Maternal high-zinc diet attenuates intestinal inflammation by reducing DNA methylation and elevating H3K9 acetylation in the A20 promoter of offspring chicks

Imbalanced and Unchecked: The Role of Metal Dyshomeostasis in Driving COPD Progression

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by persistent inflammation and oxidative stress, which ultimately leads to progressive restriction of airflow. Extensive research findings have cogently suggested that the dysregulation of essential transition metal ions, notably iron, copper, and zinc, stands as a critical nexus in the perpetuation of inflammatory processes and oxidative damage within the lungs of COPD patients. Unraveling the intricate interplay between metal homeostasis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory signaling is of paramount importance in unraveling the intricacies of COPD pathogenesis. This comprehensive review aims to examine the current literature on the sources, regulation, and mechanisms by which metal dyshomeostasis contributes to COPD progression. We specifically focus on iron, copper, and zinc, given their well-characterized roles in orchestrating cytokine production, immune cell function, antioxidant depletion, and matrix remodeling. Despite the limited number of clinical trials investigating metal modulation in COPD, the advent of emerging methodologies tailored to monitor metal fluxes and gauge responses to chelation and supplementation hold great promise in unlocking the potential of metal-based interventions. We conclude that targeted restoration of metal homeostasis represents a promising frontier for ameliorating pathological processes driving COPD progression.

Zinc glycinate alleviates LPS-induced inflammation and intestinal barrier disruption in chicken embryos by regulating zinc homeostasis and TLR4/NF-κB pathway

The effect of an immune challenge induced by a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure on systemic zinc homeostasis and the modulation of zinc glycinate (Zn-Gly) was investigated using a chicken embryo model. 160 Arbor Acres broiler fertilized eggs were randomly divided into 4 groups: CON (control group, injected with saline), LPS (LPS group, injected with 32 µg of LPS saline solution), Zn-Gly (zinc glycinate group, injected with 80 µg of zinc glycinate saline solution) and Zn-Gly+LPS (zinc glycinate and LPS group, injected with the same content of zinc glycinate and LPS saline solution). Each treatment consisted of eight replicates of five eggs each. An in ovo feeding procedure was performed at 17.5 embryonic day and samples were collected after 12 hours. The results showed that Zn-Gly attenuated the effects of LPS challenge-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory factor interleukin 1β (IL-1β) level (P =0.003). The LPS challenge mediated zinc transporter proteins and metallothionein (MT) to regulate systemic zinc homeostasis, with increased expression of the jejunum zinc export gene zinc transporter protein 1 (ZnT-1) and elevated expression of the import genes divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), Zrt- and Irt-like protein 3 (Zip3), Zip8 and Zip14 (P < 0.05). A similar trend could be observed for the zinc transporter genes in the liver, which for ZnT-1 mitigated by Zn-Gly supplementation (P =0.01). Liver MT gene expression was downregulated in response to the LPS challenge (P =0.004). These alterations caused by LPS resulted in decreased serum and liver zinc levels and increased small intestinal, muscle and tibial zinc levels. Zn-Gly reversed the elevated expression of the liver zinc finger protein A20 induced by the LPS challenge (P =0.025), while Zn-Gly reduced the gene expression of the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1β and IL-6, decreased toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κB p65) (P < 0.05). Zn-Gly also alleviated the LPS-induced downregulation of the intestinal barrier gene Claudin-1. Thus, LPS exposure prompted the mobilization of zinc transporter proteins and MT to perform the remodeling of systemic zinc homeostasis, Zn-Gly participated in the regulation of zinc homeostasis and inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory factors through the TLR4/NF-κB pathway, attenuating the inflammatory response and intestinal barrier damage caused by an immune challenge.

Modulation of the Gut Microbiota by Nutrition and Its Relationship to Epigenetics

The intestinal microbiota is a community of microorganisms inhabiting the human intestines, potentially influencing both physiological and pathophysiological processes in the human body. Existing evidence suggests that nutrients can influence the modulation of the gut microbiota. However, there is still limited evidence regarding the effects of vitamin and mineral supplementation on the human gut microbiota through epigenetic modification. It is plausible that maintaining an adequate dietary intake of vitamin D, iron, fibre, zinc and magnesium may have a beneficial effect on alleviating inflammation in the body, reducing oxidative stress, and improving the condition of the intestinal microbiota through various epigenetic mechanisms. Moreover, epigenetics involves alterations in the phenotype of a cell without changing its fundamental DNA sequence. It appears that the modulation of the microbiota by various nutrients may lead to epigenetic regulation. The correlations between microbiota and epigenetics are potentially interdependent. Therefore, the primary objective of this review is to identify the complex relationships between diet, gut microbiota, and epigenetic regulation. These interactions could play a crucial role in systemic health.

