Regulated secretion from CD4+ T cells

Non-Canonical, Extralysosomal Activities of Lysosomal Peptidases in Physiological and Pathological Conditions: New Clinical Opportunities for Cancer Therapy

Lysosomes are subcellular compartments characterised by an acidic pH, containing an ample variety of acid hydrolases involved in the recycling of biopolymers. Among these hydrolases, lysosomal proteases have merely been considered as end-destination proteases responsible for the digestion of waste proteins, trafficked to the lysosomal compartment through autophagy and endocytosis. However, recent reports have started to unravel specific roles for these proteases in the regulation of initially unexpected biological processes, both under physiological and pathological conditions. Furthermore, some lysosomal proteases are no longer restricted to the lysosomal compartment, as more novel non-canonical, extralysosomal targets are being identified. Currently, lysosomal proteases are accepted to play key functions in the extracellular milieu, attached to the plasma membrane and even in the cytosolic and nuclear compartments of the cell. Under physiological conditions, lysosomal proteases, through non-canonical, extralysosomal activities, have been linked to cell differentiation, regulation of gene expression, and cell division. Under pathological conditions, these proteases have been linked to cancer, mostly through their extralysosomal activities in the cytosol and nuclei of cells. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of our current knowledge about the extralysosomal, non-canonical functions of lysosomal proteases, both under physiological and pathological conditions, with a particular interest in cancer, that could potentially offer new opportunities for clinical intervention.

Patients and mice with deficiency in the SNARE protein SYNTAXIN-11 have a secondary B cell defect

SYNTAXIN-11 (STX11) is a SNARE protein that mediates the fusion of cytotoxic granules with the plasma membrane at the immunological synapses of CD8 T or NK cells. Autosomal recessive inheritance of deleterious STX11 variants impairs cytotoxic granule exocytosis, causing familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis type 4 (FHL-4). In several FHL-4 patients, we also observed hypogammaglobulinemia, elevated frequencies of naive B cells, and increased double-negative DN2:DN1 B cell ratios, indicating a hitherto unrecognized role of STX11 in humoral immunity. Detailed analysis of Stx11-deficient mice revealed impaired CD4 T cell help for B cells, associated with disrupted germinal center formation, reduced isotype class switching, and low antibody avidity. Mechanistically, Stx11-/- CD4 T cells exhibit impaired membrane fusion leading to reduced CD107a and CD40L surface mobilization and diminished IL-2 and IL-10 secretion. Our findings highlight a critical role of STX11 in SNARE-mediated membrane trafficking and vesicle exocytosis in CD4 T cells, important for successful CD4 T cell-B cell interactions. Deficiency in STX11 impairs CD4 T cell-dependent B cell differentiation and humoral responses.

Endocytosed HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein Traffics to Rab14+ Late Endosomes and Lysosomes to Regulate Surface Levels in T-Cell Lines

Production of infectious HIV-1 particles requires incorporation of the viral envelope glycoprotein (Env) at the plasma membrane (PM) of infected CD4+ T cells. Env trafficking to the PM exposes viral epitopes that can be exploited by the host immune system; however, HIV-1 can evade this response by endocytosis of excess Env from the PM. The fate of Env after internalization remains unclear, with evidence suggesting several different vesicular trafficking steps may be involved, including recycling pathways. To date, there have been very few studies documenting the trafficking pathways of native Env in infected T cells. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether there are T-cell-specific endosomal pathways regulating the fate of endocytic Env. Here, we use a pulse-labeling approach with a monovalent anti-Env Fab probe to characterize the trafficking of internalized Env within infected CD4+ T-cell lines, together with CRISPR/Cas9-mediated endogenous protein tagging, to assess the role of host cell Rab GTPases in Env trafficking. We show that endocytosed Env traffics to Rab14+ compartments that possess hallmarks of late endosomes and lysosomes. We also demonstrate that Env can recycle back to the PM, although we find that recycling does not occur at high rates when compared to the model recycling protein transferrin. These results help to resolve open questions about the fate and relevance of endocytosed Env in HIV-infected cells and suggest a novel role for Rab14 in a cell-type-specific late-endosomal/lysosomal trafficking pathway in T cells. IMPORTANCE HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) evades immune neutralization through many mechanisms. One immune evasion strategy may result from the internalization of excess surface-exposed Env to prevent antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity or neutralization. Characterization of the fate of endocytosed Env is critical to understand which vesicular pathways could be targeted to promote display of Env epitopes to the immune system. In this study, we characterize the endocytic fate of native Env, expressed from infected human T-cell lines. We demonstrate that Env is rapidly trafficked to a late-endosome/lysosome-like compartment and can be recycled to the cell surface for incorporation into virus assembly sites. This study implicates a novel intracellular compartment, marked by host-cell Rab14 GTPases, for the sequestration of Env. Therapeutic approaches aimed at mobilizing this intracellular pool of Env could lead to stronger immune control of HIV-1 infection via antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.

