Abietic acid attenuates allergic airway inflammation in a mouse allergic asthma model

Chemical Composition, Repellent, and Phytotoxic Potentials of the Fractionated Resin Essential Oil from Araucaria heterophylla Growing in Tunisia

The resin essential oil (REO) of the Tunisian Araucaria heterophylla trunk bark was investigated for its chemical composition. Then, it was evaluated for its insecticidal and allelopathic activities. The REO was obtained by hydrodistillation for 9 h (yield of 4.2 % w/w). Moreover, fractional hydrodistillation was carried out at 3-hour intervals, resulting in 3 fractions (R1-R3), to facilitate chemical identification and localization of the aforementioned biological activities. GC/MS analysis of the obtained samples allowed the identification of 25 compounds, representing between 91.2 and 96.3 % of their total constituents, which consisted predominantly of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes and diterpene hydrocarbons. α-Copaene (10.8 %), γ-muurolene (5.8 %), α-copaen-11-ol (7.8 %), spathulenol (10.5 %), 15-copaenol (8.2 %), ylangenal (10.3 %), dehydrosaussurea lactone (7.7 %), and sandaracopimaradiene (11.4 %) were identified as major compounds. The second part aimed to assess the impact of the A. heterophylla EO and its three fractions for their insecticidal and repellent activity against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), a stored grain pest, of which a strong repellent activity was noted. In addition, the studied samples showed high phytotoxic effects against Lactuca sativa. The third fraction (R3) performed a total inhibitory potential on seed germination and seedling growth of the target plant. Furthermore, alongside this discovery, an estimation was conducted through molecular docking analysis. Wherein the main compounds of the studied samples were docked into the active pocket of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PDB: 1SEZ), a key enzyme in chlorophyll biosynthesis. Thus, it is recommended to use the REO of A. heterophylla as a natural herbicide.

Anticancer activities of natural abietic acid

Cancer is the main cause of death in the world. There are several therapies that are in practice for cancer cure including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery. Among the chemotherapies, natural products are considered comparable safe, easily available and cost effective. Approximately 60% of cancer approved FDA drugs are natural products including vinblastine, doxorubicin, and paclitaxel. These natural products have complex structures due to which they work against cancer through different molecular pathways, STAT3, NF-kB, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, cell cycle arrest, mitochondrial dependent pathway, extrinsic apoptosis pathway, autophagy, mitophagy and ferroptosis. AA is a natural abietane diterpenoid compound from Pinus palustris and Pimenta racemose var. grissea with different pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, anti-convulsant, anti-obesity and anti-allergic. Recently it has been reported with its anticancer activities through different molecular mechanisms including NF-kB, PI3K/AKT, call cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase, mitochondrial dependent pathway, extrinsic apoptosis pathway, AMPK pathway and ferroptosis pathways. The literature survey reveals that there is no review on AA anticancer molecular mechanisms, therefore in current review, we summarize the anticancer molecular mechanisms of AA.

Antiedematogenic and Analgesic Activities of Abietic Acid in Mice

Exacerbated inflammatory responses to harmful stimuli can lead to significant pain, edema, and other complications that require pharmacological intervention. Abietic acid (AA) is a diterpene found as a significant constituent in pine species, and evidence has identified its biological potential. The present study aimed to evaluate abietic acid's antiedematogenic and anti-inflammatory activity in mice. Swiss mice (Mus musculus) weighing 20-30 g were treated with AA at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg. The central nervous system (CNS) effects were evaluated using open-field and rotarod assays. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory screening was assessed by the acetic acid and formalin tests. The antiedematogenic activity was investigated by measuring paw edema induced by carrageenan, dextran, histamine, arachidonic acid, and prostaglandin, in addition to using a granuloma model. The oral administration of abietic acid (200 mg/Kg) showed no evidence of CNS effects. The compound also exhibited significant antiedematogenic and anti-inflammatory activities in the carrageenan and dextran models, mostly related to the inhibition of myeloperoxidase (MOP) activity and histamine action and, to a lesser extent, the inhibition of eicosanoid-dependent pathways. In the granuloma model, abietic acid's effect was less expressive than in the acute models investigated in this study. In conclusion, abietic acid has analgesic and antiedematogenic activities related to anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Anti-Atopic Dermatitis Effects of Abietic Acid Isolated from Rosin under Condition Optimized by Response Surface Methodology in DNCB-Spread BALB/c Mice