Factors influencing the development of gastrointestinal tract and nutrient transporters' function during the embryonic life of chickens-A review

Intestinal morphology and regulation of nutrient transportation genes during the embryonic and early life of chicks influence their body weight and feed conversion ratio through the growing period. The intestine development can be monitored by measuring villus morphology and enzymatic activity and determining the expression of nutrient transporters genes. With the increasing importance of gut development and health in broiler production, considerable research has been directed towards factors affecting intestine development. Thus, this article reviews (1) intestinal development during embryogenesis, and (2) maternal factors, in ovo administration, and incubation conditions that influence intestinal development during embryogenesis. Conclusively, (1) chicks from heavier eggs may have a better-developed intestine than chicks from younger ones, (2) in ovo supplementation with amino acids, minerals, vitamins or a combination of several probiotics and prebiotics stimulates intestine development and increases the expression of intestine mucosal-related genes and (3) the long storage period, improper incubation temperature and imbalanced ventilation can negatively influence intestinal morphology and nutrient transporters gene expression. Finally, understanding the intestine development during embryonic life will enable us to enhance the productivity of broilers.

Transgenerational transmission of environmental effects in livestock in the age of global warming

Recent decades provide mounting evidence for the continual increase in global temperatures, now termed "global warming," to the point of drastic worldwide change in the climate. Climatic change is a long-term shift in temperatures and weather patterns, including increased frequency and intensity of extreme environmental events such as heat waves accompanied by extreme temperatures and high humidity. Climate change and global warming put several challenges to the livestock industry by directly affecting the animal's production, reproduction, health, and welfare. The broad impact of global warming, and in particular heat stress, on-farm animals' performance has been comprehensively studied. It has been estimated that the US livestock industry's loss caused by heat stress is up to $2.4 billion annually. However, the long-term intergenerational and transgenerational effects of climatic change and global warming on farm animals are sparse. Transgenerational effects, which are mediated by epigenetic mechanisms, can affect the animal's performance regardless of its immediate environment by altering its phenotypic expression to fit its ancestors' environment. In many animal species, environmental effects are epigenetically encoded within a narrow time interval during the organism's gametogenesis, and these epigenetic modifications can then be intergenerationally transmitted. Several epigenetic mechanisms mediate intergenerational transmission of environmental effects, typically in a parent-dependent manner. Therefore, exposure of the animal to an extreme climatic event and other environmental stressors during gametogenesis can undergo epigenetic stabilization in the germline and be passed to the offspring. As a result, the offspring might express a phenotype adjusted to fit the stressors experienced by their ancestors, regardless of their direct environment. The purpose of this perspective is to review current evidence for intergenerational and transgenerational transmission of environmental stress effects, specifically in the context of global warming and climate change, and to offer viewpoints on the possible impacts on the livestock industry.

Organic zinc glycine chelate is better than inorganic zinc in improving growth performance of cherry valley ducks by regulating intestinal morphology, barrier function, and the gut microbiome

Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element that has physiological and nutritional functions. However, excessive use of Zn can lead to waste of resources. In this study, we compared the effects of inorganic (ZnSO4) and organic Zn glycine chelate (Zn-Gly) on the growth performance, intestinal morphology, immune function, barrier integrity, and gut microbiome of Cherry Valley ducks. We randomly divided 180 one-day-old male meat ducks into three groups, each with six replicates of 10 birds: basal diet group (CON), basal diet with 70 mg Zn/kg from ZnSO4 (ZnSO4 group), and basal diet with 70 mg Zn/kg from Zn-Gly (Zn-Gly group). After 14 and 35 d of feeding, birds in the Zn groups had significantly increased body weight and average daily gain (ADG), decreased intestinal permeability indicator d-lactate, improved intestinal morphology and barrier function-related tight junction protein levels, and upregulated mucin 2 and secretory immunoglobulin A levels compared to the control (P < 0.05). Additionally, compared to the ZnSO4 group, we found that supplementation with Zn-Gly at 70 mg/kg Zn resulted in the significant increase of body weight at 35 d, 1 to 35 d ADG and average daily feed intake, villus height at 14 and 35 d, secretory immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin G at 14 d, and mucin 2 mRNA level at 14 d (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, dietary Zn had a significant effect on the gene expression of metallothionein at 14 and 35 d (P < 0.05). 16S rRNA sequencing showed that Zn significantly increased alpha diversity (P < 0.05), whereas no differences in beta diversity were observed among groups (P > 0.05). Dietary Zn significantly altered the cecal microbiota composition by increasing the abundances of Firmicutes, Blautia, Lactobacillus, Prevotellaceae NK3B31, and [Ruminococcus] torques group and reducing that of Bacteroides (P < 0.05). Spearman correlation analysis revealed that the changes in microbiota were highly correlated (P < 0.05) with growth performance, intestinal morphology, and immune function-related parameters. Taken together, our data show that, under the condition of adding 70 mg/kg Zn, supplementation with Zn-Gly promoted growth performance by regulating intestinal morphology, immune function, barrier integrity, and gut microbiota of Cherry Valley ducks compared with the use of ZnSO4 in feed.

Decreased ubiquitin modifying enzyme A20 associated with hyper-responsiveness to ovalbumin challenge following intrauterine growth restriction

BACKGROUND

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is strongly correlated with an increased risk of asthma later in life. Farm dust protects mice from developing house dust mite-induced asthma, and loss of ubiquitin modifying enzyme A20 in lung epithelium would abolish this protective effect. However, the mechanisms of A20 in the development of asthma following IUGR remains unknown.