A Replication-Competent HIV Clone Carrying GFP-Env Reveals Rapid Env Recycling at the HIV-1 T Cell Virological Synapse

HIV-1 infection is enhanced by cell-cell adhesions between infected and uninfected T cells called virological synapses (VS). VS are initiated by the interactions of cell-surface HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) and CD4 on target cells and act as sites of viral assembly and viral transfer between cells. To study the process that recruits and retains HIV-1 Env at the VS, a replication-competent HIV-1 clone carrying an Env-sfGFP fusion protein was designed to enable live tracking of Env within infected cells. Combined use of surface pulse-labeling of Env and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) studies, enabled the visualization of the targeted accumulation and sustained recycling of Env between endocytic compartments (EC) and the VS. We observed dynamic exchange of Env at the VS, while the viral structural protein, Gag, was largely immobile at the VS. The disparate exchange rates of Gag and Env at the synapse support that the trafficking and/or retention of a majority of Env towards the VS is not maintained by entrapment by a Gag lattice or immobilization by binding to CD4 on the target cell. A FRAP study of an Env endocytosis mutant showed that recycling is not required for accumulation at the VS, but is required for the rapid exchange of Env at the VS. We conclude that the mechanism of Env accumulation at the VS and incorporation into nascent particles involves continuous internalization and targeted secretion rather than irreversible interactions with the budding virus, but that this recycling is largely dispensable for VS formation and viral transfer across the VS.

ER-to-Golgi transport and SEC23-dependent COPII vesicles regulate T cell alloimmunity

T cell-mediated responses are dependent on their secretion of key effector molecules. However, the critical molecular determinants of the secretion of these proteins are largely undefined. Here, we demonstrate that T cell activation increases trafficking via the ER-to-Golgi pathway. To study the functional role of this pathway, we generated mice with a T cell-specific deletion in SEC23B, a core subunit of coat protein complex II (COPII). We found that SEC23B critically regulated the T cell secretome following activation. SEC23B-deficient T cells exhibited a proliferative defect and reduced effector functions in vitro, as well as in experimental models of allogeneic and xenogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation in vivo. However, T cells derived from 3 patients with congenital dyserythropoietic anemia II (CDAII), which results from Sec23b mutation, did not exhibit a similar phenotype. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that unlike murine KO T cells, T cells from patients with CDAII harbor increased levels of the closely related paralog, SEC23A. In vivo rescue of murine KO by expression of Sec23a from the Sec23b genomic locus restored T cell functions. Together, our data demonstrate a critical role for the COPII pathway, with evidence for functional overlap in vivo between SEC23 paralogs in the regulation of T cell immunity in both mice and humans.