Abietic acid (AA) is known to have beneficial effects on inflammation, photoaging, osteoporosis, cancer, and obesity; however, its efficacy on atopic dermatitis (AD) has not been reported. We investigated the anti-AD effects of AA, which was newly isolated from rosin, in an AD model. To achieve this, AA was isolated from rosin under conditions optimized by response surface methodology (RSM), and its effects on cell death, iNOS-induced COX-2 mediated pathway, inflammatory cytokine transcription, and the histopathological skin structure were analyzed in 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-treated BALB/c mice after treatment with AA for 4 weeks. AA was isolated and purified through isomerization and reaction-crystallization under the condition (HCl, 2.49 mL; reflux extraction time, 61.7 min; ethanolamine, 7.35 mL) established by RSM, resulting in AA with a purity and extraction yield of 99.33% and 58.61%, respectively. AA exhibited high scavenging activity against DPPH, ABTS, and NO radicals as well as hyaluronidase activity in a dose-dependent manner. The anti-inflammatory effects of AA were verified in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages through amelioration of the inflammatory response, including NO production, iNOS-induced COX-2 mediated pathway activation, and cytokine transcription. In the DNCB-treated AD model, the skin phenotypes, dermatitis score, immune organ weight, and IgE concentration were significantly ameliorated in the AA cream (AAC)-spread groups compared to the vehicle-spread group. In addition, AAC spread ameliorated DNCB-induced deterioration of skin histopathological structure through the recovery of the thickness of the dermis and epidermis and the number of mast cells. Furthermore, activation of the iNOS-induced COX-2 mediated pathway and increased inflammatory cytokine transcription were ameliorated in the skin of the DNCB+AAC-treated group. Taken together, these results indicate that AA, newly isolated from rosin, exhibits anti-AD effects in DNCB-treated AD models, and has the potential to be developed as a treatment option for AD-related diseases.

Abietic acid ameliorates nephropathy progression via mitigating renal oxidative stress, inflammation, fibrosis and apoptosis in high fat diet and low dose streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

Abietic acid (AA) has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, however its protective effect against inflammation and its trigger factor i.e., oxidative stress and the related sequelae i.e., apoptosis and fibrosis in the kidney in diabetes mellitus (DM) is unknown.

PURPOSE

To identify the ability of AA to mitigate the inflammatory and inflammation-related insults to the kidney in DM.

METHODS & STUDY DESIGN

Adult male rats were induced type-2 DM by feeding with a high-fat diet for twelve weeks followed by injection with a single dose of streptozotocin (STZ) (30 mg/kg/bw) intraperitoneally at twelve weeks. Following DM confirmation, AA (10 and 20 mg/kg/day) was given orally for another four weeks. Then the fasting blood glucose (FBG) and renal profile were determined and oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT) tests were performed. A day after the last treatment, rats were sacrificed and kidneys were harvested and subjected for histopathological and molecular biological analysis.

RESULTS

AA treatment was found to reduce the FBG, serum urea and creatinine levels (p < 0.05) while improving the OGTT and ITT (p < 0.05) in diabetic rats. Besides, AA treatment also mitigated kidney histopathological changes, reduces kidney oxidative stress as reflected by reduced levels of RAGE and Keap1 but increased levels of kidney antioxidants Nrf2, SOD, CAT, GPX, HO-1 & NQO-1 (p < 0.05). Additionally, AA treatment also decreases kidney inflammation (NF-kB p65, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and iNOS) and fibrosis (TGF-β1 and GSK-3β) (p < 0/05). Kidney apoptosis decreased as reflected by decreased levels of Bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 while its anti-apoptosis Bcl-2 protein levels increased (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

AA helps to mitigate nephropathy development in DM via counteracting oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis.