METHODS

An IUGR rat model induced by maternal nutrient restriction was used for investigating the role of A20 in the response characteristics of IUGR rats to ovalbumin (OVA) challenge. The ubiquitination of proteins and N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifications were used to further assess the potential mechanism of A20.

RESULTS

IUGR can reduce the expression of A20 protein in lung tissue of newborn rats and continue until 10 weeks after birth. OVA challenging can increase the expression of A20 protein in lung tissue of IUGR rats, but its level was still significantly lower than the control OVA group. The differentially ubiquitinated proteins in lung tissues were also observed in IUGR and normal newborn rats. Furthermore, this ubiquitination phenomenon continued from the newborn to adulthood. In the detected RNA methylations, m6A abundance of the motif GGACA was the highest. The higher abundances of m6A modification of A20 mRNA from IUGR were negatively correlated with the trend of A20 protein levels.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate A20 as a key regulator during the development of asthma following IUGR, providing further insight into the prevention of asthma induced by environmental factors.

Impact of Maternal and Offspring Dietary Zn Supplementation on Growth Performance and Antioxidant and Immune Function of Offspring Broilers

The current study investigated the effects of the maternal Zn source in conjunction with their offspring’s dietary Zn supplementation on the growth performance, antioxidant status, Zn concentration, and immune function of the offspring. It also explored whether there is an interaction between maternal Zn and their offspring’s dietary Zn. One-day-old Lingnan Yellow-feathered broilers (n = 800) were completely randomized (n = 4) between two maternal dietary supplemental Zn sources [maternal Zn−Gly (oZn) vs. maternal ZnSO4 (iZn)] × two offspring dietary supplemental Zn doses [Zn-unsupplemented control diet (CON), the control diet + 80 mg of Zn/kg of diet as ZnSO4]. oZn increased progeny ADG and decreased offspring mortality across all periods, especially during the late periods (p < 0.05). The offspring diet supplemented with Zn significantly improved ADG and decreased offspring mortality over the whole period compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). There were significant interactions between the maternal Zn source and offspring dietary Zn with regards to progeny mortality during the late phase and across all phases as a whole (p < 0.05). Compared with the iZn group, the oZn treatment significantly increased progeny liver and serum Zn concentrations; antioxidant capacity in the liver, muscle, and serum; and the IgM concentration in serum; while also decreasing progeny serum IL-1 and TNF-α cytokine secretions (p < 0.05). Similar results were observed when the offspring diet was supplemented with Zn compared with the CON group; moreover, adding Zn to the offspring diet alleviated progeny stress by decreasing corticosterone levels in the serum when compared to the CON group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, maternal Zn−Gly supplementation increased progeny performance and decreased progeny mortality and stress by increasing progeny Zn concentration, antioxidant capacity, and immune function compared with the same Zn levels from ZnSO4. Simultaneously, Zn supplementation in the progeny’s diet is necessary for the growth of broilers.

Effect of methionine and trace minerals (zinc, copper and manganese) supplementation on growth performance of broilers subjected to Eimeria challenge

Coccidiosis is a major intestinal challenge that causes economic loss to the broiler industry. Two battery cage studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of trace minerals, source and dose of methionine on growth performance and gut health of broilers subjected to Eimeria challenge. Experiment #1 consisted of 9 treatments of 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design + 1 arrangement with main factors of methionine (Met) sources (DL-Met vs. 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)-butanoic acid (HMTBa)), total sulfur amino acid (TSAA) levels (high vs. low; ±5% of recommended level), and sources of trace minerals (TM) Zn:Cu:Mn in the form Inorganic trace minerals (ITM) in sulfates (80:20:100ppm) vs. mineral methionine hydroxy-analogue bis-chelate (MMHAC, 40:10:50ppm), each with 8 pens of 10 birds. Experiment #2 consisted of 2 treatments--ITM [ZnSO4:tribasic copper chloride (TBCC):MnSO4 110:125:120ppm] and MMHAC (Zn:Cu:Mn, 40:30:40ppm), each with 36 pens of 10 birds. All birds except for treatment 9 in experiment #1 were orally gavaged with 1x, 4x and 16x recommended dose of coccidiosis vaccine on d0, d7 and d14, respectively. Data were subjected to one-way and/or three-way ANOVA, and means were separated by Fisher's protected LSD test with significance at p ≤ 0.05. In experiment #1, factorial analysis revealed the main effects of TSAA level and TM, but not Met source. High TSAA level improved body weight and cumulative feed intake at 14, 20, and 27d. MMHAC improved body weight at 14, and 27d; feed intake at 14, 20, and 27d; and cumulative FCR at 27d vs. sulfates. One-way ANOVA analysis showed that birds fed MMHAC and high levels of TSAA regardless of Met source had similar body weight as unchallenged birds on d27. In experiment #2, MMHAC improved body weight and cumulative FCR, and reduced jejunal IL-17A gene expression on d28. In summary, in broilers subjected to Eimeria challenge, supplementation of the reduced levels of bis-chelated trace minerals MMHAC improved growth performance compared to high levels of ITM (sulfates or TBCC), which might partially result from better immune response, high levels of TSAA improved growth performance, Met source had no effect. Supplementation of both bis-chelated trace minerals MMHAC and high levels of TSAA could overcome the growth performance challenge issue due to coccidiosis.