Inducible Polarized Secretion of Exosomes in T and B Lymphocytes

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EV) of endosomal origin (multivesicular bodies, MVB) constitutively released by many different eukaryotic cells by fusion of MVB to the plasma membrane. However, inducible exosome secretion controlled by cell surface receptors is restricted to very few cell types and a limited number of cell surface receptors. Among these, exosome secretion is induced in T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes when stimulated at the immune synapse (IS) via T-cell receptors (TCR) and B-cell receptors (BCR), respectively. IS formation by T and B lymphocytes constitutes a crucial event involved in antigen-specific, cellular, and humoral immune responses. Upon IS formation by T and B lymphocytes with antigen-presenting cells (APC), the convergence of MVB towards the microtubule organization center (MTOC), and MTOC polarization to the IS, are involved in polarized exosome secretion at the synaptic cleft. This specialized mechanism provides the immune system with a finely-tuned strategy to increase the specificity and efficiency of crucial secretory effector functions of B and T lymphocytes. As inducible exosome secretion by antigen-receptors is a critical and unique feature of the immune system this review considers the study of the traffic events leading to polarized exosome secretion at the IS and some of their biological consequences.

The decreased number and function of lymphocytes is associated with Penicillium marneffei infection in HIV-negative patients

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Penicillium marneffei (P. marneffei) infection, which has been traditionally considered as an indicator of immunosuppression, is one of the most common systemic opportunistic infections in patients with AIDS. Recently, more and more P. marneffei infections have been documented in HIV-negative patients without underlying diseases, which challenges the traditional view that P. marneffei infection is an indicator of immunosuppression. We aimed to evaluate the number and function of lymphocytes in HIV-negative patients with P. marneffei infection.

METHODS

15 HIV-negative P. marneffei-infected patients and 18 healthy controls were recruited and investigated. The number and function of lymphocytes were analyzed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Most laboratory tests were within the reference ranges, except for a significant increase in total IgE in P. marneffei-infected patients. Lymphocyte subset analysis showed that the number of CD4⁺ T cells and NK cells was significantly decreased in HIV-negative marneffei-infected patients compared with healthy controls. However, almost half of the marneffei-infected patients still had normal levels of lymphocytes. A further analysis of cell function showed that the activation and proliferation of CD4⁺ T cells, the cytotoxicity of CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells, and the cytokine secretion potential of CD4⁺ T cells and NK cells were all impaired, in comparison with healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

P. marneffei infection has to be regarded as an indicator of immunosuppression. A further investigation of cell function is required in patients with opportunistic infection, as the cell function may be impaired in this condition.

Mechanisms for Cell-to-Cell Transmission of HIV-1

While HIV-1 infection of target cells with cell-free viral particles has been largely documented, intercellular transmission through direct cell-to-cell contact may be a predominant mode of propagation in host. To spread, HIV-1 infects cells of the immune system and takes advantage of their specific particularities and functions. Subversion of intercellular communication allows to improve HIV-1 replication through a multiplicity of intercellular structures and membrane protrusions, like tunneling nanotubes, filopodia, or lamellipodia-like structures involved in the formation of the virological synapse. Other features of immune cells, like the immunological synapse or the phagocytosis of infected cells are hijacked by HIV-1 and used as gateways to infect target cells. Finally, HIV-1 reuses its fusogenic capacity to provoke fusion between infected donor cells and target cells, and to form infected syncytia with high capacity of viral production and improved capacities of motility or survival. All these modes of cell-to-cell transfer are now considered as viral mechanisms to escape immune system and antiretroviral therapies, and could be involved in the establishment of persistent virus reservoirs in different host tissues.

Cellular mechanisms of alpha herpesvirus egress: live cell fluorescence microscopy of pseudorabies virus exocytosis

Egress of newly assembled herpesvirus particles from infected cells is a highly dynamic process involving the host secretory pathway working in concert with viral components. To elucidate the location, dynamics, and molecular mechanisms of alpha herpesvirus egress, we developed a live-cell fluorescence microscopy method to visualize the final transport and exocytosis of pseudorabies virus (PRV) particles in non-polarized epithelial cells. This method is based on total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to selectively image fluorescent virus particles near the plasma membrane, and takes advantage of a virus-encoded pH-sensitive probe to visualize the precise moment and location of particle exocytosis. We performed single-particle tracking and mean squared displacement analysis to characterize particle motion, and imaged a panel of cellular proteins to identify those spatially and dynamically associated with viral exocytosis. Based on our data, individual virus particles travel to the plasma membrane inside small, acidified secretory vesicles. Rab GTPases, Rab6a, Rab8a, and Rab11a, key regulators of the plasma membrane-directed secretory pathway, are present on the virus secretory vesicle. These vesicles undergo fast, directional transport directly to the site of exocytosis, which is most frequently near patches of LL5β, part of a complex that anchors microtubules to the plasma membrane. Vesicles are tightly docked at the site of exocytosis for several seconds, and membrane fusion occurs, displacing the virion a small distance across the plasma membrane. After exocytosis, particles remain tightly confined on the outer cell surface. Based on recent reports in the cell biological and alpha herpesvirus literature, combined with our spatial and dynamic data on viral egress, we propose an integrated model that links together the intracellular transport pathways and exocytosis mechanisms that mediate alpha herpesvirus egress.