Supramolecular Tools to Improve Wound Healing and Antioxidant Properties of Abietic Acid: Biocompatible Microemulsions and Emulgels

Abietic acid, a naturally occurring fir resin compound, that exhibits anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties, was formulated into biocompatible emulgels based on stable microemulsions with the addition of a carbamate-containing surfactant and Carbopol^® 940 gel. Various microemulsion and emulgel formulations were tested for antioxidant and wound-healing properties. The chemiluminescence method has shown that all compositions containing abietic acid have a high antioxidant activity. Using Strat-M^® skin-modelling membrane, it was found out that emulgels significantly prolong the release of abietic acid. On Wistar rats, it was shown that microemulsions and emulgels containing 0.5% wt. of abietic acid promote the rapid healing of an incised wound and twofold tissue reinforcement compared to the untreated group, as documented by tensiometric wound suture-rupture assay. The high healing-efficiency is associated with a combination of antibacterial activity of the formulation components and the anti-inflammatory action of abietic acid.

In Vitro Wound Healing Properties of Novel Acidic Treatment Regimen in Enhancing Metabolic Activity and Migration of Skin Cells

Strategies that alter the pH of wounds to improve healing outcomes are an emerging area of interest. Currently, there is limited understanding of the effect of hydrogen (H⁺) on the functionality of skin cells during proliferation and migration, highlighting the need for research to determine the effect of pH during wound healing. This study aimed to determine the effect of acidification on the metabolic activity and migration of human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCaT) and human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF). In vitro models were used with phosphoric and citric acid buffers at a pH range between 3 and 7. Our results showed that cells were more viable in buffers with low rather than high ionic strength. A time-dependent effect of the acidification treatment was also observed with cell metabolic activity varying with treatment duration and frequency. Our results showed that a 24 h treatment and subsequent resting phase significantly improved cell proliferation and migration. This in vitro study is the first to establish a correlation between the role of acidic pH, molarity and treatment regimen in cellular activity. Our data demonstrated a positive effect of acidic pH on cell metabolic activity and migration rate, suggesting a clinical potential in indications such as wound healing.

A Scoping Review on the Therapeutic Potential of Resin From the Species Larix decidua Mill. [Pinaceae] to Treat Ulcerating Wounds

Malignant ulcerating wounds or neoplastic lesions are a considerable burden for patients suffering from advanced cancer. These wounds have no effective treatment and are very difficult to manage. The present review summarizes evidence in support of a hypothesis put forward in anthroposophic medicine, which suggests a beneficial role of resin from the species Larix decidua Mill. [Pinaceae] for treating such wounds. A systematic search strategy was performed using the databases PubMed, EMBASE and SciFinder. The included publications described the chemical composition of this species, as well as in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo experiments using plant extracts and isolated compounds. The results show that among the phytochemical classes, terpenoids were the major components of this species, especially in the resin. The summarized biological experiments revealed antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, with promising potential for the extracts and isolated compounds. However, the molecular mechanisms and toxicological effects are as of yet not conclusively evaluated. From the data of our study, we can conclude that L. decidua might indeed have a promising potential for the treatment of malignant wounds, but definitive information that can prove its effectiveness is still lacking. We therefore suggest that future efforts should be dedicated to the evaluation of L. decidua resin's therapeutic use considering its antiseptic action and proposed wound healing properties.

Effect of Resin Acid and Zinc Oxide on Immune Status of Weaned Piglets Challenged With E. coli Lipopolysaccharide

With the ban of zinc oxide (ZnO) at high dosages in piglet diets in Europe by 2022, alternative nutritional solutions are being tested to support piglet immune defence during their weaning, the most critical and stressful moment of pig production. The present study evaluated the effect of zinc oxide (ZnO; 2,500 mg/kg diet) and resin acid concentrate (RAC; 200 mg/kg diet) on the immune defence of weaned piglets challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Piglets were challenged at days 7 and 21 post-weaning, and blood was sampled 1.5 and 3.0 h after each challenge to determine serum levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The levels of serum tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 8 (IL-8) increased at days 7 and 21, and those of IL-6 at day 21 when challenged piglets were fed a diet supplemented with ZnO. In challenged piglets fed with RAC, the serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α were increased at days 7 and 21, except for that of IL-1β, which was not affected at day 21. The increased levels of these cytokines indicate the successful immune-modulatory effect of ZnO and RAC, which appears as a candidate to replace ZnO in weaned piglets' diets.