Maternal supplementation of different trace mineral sources on broiler breeder production and progeny growth and gut health

Trace mineral minerals Zn, Cu, and Mn play important roles in breeder production and progeny performance. The objective of this study was to determine maternal supplementation of trace mineral minerals on breeder production and progeny growth and development. A total of 540 broiler breeders, Cobb 500 (Slow feathering; 0–66 weeks old) were assigned to one of three treatment groups with the same basal diet and three different supplemental trace minerals: ITM–inorganic trace minerals in sulfates: 100, 16, and 100 ppm of Zn, Cu, and Mn respectively; MMHAC -mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate: 50, 8, and 50 ppm of bis-chelated MINTREX®Zn, Cu and Mn (Novus International, Inc.), and TMAAC - trace minerals amino acid complex: 50, 8, and 50 ppm of Zn, Cu, and Mn. At 28 weeks of age, eggs from breeder treatments were hatched for progeny trial, 10 pens with 6 males and 6 female birds per pen were fed a common diet with ITM for 45 days. Breeder production, egg quality, progeny growth performance, mRNA expression of gut health associated genes in breeder and progeny chicks were measured. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA; means were separated by Fisher’s protected LSD test. A p-Value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically different and 0.1 was considered numerical trend. Breeders on ITM treatment had higher (p &lt; 0.05) body weight (BW), weight gain and lower (p &lt; 0.05) feed conversion ratio (FCR) from 0 to 10 weeks, when compared to birds fed MMHAC. MMHAC significantly improved egg mass by 3 g (p &lt; 0.05) and FCR by 34 points (0.05 &lt; p &lt; 0.1) throughout the reproductive period (26–66 weeks) in comparison to ITM. MMHAC improved (p &lt; 0.01) egg yolk color versus (vs.) ITM and TMAAC in all periods, except 28 weeks, increased (p &lt; 0.01) eggshell thickness and resistance vs. TMAAC at 58 weeks, and reduced (p &lt; 0.05) jejunal NF-κB gene expression vs. TMAAC at 24 weeks. There was a significant reduction in tibial dry matter weight, Seedor index and resistance for the breeders that received MMHAC and/or TMAAC when compared to ITM at 18 weeks. Lower seedor index but numerically wider tibial circumference was seen in hens fed MMHAC at 24 weeks, and wider tibial circumference but lower tibial resistance in hens fed TMAAC at 66 weeks. Maternal supplementation of MMHAC in breeder hens increased (p &lt; 0.0001) BW vs. ITM and TMAAC at hatching, reduced (p &lt; 0.05) feed intake vs. ITM at d14 and d28, and improved (p &lt; 0.01) FCR and performance index vs. TMAAC at d28, reduced (p &lt; 0.01) NF-κB gene expression and increased (p &lt; 0.05) A20 gene expression vs. TMAAC on d0 and vs. ITM on d14, reduced (p &lt; 0.05) TLR2 gene expression vs. ITM on d0 and vs. TMAAC on d14, increased (p &lt; 0.05) MUC2 gene expression vs. both ITM and TMAAC on d45 in progeny jejunum. Overall, these results suggest that supplementation with lower levels of MHA-chelated trace minerals improved breeder production and egg quality and reduced breeder jejunal inflammation while maintaining tibial development in comparison to those receiving higher inorganic mineral supplementation, and it also carried over the benefits to progeny with better growth performance, less jejunal inflammation and better innate immune response and gut barrier function in comparison to ITM and/or TMAAC.

Maternal stevioside supplementation improves intestinal immune function of chicken offspring potentially via modulating gut microbiota and down-regulating the promoter methylation level of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1)

The intestinal immune function of chickens is limited during the early growing stage. Maternal nutritional intervention has been suggested to affect the innate immunity of offspring. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of maternal stevioside supplementation on the intestinal immune function of chicken offspring. A total of 120 Jinmao yellow-feathered breeder hens were fed a basal diet or a diet supplemented with 250 mg/kg stevioside for 5 weeks. During the last week, 200 breeding eggs from each group were collected for incubation. After hatching, 80 male offspring (40 chickens from each group) were randomly selected and fed the same basal diet for 28 d. In addition, 90 well-shaped fertile eggs of non-treated breeder hens were incubated for the in ovo injection experiment. Steviol dissolved in 20% glycerol was injected at 7 d of incubation. The results showed that maternal stevioside supplementation could improve embryonic development, jejunal integrity and proliferation in the jejunal crypt (P < 0.05). Maternal stevioside supplementation could also increase the innate transcription levels of cytokines and endotoxin tolerance-related factors in the jejunum of chicken offspring (P < 0.05). At 28 d of age, the offspring following maternal stevioside supplementation exhibited higher jejunal secretory immunoglobulin A and serum interferons levels (P < 0.05). A higher abundance of Lactobacillales induced by maternal stevioside supplementation was positively correlated with intestinal immune-related factors (P < 0.05). The in ovo injection with steviol did not alter either embryonic development or intestinal immune function of hatching chickens (P > 0.05). Furthermore, maternal stevioside supplementation could induce hypo-methylation on the promoter region of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1). In conclusion, maternal stevioside supplementation could improve the intestinal immune function of chicken offspring potentially via modulating the gut microbiota and down-regulating the promoter methylation level of SOCS1.

