PCR. Other methods, such as electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and virus culture are costly and time-consuming. In addition to timely diagnosis and contact tracing, restrictive measures to limit spread, such as isolation of infected patients, preventing contact with wild animals, and isolation of animals suspected to be viral reservoirs have shown promise. Although there are no specific treatments for monkeypox disease, the experience with smallpox suggests that the vaccinia vaccine, cidofovir, tecovirimat, and vaccinia immune globulin (IVG) may be beneficial for monkeypox treatment. In this review, we provide an update on the human-monkeypox disease with a special emphasis on its pathogenesis, prevention, diagnostics, and therapeutic measures.

Health system preparedness in infectious diseases: perspective of Malaysia, a middle-income country, in the face of monkeypox outbreaks

The World Health Organization declared monkeypox as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on July 23, 2022. As of July 25th, 2022, there were 16,016 laboratory-confirmed cases reported worldwide with 5 deaths. Malaysia's Health Ministry has developed a five-point strategy to prepare for the impending threat of the infectious disease, encompassing early detection of monkeypox, consolidation of laboratory diagnostic facilities, case management and treatment, cluster management, and strengthening public awareness. Crisis and disaster preparedness within a nation's health system is paramount to preventing disease spread. Various strategies for developing resilience in the face of global infectious disease spread were discussed. The current disease preparedness and response framework and guidelines in Malaysia have established a health system that is proactive and responsive to any potential infectious disease outbreaks. Despite this, the future remains unpredictable, and ongoing fortification is required as events unfold.

Impact of university students' awareness and attitudes on vaccination practices for human papillomavirus, and perception on self-sampling for cervical cancer screening

Background

The burden of Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)-associated cancer remains high in developing nations.

Aims

To assess the impact of self-reported awareness and attitudes on vaccination practices, and the perception on self-sampling for cervical cancer screening.

Methods

A 12-month survey using purposive sampling of females attending an urban public university was conducted. SPSS version 25 was used to compare the responses for students enrolled in health vs non-health related programmes.

Results

Of the 290 questionnaires distributed, 240 were returned (response rate = 83%) in approximately equal proportion from the faculties of Health Science and Pharmacy (n = 127), and from the Hotel and Tourism, Business Management, and Art and Design (n = 113) faculties. About one-third (28.8%) had completed 3 shots, 19.6% received the first shot, 11.4% had scheduled appointments for first shots while 40.2% were both unvaccinated and had not scheduled any appointment. Most (71%) were aware of the HPV vaccines while 50.5% were unaware that HPV vaccines were also available for men. Students enrolled in health-related programmes were 3.2 times more perceptive to the benefits of vaccination particularly in preventing spread to their partners (OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.3–3.41, p = 0.006) than their counterparts. A weak-positive correlation was observed between knowledge and vaccination practices (r = 0.2, p = 0.001). The level of knowledge on HPV and its vaccine was greater for health-related (Mdn = 6.5) than for students of non-health related (Mdn = 1.5) programmes (U = 2790.5, p-value = 0.00). Attitudes towards immunisation were influenced by perceived benefits versus risks for side effects, cost barriers, and influences of primarily their doctors and parents. The study was limited in that relationship statuses were used to estimate sexual history as direct questions were unanswered in the pilot survey.

Conclusion

HPV vaccine uptake for an immunisation-targeted young female population is low despite moderate knowledge levels. It is plausible that the low rates among females enrolled in particularly the non-health programmes were impacted by misperceived vaccine-associated risks, and misconception that testing and vaccination for HPV and cervical cancer were for those married or sexually active. Self-sampling could offer a potential alternative to sampling via pelvic examination, particularly for societies where premarital sex is seen as a taboo.

Combating Stigma and Health Inequality of Monkeypox: Experience from HIV

With Western Pacific Region reporting more imported cases, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared monkeypox a public health emergency of international concern in July. Currently, we are now at the beginning of forming stigmatization toward monkeypox. Based on the experience of combating HIV stigmatization for over 30 years, in this comment, we proposed measures based on the three stages of the stigma formation process. We believe the paper may be of particular interest to the readers of your journal as it offered implications for both healthcare professionals and researchers in Western Pacific Region.

The Race for Global Equitable Access to COVID-19 Vaccines

COVID-19 vaccines are possibly the most effective medical countermeasures to mitigate and ultimately bring to a halt the COVID-19 pandemic. As we transition to endemicity, inequitable access to vaccines, and particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), still poses risks of unprecedented disruptions and the emergence of viral mutations, which potentially lead to notorious vaccine-resistant variants. The missteps learned from the previous responses to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and influenza outbreaks founded the hypothetical plan to ensure that vaccine accessibility to LMICs is not impeded. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccines' social promise was to lessen the underlying racial, ethnic, and geographic inequities that COVID-19 has both made apparent and intensified. Vaccine nationalism was evident throughout the COVID-19 crisis. Many high-income countries directly negotiated large advance orders for the vaccines, leaving resource-limited countries scrambling for access. This occurred despite international initiatives to structure the development and equitable distribution of vaccines, channeled through a vaccine pillar: COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX). The serious supply shortages and national procurement methods of some countries that bypassed the vaccine pillar hindered the optimal function of COVAX in delivering timely and adequate doses to participating countries. COVAX strategized its approach by promoting fundraising, coordinating vaccine donations from countries with surplus doses, expediting reviews of vaccine candidates, and facilitating the expansion of the manufacturing capacity. While increasing capacity for production, technology transfer led to lesser siloes, enhanced manufacturing standardization, and less secrecy over production data. Ultracold storage requirements for leading vaccines were a considerable hurdle to the global immunization efforts, and particularly in LMICs with limited equipment and resources to support sophisticated cold-chain systems. Manufacturers strived to ease cold-chain restrictions on the basis of stability data submitted to national regulatory bodies. The development of single-dose vaccines offered promising solutions to simplify the administrative and logistic complexities that existed within the COVID-19 vaccination programs. As such, the requirements for both ultracold storage conditions were eased, and concerns over booster doses were addressed. To expand coverage, the dosing intervals of the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccines were extended according to data from Phase III clinical trials on effectiveness. In addition, with the recent outbreak of monkeypox, the lessons from past experiences of curbing infectious diseases, including COVID-19, must be learned and acted upon. The review summarizes the global efforts with respect to vaccine development, production, allocation, and deployment to achieve equitable access.