Growth Inhibition and Apoptotic Effect of Pine Extract and Abietic Acid on MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells via Alteration of Multiple Gene Expressions Using In Vitro Approach

In vitro anti-proliferative activity of Pinus palustris extract and its purified abietic acid was assessed against different human cancer cell lines (HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116) compared to normal WI-38 cell line. Abietic acid showed more promising IC50 values against MCF-7 cells than pine extract (0.06 µg/mL and 0.11 µM, respectively), with insignificant cytotoxicity toward normal fibroblast WI-38 cells. Abietic acid triggered both G2/M cell arrest and subG0-G1 subpopulation in MCF-7, compared to SubG0-G1 subpopulation arrest only for the extract. It also induced overexpression of key apoptotic genes (Fas, FasL, Casp3, Casp8, Cyt-C and Bax) and downregulation of both proliferation (VEGF, IGFR1, TGF-β) and oncogenic (C-myc and NF-κB) genes. Additionally, abietic acid induced overexpression of cytochrome-C protein. Furthermore, it increased levels of total antioxidants to diminish carcinogenesis and chemotherapy resistance. P. palustris is a valuable source of active abietic acid, an antiproliferative agent to MCF-7 cells through induction of apoptosis with promising future anticancer agency in breast cancer therapy.

Evolving Roles of Natural Terpenoids From Traditional Chinese Medicine in the Treatment of Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis (OP) is a systemic metabolic skeletal disease which can lead to reduction in bone mass and increased risk of bone fracture due to the microstructural degradation. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been applied in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis for a long time. Terpenoids, a class of natural products that are rich in TCM, have been widely studied for their therapeutic efficacy on bone resorption, osteogenesis, and concomitant inflammation. Terpenoids can be classified in four categories by structures, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and triterpenoids. In this review, we comprehensively summarize all the currently known TCM-derived terpenoids in the treatment of OP. In addition, we discuss the possible mechanistic-of-actions of all four category terpenoids in anti-OP and assess their therapeutic potential for OP treatment.

Abietic acid ameliorates psoriasis-like inflammation and modulates gut microbiota in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Abietic acid (AA), an antibacterial terpenoid, was initially isolated from rosin which has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine to treat psoriasis. In our previous works, we found that water-processed rosin (WPR) can alleviate imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like inflammation in mice. However, the efficacy of AA, the main component of WPR, against psoriasis remains unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we confirmed the anti-psoriasis efficacy of AA (40 mg/kg daily for 7 days) in IMQ-induced psoriasis-like inflammation BALB/c mouse model by the psoriasis area severity index (PASI), flow cytometry, ELISA, histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis. Furthermore, we detected the relative abundance of gut microbe using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing to validate whether AA modulate gut microbe.

RESULT

Oral administration of AA ameliorates IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation through reducing PASI scores, regulating the balance of Th17/Treg cells in the mouse spleen, and downregulating the level of serum cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-17A, TGF-1β, and IL-23. 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that the relative abundance of gut bacteria related to inflammation, such as, Anaerotruncus and Christensenella at genus level were decreased, while Kurthia, Citrobacter, and Klebsiella at genus level were increased in AA group mice. Additionally, the correlation analysis illustrated that the key microbiota had a close relationship with the psoriasis-like inflammation related indexes.

CONCLUSION

AA might exert the anti-psoriasis effect via inhibiting Th17-related immune responses, hinting that it might be a candidate for treating psoriasis. Meanwhile, the alteration of intestinal microbiota by AA treatment is another possible explanation for the amelioration of imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like inflammation.