A perspective review on the effect of different forms of zinc on poultry production of poultry with special reference to the hazardous effects of misuse

Zinc (Zn) is a unique micro-mineral because it is an essential component in many enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, carbonic anhydrase, and alkaline phosphatase, as well as being important for regulation of proteins and lipids metabolism, and sex hormones. This mineral is applied in poultry production in three forms; inorganic, organic, and nanoparticle form. The nano-form of Zn is preferable in application to other conventional forms with regard to absorption, bioavailability, and efficacy. Broilers fed on diets supplemented with Zn showed improvement of growth performance, carcass meat yield, and meat quality. In addition, Zn plays an important role in enhancing of both cellular and humeral immune responses, beside its antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. In laying hens, dietary addition of Zn improves the eggshell quality and the quantity of eggs. Moreover, Zn has a vital role in breeders in terms of improving the egg production, fertility, hatchability, embryonic development, and availability of the hatched chicks. Therefore, this review article is focused on the effects of using Zn on the performance and immunity of poultry, as well as its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties with special reference to the hazardous effects of the misusing of this mineral.

Intranasal curcumin and sodium butyrate modulates airway inflammation and fibrosis via HDAC inhibition in allergic asthma

Asthma being an inflammatory disease of the airways lead to structural alterations in lungs which often results in the severity of the disease. Curcumin, diferuloylmethane, is well known for its medicinal properties but its anti-inflammatory potential via Histone deacetylase inhibition (HDACi) has not been revealed yet. Therefore, we have explored here, anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic potential of intranasal curcumin via HDAC inhibition and compared its potential with Sodium butyrate (SoB), a known histone deacetylase inhibitor of Class I and II series. Anti-inflammatory potential of SoB, has been investigated in cancer but not been studied in asthma before.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In present study, ovalbumin (OVA) was used to sensitize Balb/c mice and later exposed to (1%) OVA aerosol. Curcumin (5 mg/kg) and Sodium butyrate (50 mg/kg) was administered through intranasal route an hour before OVA aerosol challenge. Efficacies of SoB and Curcumin as HDAC inhibitors were evaluated in terms of different inflammatory parameters like, total inflammatory cell count, reactive oxygen species (ROS), histamine release, nitric oxide and serum IgE levels. Inflammatory cell recruitment was analyzed by H&E staining and structural alterations were revealed by Masson's Trichrome staining of lung sections.

RESULTS

Enhanced Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) activities were observed in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of asthmatic mice by gelatin zymography which was inhibited in both treatment groups. Protein expressions of MMP-9, HDAC 1, H3acK9 and NF-kB p65 were modulated in intranasal curcumin and SoB pretreatment groups.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report where intranasal curcumin inhibited asthma severity via affecting HDAC 1 (H3acK9) leading to NF-kB suppression in mouse model of allergic asthma.

Effects of zinc dosage and particle size on gut morphology, tight junctions and TNF-α expression in broiler breeder hens

This study was performed to evaluate the effects of different amounts and particle size of zinc oxide (ZnO) on villus height (VH), villus width (VW), crypt depth (CD) and VH to CD ratio (VH: CD), and expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occludin (OC) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in broiler breeders. A total of 350 (Ross 308) broiler breeder hens of 54 weeks randomly assigned to seven treatments, included control basal diet (C) without added Zn, C+ 100, and 130 mg Zn per kg of diet from Large (L) (100-1000 nm) and Small (S) (<100 nm) particle size ZnO (LZnO100 and 130; SZnO100 and 130), C and SZnO100 challenged with lipopolysaccharide (C+LPS and SZnO100+LPS). Each diet was fed to five replicates consisting of ten birds each. The middle part of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum was used for morphological assessments. To assess the gene expression of ZO-1, OC and TNF-α in the jejunum samples were excised. Results showed that the supplementing 130 ppm SZnO increased VH:CD in the duodenum (p < 0.05). VW in the duodenum and all the evaluated morphometric indices in jejunum and ileum were not affected by the dietary treatment (p > 0.05). ZO-1 mRNA abundance in C+LPS group compared to SZnO100+LPS group was significantly decreased and increased by LPS and SZnO100 respectively. The SZnO-100 increased OC gene expression in compare to C+LPS group. The expression of TNF-α in C+LPS treatment was higher than other groups (p < 0.05). The lowest and the highest litter moisture and foot-pad dermatitis (FPD) were observed in LZnO-130 and C treatments respectively (p < 0.05). Improving the physical properties of ZnO affect on VH:CD. Broiler breeder diet with ZnO enhance ZO-1, OC and mitigate TNF-α gene expression in jejunum maintenance of gut health in broiler breeders.