Pseudorabies virus, an alpha herpesvirus, is an important veterinary pathogen, and related to human varicella-zoster virus and herpes simplex viruses. New alpha herpesvirus particles are assembled inside an infected cell, and must exit from the infected cell by taking advantage of cellular mechanisms. How these virus particles are transported inside the infected cell and secreted at the cell surface is not understood in great detail. In particular, how this process unfolds over time is not easily observed using previous methods. In this study, we developed a new method to observe this egress process. Using this method, we described how virus particles move on their way out: individual virus particles travel to the cell surface, directly to the exit site, where they pause for several seconds before crossing out of the cell. We identified several cellular proteins that are involved in this process. After exiting, virus particles remained stuck to the outer cell surface. Finally, we draw connections between our observations and other recent studies to propose an integrated model of how alpha herpesvirus particles exit from infected cells.

Nef, the shuttling molecular adaptor of HIV, influences the cytokine network

Several viruses manipulate host innate immune responses to avoid immune recognition and improve viral replication and spreading. The viral protein Nef of Human Immunodeficiency Virus is mainly involved in this "hijacking" activity and is a well established virulence factor. In the last few years there have been remarkable advances in outlining a defined framework of its functions. In particular Nef appears to be a shuttling molecular adaptor able to exert its effects both on infected and non infected bystander cell. In addition it is emerging fact that it has an important impact on the chemo-cytokine network. Nef protein represents an interesting new target to develop therapeutic drugs for treatment of seropositive patients. In this review we have tried to provide a unifying view of the multiple functions of this viral protein on the basis of recently available experimental data.

HIV-1 Intersection with CD4 T Cell Vesicle Exocytosis: Intercellular Communication Goes Viral

In cells of the immune system, the secretion of extracellular vesicles is modulated through cellular activation. In particular, T cell activation is achieved through cell-cell contacts with antigen presenting cells and the consequent formation of a specialized signaling junction called the immunological synapse. Recent works on CD4 T cells have elucidated that cognate antigen recognition by the T cell receptor (TCR) engages two distinct exocytic events. The first involves the exocytic targeting of signaling molecules at the synaptic membrane and drives the functional architecture of the immunological synapse. The second enlists the extracellular secretion of the TCR itself, once the functional architecture of the immunological synapse is accomplished. HIV-1, a human lymphotropic virus, has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to co-opt CD4 T cell physiology. Notably, it has become apparent that HIV-1 intersects the regulated secretory system of CD4 T cells in order to bud from the plasma membrane of the infected cell and to promote bystander cell death. Here, I review the relevance of CD4 vesicle exocytosis to immune regulation and to HIV-1 pathogenesis and discuss their potential therapeutic applications.