The treatment of asthma using the Chinese Materia Medica

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Asthma is a costly global health problem that negatively influences the quality of life of patients. The Chinese Materia Medica (CMM) contains remedies that have been used for the treatment of asthma for millennia. This article strives to systematically summarize the current research progress so that more comprehensive examinations of various databases related to CMM anti-asthma drugs, can be performed, so as to sequentially provide effective basic data for development and application of anti-asthma drugs based on the CMM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research data published over the past 20 years for asthma treatment based on traditional CMM remedies were retrieved and collected from libraries and online databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, Spring Link, Web of Science, PubChem Compound, Wan Fang, CNKI, Baidu, and Google Scholar). Information was also added from classic CMM, literature, conference papers on classic herbal formulae, and dissertations (PhD or Masters) based on traditional Chinese medicine.

RESULTS

This review systematically summarizes the experimental studies on the treatment of asthma with CMM, covering the effective chemical components, typical asthma models, important mechanisms and traditional anti-asthma CMM formulae. The therapy value of the CMM for anti-asthma is clarified, and the original data and theoretical research foundation are provided for the development of new anti-asthmatic data and research for the CMM.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial progress against asthma has been made through relevant experimental research based on the CMM. These advances improved the theoretical basis of anti-asthma drugs for CMM and provided a theoretical basis for the application of a asthma treatment that is unique. By compiling these data, it is expected that the CMM will now contain a clearer mechanism of action and a greater amount of practical data that can be used for future anti-asthma drug research.

Biflavonoid-rich fraction from Daphne pseudomezereum var. koreana Hamaya exerts anti-inflammatory effect in an experimental animal model of allergic asthma

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Daphne pseudomezereum var. koreana Hamaya is distributed in the Gangwon-do of South Korea and is traditionally used to treat chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of biflavonoid-rich fraction (BF) obtained from an extract of D. pseudomezereum leaves on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and mouse model of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Neochamaejasmin B (NB) and chamaejasmin D (CD) were spectroscopically characterized as major components of BF obtained from the leaves of D. pseudomezereum. RAW264.7 cells pretreated with NB, CD and BF and activated by LPS (500 ng/ml) were used to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of these materials in vitro. To evaluate the protective effect of BF on allergic asthma, female BALB/c mice were sensitized to OVA by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection and treated with BF by oral administration (15 or 30 mg/kg).

RESULTS

Pretreatment with BF inhibited LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α and IL-6, and led to upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in RAW264.7 macrophages. Orally administered BF significantly inhibited the recruitment of eosinophils and the production of IL-5, IL-6, IL-13 and MCP-1 as judged by the analysis of BALF from OVA-induced asthma animal model. BF also decreased the levels of IgE in the serum of asthmatic mice. BF suppressed the influx of inflammatory cells into nearby airways and the hypersecretion of mucus by the airway epithelium of asthmatic mice. In addition, the increase in Penh in asthmatic mice was reduced by BF administration. Furthermore, BF led to Nrf2 activation and HO-1 induction in the lungs of mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These data have shown the anti-asthmatic effects of BF, and therefore we expect that BF may be a potential candidate as a natural drug/nutraceutical for the prevention and treatment of allergic asthma.

Anti-psoriasis effect of water-processed rosin in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rosin, an exudate of conifer trees such as Pinus masscnlana (Pinaceae), has been used to treat psoriasis for nearly two thousand years in China despite its so far undefined pharmacology. Unfortunately, the rosin intoxication is noted from time to time, but the water-boiled rosin (WBR) has been documented to be safer. This study was performed to evaluate the in vivo anti-psoriasis efficacy of WBR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main phytochemicals in WBR were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). WBR was evaluated in the imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like inflammation mouse model for its anti-psoriasis effect at 130, 260, and 390 mg/kg, which were set according to the dose used for patients. Through a combination of q-PCR, flow cytometry, and histopathological and immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis, the in vivo efficacy was assessed in terms of the psoriasis area severity index (PASI), epidermal keratinocyte proliferation, Th1 and Th17 cell numbers in spleen, and mRNA expressions of inflammatory cytokines.

RESULT

Oral administration of WBR ameliorates the psoriasis-like dermatitis in the imiquimod-generated mouse model. In particular, WBR given at 260 or 390 mg/kg significantly restores the normal keratinization of dorsal lesion if compared with the untreated psoriatic mice. Such an effect was addressed to correlate to the Th1/Th17 cell reduction in spleen and the suppressed expression of IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22, IL-23, TNF-α, K17, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) after the WBR administration.