Strategies of inorganic and organic trace mineral supplementation in gestating hyperprolific sow diets: effects on the offspring performance and fetal programming

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of trace mineral nutrition on sow performance, mineral content, and intestinal gene expression of neonate piglets when inorganic mineral sources (ITM) were partially replaced by their organic mineral (OTM) counterparts. At 35 d postmating, under commercial conditions, a total of 240 hyperprolific multiparous sows were allocated into three experimental diets: 1) ITM: with Zn, Cu, and Mn at 80, 15, and 60 mg/kg, respectively; 2) partial replacement trace mineral source (Replace): with a 30 % replacement of ITM by OTM, resulting in ITM + OTM supplementation of Zn (56 + 24 mg/kg), Cu (10.5 + 4.5 mg/kg), and Mn (42 + 18 mg/kg); and 3) Reduce and replace mineral source (R&R): reducing a 50% of the ITM source of Zn (40 + 24 mg/kg), Cu (7.5 + 4.5 mg/kg), and Mn (30 + 18 mg/kg). At farrowing, 40 piglets were selected, based on birth weight (light: <800 g, and average: >1,200 g), for sampling. Since the present study aimed to reflect results under commercial conditions, it was difficult to get an equal parity number between the experimental diets. Overall, no differences between experimental diets on sow reproductive performance were observed. Light piglets had a lower mineral content (P < 0.05) and a downregulation of several genes (P < 0.10) involved in physiological functions compared with their average littermates. Neonate piglets born from Replace sows had an upregulation of genes involved in functions like immunity and gut barrier, compared with those born from ITM sows (P < 0.10), particularly in light piglets. In conclusion, the partial replacement of ITM by their OTM counterparts represents an alternative to the totally inorganic supplementation with improvements on neonate piglet gene expression, particularly in the smallest piglets of the litter. The lower trace mineral storage together with the greater downregulation of gut health genes exposed the immaturity and vulnerability of small piglets.

Zinc hydroxychloride supplementation improves tibia bone development and intestinal health of broiler chickens

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of zinc (Zn), as a combination of oxide (ZnO) and sulfate (ZnSO₄), compared with incremental levels of zinc hydroxychloride (ZH) on tibia traits, intestinal integrity, expression of selected jejunal genes, cecal short chain fatty acids and microbial composition in broilers. Day-old male Ross 308 chicks (n = 784) were randomly allocated to seven dietary treatments, each replicated seven times with 16 chicks per replication. The dietary treatments included a negative control diet (NC) with no supplemental Zn, a positive control (PC) with 100 mg/kg supplemental Zn from an ionic bound source combination (50 mg/kg ZnO + 50 mg/kg ZnSO₄), and the NC diet supplemented with one of 20, 40, 60, 80, or 100 mg/kg Zn as ZH. The diets were fed over starter (1–14 d) and grower (14–35 d) phases, with tissue and digesta samples collected from 3 birds per replicate on days 14 and 35. The results showed that dietary Zn level had a significant effect on tibia breaking strength on d 35 (P < 0.05), and tibia Zn concentration both on d 14 and d 35 (P < 0.01). Dietary Zn levels linearly (P < 0.01) increased cecal lactic acid production, increased Lactobacillus, and decreased Bacillus and total bacteria counts (P < 0.05). Inclusion of 80 and 100 mg/kg Zn as ZH tended to upregulate the expression of claudin-1 (P = 0.088) and tight junction protein-1 (P = 0.086). The results obtained in this study suggest that a non-Zn supplemented diet can negatively influence tibia development and gut microbiota composition in broiler chickens. Higher supplemental Zn in the diet alters cecal microbiota population in favor of Lactobacillus and can decrease the total bacterial load. Supplemental Zn level in the feed have the potential to manipulate the jejunal gut integrity at a molecular level.

Effect of maternal zinc deficiency on offspring health: The epigenetic impact

BACKGROUND

Zinc deficiency is associated with adverse effects on maternal health and pregnancy outcomes. These consequences have been reported over the years from zinc supplementation trials and observational studies whereby outcomes of maternal, foetal and infant health were measured. Owing to the importance of zinc in the functions of epigenetic enzymes, pre-clinical studies have shown that its deficiency could disrupt biological activities that involve epigenetic mechanisms in offspring. Thus, this review assessed the link between epigenetics and the effects of maternal zinc deficiency on the offspring's health in animal studies.

METHODS

Research articles were retrieved without date restriction from PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases, as well as reference lists of relevant articles. The search terms used were "zinc deficiency", "maternal zinc deficiency", "epigenetics", and "offspring." Six studies met the eligibility criteria and were reviewed.

RESULTS

All the eligible studies reported maternal zinc deficiency and observed changes in epigenetic markers on the progeny during prenatal and postnatal stages of development. The main epigenetic markers reported were global and gene specific methylation and/ or acetylation. The epigenetic changes led to mortality, disruption in development, and risk of later life diseases.

CONCLUSION

Maternal zinc deficiency is associated with epigenetic modifications in offspring, which induce pathologies and increase the risk of later life diseases. More research and insight into the epigenetic mechanisms could spring up new approaches to combat the associated disease conditions.