Multiple roles for the actin cytoskeleton during regulated exocytosis

Regulated exocytosis is the main mechanism utilized by specialized secretory cells to deliver molecules to the cell surface by virtue of membranous containers (i.e., secretory vesicles). The process involves a series of highly coordinated and sequential steps, which include the biogenesis of the vesicles, their delivery to the cell periphery, their fusion with the plasma membrane, and the release of their content into the extracellular space. Each of these steps is regulated by the actin cytoskeleton. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the involvement of actin and its associated molecules during each of the exocytic steps in vertebrates, and suggest that the overall role of the actin cytoskeleton during regulated exocytosis is linked to the architecture and the physiology of the secretory cells under examination. Specifically, in neurons, neuroendocrine, endocrine, and hematopoietic cells, which contain small secretory vesicles that undergo rapid exocytosis (on the order of milliseconds), the actin cytoskeleton plays a role in pre-fusion events, where it acts primarily as a functional barrier and facilitates docking. In exocrine and other secretory cells, which contain large secretory vesicles that undergo slow exocytosis (seconds to minutes), the actin cytoskeleton plays a role in post-fusion events, where it regulates the dynamics of the fusion pore, facilitates the integration of the vesicles into the plasma membrane, provides structural support, and promotes the expulsion of large cargo molecules.

Cathepsin B controls the persistence of memory CD8+ T lymphocytes

The persistence of memory T lymphocytes confers lifelong protection from pathogens. Memory T cells survive and undergo homeostatic proliferation (HSP) in the absence of Ag, although the cell-intrinsic mechanisms by which cytokines drive the HSP of memory T cells are not well understood. In this study we report that lysosome stability limits the long-term maintenance of memory CD8(+) T cell populations. Serine protease inhibitor (Spi) 2A, an anti-apoptotic cytosolic cathepsin inhibitor, is induced by both IL-15 and IL-7. Mice deficient in Spi2A developed fewer memory phenotype CD44(hi)CD8(+) T cells with age, which underwent reduced HSP in the bone marrow. Spi2A was also required for the maintenance of central memory CD8(+) T cell populations after acute infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Spi2A-deficient Ag-specific CD8(+) T cell populations declined more than wild-type competitors after viral infection, and they were eroded further after successive infections. Spi2A protected memory cells from lysosomal breakdown by inhibiting cathepsin B. The impaired maintenance of Spi2A-deficient memory CD8(+) T cells was rescued by concomitant cathepsin B deficiency, demonstrating that cathepsin B was a physiological target of Spi2A in memory CD8(+) T cell survival. Our findings support a model in which protection from lysosomal rupture through cytokine-induced expression of Spi2A determines the long-term persistence of memory CD8(+) T cells.

HIV-1 infection and first line ART induced differential responses in mitochondria from blood lymphocytes and monocytes: the ANRS EP45 "Aging" study

BACKGROUND

The ANRS EP45 "Aging" study investigates the cellular mechanisms involved in the accelerated aging of HIV-1 infected and treated patients. The data reported focus on mitochondria, organelles known to be involved in cell senescence.

METHODS

49 HIV-1 infected patients untreated with antiretroviral therapy, together with 49 seronegative age- and sex-matched control subjects and 81 HIV-1 infected and treated patients, were recruited by 3 AIDS centres (Marseille, Montpellier, Nice; France; http://clinicaltrials.gov/, NCT01038999). In more than 88% of treated patients, the viral load was <40 copies/ml and the CD4+ cell count was >500/mm(3). ROS (reactive oxygen species) production and ΔΨm (inner membrane potential) were measured by flow cytometry in blood lymphocytes and monocytes (functional parameters). Three mitochondrial network quantitative morphological parameters were computed using confocal microscopy and image analysis. Three PBMC mitochondrial proteins (porin and subunits 2 and 4 of cytochrome C oxidase encoded by mtDNA or nuclear DNA, respectively) were analysed by western blotting.

RESULTS

Quantitative changes in PBMC mitochondrial proteins were not induced by either HIV-1 infection or ART. Discriminant analysis integrating functional (ROS production and ΔΨm) or morphological (network volume density, fragmentation and branching) parameters revealed HIV-1 infection and ART differential effects according to cell type. First line ART tended to rescue lymphocyte mitochondrial parameters altered by viral infection, but induced slight changes in monocytes. No statistical difference was found between the effects of three ART regimens on mitochondrial parameters. Correlations between functional parameters and viral load confirmed the damaging effects of HIV-1 in lymphocyte mitochondria.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients considered to be clinically stable, mitochondria exhibited functional and morphological modifications in PBMCs resulting from either direct or indirect effects of HIV-1 infection (lymphocytes), or from first line ART (monocytes). Together with other tissue impairments, these changes may contribute to global aging.