CONCLUSION

WBR is effective in the imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like inflammation mouse model with the efficacy arising from its proliferation inhibition of Th1/Th17 cells and epidermal keratinocytes via the down-regulation of the relevant inflammatory cytokines such as IL-23, IL-17A, and IL-17F. Collectively, WBR harvested and processed in the traditional manner is an efficacious psoriasis-treating agent.

Butylphthalide ameliorates airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion via NF-κB in a murine asthma model

Butylphthalide (NBP) is a phthalide compound contained in Angelicae Sinensis Radix which is one of the most widely used traditional Chinese medicines. This study aims to explore the therapeutic effect of NBP on airway inflammation, mucus hypersecretion and their possible mechanism in asthma mice. BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) for establishment of asthma model and then treated with NBP during day 22-77. The pulmonary function of the mice was determined, and the pathology of lung tissue and goblet cell hyperplasia were observed through analyzing inflammation scores and goblet cell percentage, respectively. Cytokine IL-4, IL-8, IL-13 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and total immunogloblin E (T-IgE) and OVA-specific IgE in serum were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The expressions of Mucin 5AC (Muc5ac) and nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in lung tissues were evaluated by immunohistochemistry, western blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results show that 50 mg/kg NBP significantly reduced OVA-induced increase in inflammation scoring, goblet cell percentage and mucus secretion of airway tissue, and improved the pulmonary function. NBP could also decrease IL-4, IL-8 IL-13, and TNF-α in BALF and T-IgE and OVA-specific IgE in serum. The expression of Muc5ac and NF-κB in lung tissue was significantly down-regulated after NBP treatment. This study suggested that NBP may effectively inhibit airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion in asthma by modulating NF-κB activation.

Abietic acid suppresses non-small-cell lung cancer cell growth via blocking IKKβ/NF-κB signaling

Background: Abietic acid (AA) is one of the terpenoids, which are multifunctional natural compounds. It has been reported that AA possesses favorable therapeutic effects on inflammation and obesity.

Method: In the present study, we determined the inhibitory effect of AA on the proliferation and growth of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines for the first time. Then, flow cytometry and Western blot analysis were applied to determine the cell apoptosis and cell cycle. Finally, surface plasmon resonance, molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation were performed to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Results: In vitro experiments indicated that AA displays significant anti-proliferative, cell cycle arresting and pro-apoptotic activities. Mechanistically, AA abrogated tumor necrosis factor-α induced phosphorylation of IκB kinase (IKKα/β) (Ser176/180) and IkBα (Ser32), and inhibited the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor‐κB. Moreover, we found that the activities of AA against NSCLC cells were mediated by its IKKβ inhibition. Molecular docking and MD simulations demonstrated that the mechanism of action between AA and IKKβ was through hydrophobic interactions.

Conclusion: Our data indicate that AA could be a promising lead compound for the discovery of novel IKKβ inhibitors and potential agents for the treatment of NSCLC.

Dehydroabietic Acid Suppresses Inflammatory Response Via Suppression of Src-, Syk-, and TAK1-Mediated Pathways

Dehydroabietic acid (DAA) is a naturally occurring diterpene resin acid derived from coniferous plants such as Pinus and Picea. Various bioactive effects of DAA have been studied including antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities. However, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of DAA remains unclear. We evaluated the anti-inflammatory effect of DAA in macrophage cell lines. Dehydroabietic acid clearly reduced nitric oxide (NO) production and inflammatory gene expression decreased according to RT-PCR results. Dehydroabietic acid displayed anti-inflammatory activity at the transcriptional level in results from NF-κB- or AP-1-mediated luciferase assays. To identify the DAA target protein, we investigated NF-κB and AP-1 pathways by Western blotting analysis. Dehydroabietic acid suppressed the activity of proto-oncogene tyrosine protein kinase (Src) and spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) in the NF-κB cascade and transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) in the AP-1 cascade. Using overexpression strategies, we confirmed that DAA targeted these kinases. Our findings demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effects and molecular mechanism of DAA. This suggests that DAA has potential as a drug or supplement to ameliorate inflammation.