Relationships of the Trace Elements Zinc and Magnesium With Diabetic Nephropathy-Associated Renal Functional Damage in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Zinc (Zn) and magnesium (Mg) are essential trace elements in humans. Their deficiency may be associated with inflammation and oxidative stress (OS) in patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN), but the mechanisms involved have not been fully characterized. We aimed to investigate the relationships between circulating concentrations of Zn and Mg and pro-inflammatory factors with DN-associated renal functional damage in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). To this end, we studied 20 healthy people, 24 patients with T2DM, and 59 patients with T2DM and T2DN. Serum and urine Zn and Mg concentrations were measured using the 2-(5-nitro-2-pyridylazo)-5-(N-propyl-N-sulfopropylamine) phenol (nitro-PAPS) chromogenic method and the xylidyl blue method, respectively, and the circulating concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)] were measured using flow cytometry. The serum concentrations of Zn and Mg were significantly lower in patients with T2DM and DN than in healthy controls. Serum Zn, urine Zn, and urine Mg concentrations decreased, while those of IL-6 and IL-8 increased with the progression of DN-associated renal functional damage. Furthermore, the serum and urine Zn concentrations negatively correlated with the serum IL-6 and IL-8 concentrations. Notably, the serum Zn concentration was found to independently protect against DN in patients with T2DM. Hypozincemia may be associated with the T2DN-associated renal functional damage because it exacerbates inflammation.

Protective Effect of Grape (Vitis vinifera) Seed Powder and Zinc-Glycine Complex on Growth Traits and Gut Health of Broilers Following Eimeria tenella Challenge

The current study was conducted to evaluate the impact of grape (Vitis vinifera) seed powder and zinc-glycine complex on growth parameters and cecal health of broiler following Eimeria tenella challenge. A total of 250 day-old male broilers (Hubbard) were distributed into five treatments as follows: I-negative control (basal diet); II-positive control (E. tenella challenge); III-group infected + Amprolium; IV-group coccidial infection + organic zinc (OZ) at 50 ppm + grape seed powder (GSP) at 2.5 g/kg; V-coccidial infection + organic zinc (OZ) at 50 ppm + grape seed powder (GSP) at 5.0 g/kg. From findings, a lower (p < 0.05) feed intake was noted for positive control compared to the other treatment groups. Conversely, higher (p < 0.05) body weight, dressing percentage, and feed conversion ratio were observed in infected + Amprolium, GSP2.5 + OZ50, and GSP5 + OZ50 treatments in comparison to the positive control. Moreover, the positive control showed severe cecal lesions of thickness and hemorrhages with mild congestion. The lesion scores decreased (p < 0.05) in GSP and OZ treated groups compared to the positive control. Significant (p < 0.05) lower oocyst per gram of feces was found in infected + Amprolium, GSP2.5 + OZ50, and GSP5 + OZ50 in comparison to positive control. Supplementing diet with GSP and OZ at both levels showed restoration of intense sloughing of villi. From the present findings, it can be concluded that OZ and grape seed powder positively ameliorated the growth performance, lesion score, and oocysts shedding in broilers infected with E. tenella.

Epigenetics in Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Epigenetic alterations in our genetic material can lead to heritable changes in the risk, clinical manifestations, course, and outcomes of many diseases. Understanding these epigenetic mechanisms can help in identifying potential therapeutic targets. This is especially important in necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), where prenatal as well as postnatal factors impact susceptibility to this devastating condition, but our therapeutic options are limited. Developmental factors affecting intestinal structure and function, our immune system, gut microbiome, and postnatal enteral nutrition are all thought to play a prominent role in this disease. In this manuscript, we have reviewed the epigenetic mechanisms involved in NEC. These include key developmental changes in DNA methylation in the immature intestine, the role of long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in maintaining intestinal barrier function, epigenetic influences of prenatal inflammation on immunological pathways in NEC pathogenesis such as Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) and epigenetic changes associated with enteral feeding causing upregulation of pro-inflammatory genes. We have assimilated research findings from our own laboratory with an extensive review of the literature utilizing key terms in multiple databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, and Science Direct.

Nutraceutical Strategies for Suppressing NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation: Pertinence to the Management of COVID-19 and Beyond

Inflammasomes are intracellular protein complexes that form in response to a variety of stress signals and that serve to catalyze the proteolytic conversion of pro-interleukin-1β and pro-interleukin-18 to active interleukin-1β and interleukin-18, central mediators of the inflammatory response; inflammasomes can also promote a type of cell death known as pyroptosis. The NLRP3 inflammasome has received the most study and plays an important pathogenic role in a vast range of pathologies associated with inflammation-including atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, the complications of diabetes, neurological and autoimmune disorders, dry macular degeneration, gout, and the cytokine storm phase of COVID-19. A consideration of the molecular biology underlying inflammasome priming and activation enables the prediction that a range of nutraceuticals may have clinical potential for suppressing inflammasome activity-antioxidants including phycocyanobilin, phase 2 inducers, melatonin, and N-acetylcysteine, the AMPK activator berberine, glucosamine, zinc, and various nutraceuticals that support generation of hydrogen sulfide. Complex nutraceuticals or functional foods featuring a number of these agents may find utility in the prevention and control of a wide range of medical disorders.