Vpu augments the initial burst phase of HIV-1 propagation and downregulates BST2 and CD4 in humanized mice

While human cells express potent antiviral proteins as part of the host defense repertoire, viruses have evolved their own arsenal of proteins to antagonize them. BST2 was identified as an inhibitory cellular protein of HIV-1 replication, which tethers virions to the cell surface to prevent their release. On the other hand, the HIV-1 accessory protein, Vpu, has the ability to downregulate and counteract BST2. Vpu also possesses the ability to downmodulate cellular CD4 and SLAMF6 molecules expressed on infected cells. However, the role of Vpu in HIV-1 infection in vivo remains unclear. Here, using a human hematopoietic stem cell-transplanted humanized mouse model, we demonstrate that Vpu contributes to the efficient spread of HIV-1 in vivo during the acute phase of infection. Although Vpu did not affect viral cytopathicity, target cell preference, and the level of viral protein expression, the amount of cell-free virions in vpu-deficient HIV-1-infected mice was profoundly lower than that in wild-type HIV-1-infected mice. We provide a novel insight suggesting that Vpu concomitantly downregulates BST2 and CD4, but not SLAMF6, from the surface of infected cells. Furthermore, we show evidence suggesting that BST2 and CD4 impair the production of cell-free infectious virions but do not associate with the efficiency of cell-to-cell HIV-1 transmission. Taken together, our findings suggest that Vpu downmodulates BST2 and CD4 in infected cells and augments the initial burst of HIV-1 replication in vivo. This is the first report demonstrating the role of Vpu in HIV-1 infection in an in vivo model.

How HIV-1 takes advantage of the cytoskeleton during replication and cell-to-cell transmission

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infects T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells and can manipulate their cytoskeleton structures at multiple steps during its replication cycle. Based on pharmacological and genetic targeting of cytoskeleton modulators, new imaging approaches and primary cell culture models, important roles for actin and microtubules during entry and cell-to-cell transfer have been established. Virological synapses and actin-containing membrane extensions can mediate HIV-1 transfer from dendritic cells or macrophage cells to T cells and between T cells. We will review the role of the cytoskeleton in HIV-1 entry, cellular trafficking and cell-to-cell transfer between primary cells.

The regulated secretory pathway in CD4(+) T cells contributes to human immunodeficiency virus type-1 cell-to-cell spread at the virological synapse

Direct cell-cell spread of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 (HIV-1) at the virological synapse (VS) is an efficient mode of dissemination between CD4(+) T cells but the mechanisms by which HIV-1 proteins are directed towards intercellular contacts is unclear. We have used confocal microscopy and electron tomography coupled with functional virology and cell biology of primary CD4(+) T cells from normal individuals and patients with Chediak-Higashi Syndrome and report that the HIV-1 VS displays a regulated secretion phenotype that shares features with polarized secretion at the T cell immunological synapse (IS). Cell-cell contact at the VS re-orientates the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) and organelles within the HIV-1-infected T cell towards the engaged target T cell, concomitant with polarization of viral proteins. Directed secretion of proteins at the T cell IS requires specialized organelles termed secretory lysosomes (SL) and we show that the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) localizes with CTLA-4 and FasL in SL-related compartments and at the VS. Finally, CD4(+) T cells that are disabled for regulated secretion are less able to support productive cell-to-cell HIV-1 spread. We propose that HIV-1 hijacks the regulated secretory pathway of CD4(+) T cells to enhance its dissemination.

HIV-Nef and AIDS pathogenesis: are we barking up the wrong tree?

After two decades of research the Nef protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a mysterious protein with an indisputable role in HIV pathogenesis. The ability to downregulate CD4 and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) was the first ascribed function of Nef and, whereas the number of downmodulated receptors by Nef is rising, so are the explanations for how their downregulation could contribute to HIV pathogenesis. At the same time there is increasing evidence that Nef not only induces endocytosis but also exocytosis, namely of cytokines and microvesicles that contain Nef itself. Because endocytosis and exocytosis are connected events, this is not surprising - and raises the intriguing possibility that HIV aims at secretion rather than ingestion. Have we therefore barked up the wrong tree over the past two decades? In this opinion article I argue that Nef-induced secretion is most probably the pathogenesis-relevant function behind this elusive viral effector.