Physalis peruviana L. inhibits ovalbumin‑induced airway inflammation by attenuating the activation of NF‑κB and inflammatory molecules

Physalis peruviana L. (PP) is well known for its various properties, including its antioxidant property. In our previous study, the protective effects of PP against cigarette smoke‑induced airway inflammation were confirmed. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the anti‑inflammatory effect of PP against ovalbumin (OVA)‑induced airway inflammation. Treatment with PP inhibited the numbers of eosinophils and the levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)‑4, IL‑5 and IL‑13, in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of animal models with OVA‑induced allergic asthma. PP also significantly decreased the production of total immunoglobulin E in the serum. Lung sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin revealed that the influx of inflammatory cells was decreased in the lungs of mice treated with PP compared with cells in the OVA group. The increased expression levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein‑1 (MCP‑1) and T cell marker KEN‑5 were also reduced following PP treatment in the lung tissues compared with those in the OVA group. The PAS staining results showed that PP attenuated the overproduction of mucus in the lung. Additionally, western blot analysis revealed that PP significantly downregulated the activation of nuclear factor‑κB/p38 mitogen‑activated protein kinase/c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase, and upregulated the expression of heme oxgenase‑1 in the lungs. In an in vitro experiment, PP effectively reduced the levels of LPS‑stimulated MCP‑1 in a concentration‑dependent manner. Taken together, these results indicate that PP has considerable potential in the treatment of allergic asthma.

In-feed resin acids reduce matrix metalloproteinase activity in the ileal mucosa of healthy broilers without inducing major effects on the gut microbiota

The chicken gut is constantly exposed to harmful molecules and microorganisms which endanger the integrity of the intestinal wall. Strengthening intestinal mucosal integrity is a key target for feed additives that aim to promote intestinal health in broilers. Recently, dietary inclusion of resin-based products has been shown to increase broiler performance. However, the mode of action is still largely unexplored. Coniferous resin acids are known for their anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties, all properties that might support broiler intestinal health. In the current study, the effect of pure resin acids on broiler intestinal health was explored. Ross 308 broilers were fed a diet supplemented with coniferous resin acids for 22 days, after which the effect on both the intestinal microbiota as well as on the intestinal tissue morphology and activity of host collagenases was assessed. Dietary inclusion of resin acids did not alter the morphology of the healthy intestine and only minor effects on the intestinal microbiota were observed. However, resin acids-supplementation reduced both duodenal inflammatory T cell infiltration and small intestinal matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity towards collagen type I and type IV. Reduced breakdown of collagen type I and IV might indicate a protective effect of resin acids on intestinal barrier integrity by preservation of the basal membrane and the extracellular matrix. Further studies are needed to explore the protective effects of resin acids on broiler intestinal health under sub-optimal conditions and to elaborate our knowledge on the mechanisms behind the observed effects.

Abietic acid attenuates IL-1β-induced inflammation in human osteoarthritis chondrocytes

Abietic acid has been reported to have anti-inflammatory activity. However, whether abietic acid has anti-inflammatory effects against osteoarthritis (OA) remains unclear. The present study aimed to measure the anti-inflammatory effects of abietic acid on OA in vitro. Human osteoarthritis chondrocytes were pretreated with abietic acid 1 h before IL-1β treatment. The results showed that treatment of abietic acid significantly inhibited IL-1β-induced TNF-α, NO, PGE2 production, and COX-2 expression. Abietic acid also concentration-dependently suppressed MMP1, MMP3, and MMP13 production induced by IL-1β. Moreover, the increased phosphorylation levels of NF-κB p65 and IκBα were inhibited by the treatment of abietic acid. We also found that the expression of PPAR-γ was increased by abietic acid. The inhibition of abietic acid on TNF-α, NO, and PGE2 production were reversed by GW9662, the inhibitor of PPAR-γ. In conclusion, the study elucidated abietic acid suppressed IL-1β-induced inflammation in human osteoarthritis chondrocytes by activating PPAR-γ.

Re-evaluation of glycerol esters of wood rosin (E 445) as a food additive

The present opinion deals with the re-evaluation of glycerol esters of wood rosin (GEWR, E 445) when used as a food additive. Regarding GEWR originating from Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) and Pinus elliottii (slash pine), based on the overall toxicity database, and given the absence of reproductive and developmental toxicity data, the Panel concluded that the current acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 12.5 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day for GEWR (E 445) as established by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) in 1994 should be temporary pending the provision of such data. This assessment is restricted to GEWR derived from P. palustris (longleaf pine) and P. elliottii (slash pine) and with a chemical composition in compliance with GEWR used in the toxicological testing. The Panel concluded that the mean and the high exposure levels (P95) of the brand-loyal refined exposure scenario did not exceed the temporary ADI in any of the population groups from the use of GEWR (E 445) as a food additive at the reported use levels. For GEWR originating from Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia, the Panel noted that concentrations of the fractions of 'glycerol monoesters', 'free resin acids' and 'neutrals', which are considered to be of particular toxicological relevance, are not known; therefore, the evaluation of chemical equivalence with GEWR originating from P. palustris (longleaf pine) and P. elliottii (slash pine) is not possible; no data on stability were available; no toxicological data were available. Therefore, the Panel concluded that a safety assessment of GEWR originating from P. halepensis and P. brutia could not be performed. The Panel recommended the European Commission to consider an update of the definition of GEWR (E 445) in the EU specifications. It should be indicated that GEWR (E 445) (i) contain, besides the mentioned glycerol di- and triesters, a residual fraction of glycerol monoesters, and (ii) contain residual free resin acids and neutrals (non-acidic other saponifiable and unsaponifiable substances).

Propofol inhibits NF-κB activation to ameliorate airway inflammation in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma mice

Propofol, one of the most commonly used intravenous anesthetic agents, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory property. However, the anti-allergic inflammation effect of propofol and its underlying molecular mechanisms have not been elucidated. In the present study, we aim to investigate the roles of NF-kB activation in propofol anti-asthma effect on OVA-induced allergic airway inflammation in mice. In a standard experimental asthma model, Balb/c mice were sensitized with ovalbumin, treated with propofol (50,100,150mg/kg) or a vehicle control 1h before OVA challenge. Blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were harvested after measurement of airway hyperresponsiveness. Results revealed that propofol not only significantly inhibit airway hyperresponsiveness, but also inhibited the production of Th2 cytokines, NO, Ova-specific IgE and eotaxin. Histological studies indicated that propofol significantly attenuated OVA-induced inflammatory cell infiltration in the peribronchial areas and mucus hypersecretion. Meanwhile, our results indicated that propofol was found to inhibit NF-kB activation in OVA-Induced mice. Furthermore, propofol significantly reduced the TNF-α-induced NF-kB activation in A549 cells. In conclusion, our study suggested that propofol effectively reduced allergic airway inflammation by inhibiting NF-kB activation and could thus be used as a therapy for allergic asthma.

Abietic acid isolated from pine resin (Resina Pini) enhances angiogenesis in HUVECs and accelerates cutaneous wound healing in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Resin known as Resina Pini is listed in the Korean and Japanese pharmacopoeias and has been used for treating skin wounds and inflammation. Resin is composed of more than 50% abietic acid and 10% neutral substances.

OBJECTIVE

In the present study, the wound-healing effects of abietic acid and the possible underlying mechanism of action were investigated in various in vitro and in vivo models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of abietic acid on tube formation and migration were measured in human umbilical vein vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs). Protein expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation was evaluated via Western blotting analysis. The wound-healing effects of abietic acid were assessed using a mouse model of cutaneous wounds.

RESULTS

The results showed that abietic acid enhanced cell migration and tube formation in HUVECs. Abietic acid induced significant angiogenic potential, which is associated with upregulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 expression. Additionally, 0.8μM abietic acid-treated groups showed accelerated wound closure compared to the controls in a mouse model of cutaneous wounds.

CONCLUSION

The current data indicate that abietic acid treatment elevated cell migration and tube formation in HUVECs by the activation of ERK and p38 MAPKs. We suggest that abietic acid can be developed as a wound-healing agent.