Host factors involved in retroviral budding and release

The plasma membrane is the final barrier that enveloped viruses must cross during their egress from the infected cell. Here, we review recent insights into the cell biology of retroviral assembly and release; these insights have driven a new understanding of the host proteins, such as the ESCRT machinery, that are used by retroviruses to promote their final separation from the host cell. We also review antiviral host factors such as tetherin, which can directly inhibit the release of retroviral particles. These studies have illuminated the role of the lipid bilayer as the unexpected target for virus restriction by the innate immune response.

Early events of HIV-1 infection: can signaling be the next therapeutic target?

Intracellular signaling events are signposts of biological processes, which govern the direction and action of biological activities. Through millions of years of evolution, pathogens, such as viruses, have evolved to hijack host cell machinery to infect their targets and are therefore dependent on host cell signaling for replication. This review will detail our current understanding of the signaling events that are important for the early steps of HIV-1 replication. More specifically, the therapeutic potential of signaling events associated with chemokine coreceptors, virus entry, viral synapses, and post-entry processes will be discussed. We argue that these pathways may represent novel targets for antiviral therapy.

Pathways for Cytokine Secretion

Cytokine secretion is a widely studied process, although little is known regarding the specific mechanisms that regulate cytokine release. Recent findings have shed light on some of the precise molecular pathways that regulate the packaging of newly synthesized cytokines from immune cells. These findings begin to elucidate pathways and mechanisms that underpin cytokine release in all cells. In this article, we review the highlights of some of these novel discoveries.

Cell-to-Cell Spread of Retroviruses

Viruses from several families use direct cell-to-cell infection to disseminate between cells. Retroviruses are a relatively recent addition to this list, and appear to spread cell-to-cell by induction of multimolecular complexes termed virological synapses that assemble at the interface between infected and receptor-expressing target cells. Over the past five years, detailed insight into the cellular and molecular basis of virological synapse-mediated retroviral cell-to-cell spread has been obtained, but important questions and controversies have been raised that remain to be resolved. This review will focus on recent advances in the field with emphasis on areas in which work still needs to be done.

Massive secretion by T cells is caused by HIV Nef in infected cells and by Nef transfer to bystander cells

The HIV Nef protein mediates endocytosis of surface receptors that correlates with disease progression, but the link between this Nef function and HIV pathogenesis is not clear. Here, we report that Nef-mediated activation of membrane trafficking is bidirectional, connecting endocytosis with exocytosis as occurs in activated T cells. Nef expression induced an extensive secretory activity in infected and, surprisingly, also in noninfected T cells, leading to the massive release of microvesicle clusters, a phenotype observed in vitro and in 36%-87% of primary CD4 T cells from HIV-infected individuals. Consistent with exocytosis in noninfected cells, Nef is transferred to bystander cells upon cell-to-cell contact and subsequently induces secretion in an Erk1/2-dependent manner. Thus, HIV Nef alters membrane dynamics, mimicking those of activated T cells and causing a transfer of infected cell signaling (TOS) to bystander cells. This mechanism may help explain the detrimental effect on bystander cells seen in HIV infection.

HIV-1 at the immunological and T-lymphocytic virological synapse

Cell-cell transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is considered the most effective mode of viral spread in T-lymphocyte cultures. Evidence has accumulated that HIV-1 assembles polarized synaptic-like structures, referred to as virological synapses, as specialized sites of viral transfer. Interestingly, it was recently also discovered that HIV-1 impairs the formation of the structurally similar immunological synapse, thereby modulating exogenous T-lymphocyte stimulation to yield an optimal activation state for productive HIV-1 infection. The careful dissection of these opposing effects will contribute to our understanding of retroviral spread and cellular signal transduction machineries.