Supplementation of vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids during the early posthatch period on intestinal morphology and gene expression differentiation in broilers

Early posthatch nutrition is important for gut health. Vitamin E (VE) and omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids can improve gut health through antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. The objective of this study was to identify the effects of VE, n-3 fatty acids, and combination of both during the starter phase (0–10 d) or grower phase (11–24 d) on intestinal morphology and expression of genes associated with gut health. A total of 210 Ross 708 broilers were randomly assigned into 7 treatments with 10 replicates of 3 birds each. The control group was fed a corn–soybean meal–basal diet during the entire study (0–58 d). Supplementation of VE (200 IU/kg), n-3 fatty acids (n-6/n-3 ratio of 3.2:1), and combination of both were fed during the starter phase (0–10 d) or grower phase (11–24 d). All of the broilers were harvested at 58 d of age. Villus height, crypt depth, villus width, distance between villi, and number of intraepithelial lymphocytes were obtained. Expression of 21 genes was measured using NanoString analysis. Expression of solute carrier family 15 member 1 (P = 0.01) associated with peptide transport and mucin 2 (P = 0.03) related with intestinal mucus barrier was increased in the broilers supplemented with n-3 fatty acids in the grower diet compared with the control. Expression of solute carrier family 7 member 1 associated with amino acid transport was decreased in the group supplemented with n-3 fatty acids during the starter phase compared with the group supplemented with n-3 fatty acids (P = 0.01) or VE and n-3 fatty acids during the grower phase (P = 0.03). These data suggest that VE and n-3 fatty acids supplemented during the grower phase have a positive effect on improving nutrient transport with n-3 fatty acids supplementation in the grower diet showing the most beneficial effect. These findings can be used in the development of nutritional management strategies to improve broiler growth performance and meat quality.

Effects of mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate in sow diets on epigenetic modification and growth of progeny

The study was conducted to determine the effects of mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate (MMHAC) partially replacing inorganic trace minerals in sow diets on epigenetic and transcriptional changes in the muscle and jejunum of progeny. The MMHAC is zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) chelated with methionine hydroxy analog (Zn-, Mn-, and Cu-methionine hydroxy analog chelate [MHAC]). On day 35 of gestation, 60 pregnant sows were allotted to two dietary treatments in a randomized completed block design using parity as a block: 1) ITM: inorganic trace minerals with zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄), manganese oxide (MnO), and copper sulfate (CuSO₄) and 2) CTM: 50% of ITM was replaced with MMHAC (MINTREX trace minerals, Novus International Inc., St Charles, MO). Gestation and lactation diets were formulated to meet or exceed NRC requirements. On days 1 and 18 of lactation, milk samples from 16 sows per treatment were collected to measure immunoglobulins (immunoglobulin G, immunoglobulin A, and immunoglobulin M) and micromineral concentrations. Two pigs per litter were selected to collect blood to measure the concentration of immunoglobulins in the serum, and then euthanized to collect jejunal mucosa, jejunum tissues, and longissimus muscle to measure global deoxyribonucleic acid methylation, histone acetylation, cytokines, and jejunal histomorphology at birth and day 18 of lactation. Data were analyzed using Proc MIXED of SAS. Supplementation of MMHAC tended to decrease (P = 0.059) body weight (BW) loss of sows during lactation and tended to increase (P = 0.098) piglet BW on day 18 of lactation. Supplementation of MMHAC increased (P < 0.05) global histone acetylation and tended to decrease myogenic regulatory factor 4 messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA; P = 0.068) and delta 4-desaturase sphingolipid1 (DEGS1) mRNA (P = 0.086) in longissimus muscle of piglets at birth. Supplementation of MMHAC decreased (P < 0.05) nuclear factor kappa B mRNA in the jejunum and DEGS1 mRNA in longissimus muscle and tended to decrease mucin-2 (MUC2) mRNA (P = 0.057) and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) mRNA (P = 0.057) in the jejunum of piglets on day 18 of lactation. There were, however, no changes in the amounts of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-8, TGF-β, MUC2, and myogenic factor 6 in the tissues by MMHAC. In conclusion, maternal supplementation of MMHAC could contribute to histone acetylation and programming in the fetus, which potentially regulates intestinal health and skeletal muscle development of piglets at birth and weaning, possibly leading to enhanced growth of their piglets.

Epigenetic signatures underlying inflammation: an interplay of nutrition, physical activity, metabolic diseases, and environmental factors for personalized nutrition

Aim and objective

Emerging translational evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations (DNA methylation, miRNA expression, and histone modifications) occur after external stimuli and may contribute to exacerbated inflammation and the risk of suffering several diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurological disorders. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the harmful effects of high-fat/high-sugar diets, micronutrient deficiencies (folate, manganese, and carotenoids), obesity and associated complications, bacterial/viral infections, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, sleep deprivation, chronic stress, air pollution, and chemical exposure on inflammation through epigenetic mechanisms. Additionally, the epigenetic phenomena underlying the anti-inflammatory potential of caloric restriction, n-3 PUFA, Mediterranean diet, vitamin D, zinc, polyphenols (i.e., resveratrol, gallic acid, epicatechin, luteolin, curcumin), and the role of systematic exercise are discussed.

Methods

Original and review articles encompassing epigenetics and inflammation were screened from major databases (including PubMed, Medline, Science Direct, Scopus, etc.) and analyzed for the writing of the review paper.

Conclusion

Although caution should be exercised, research on epigenetic mechanisms is contributing to understand pathological processes involving inflammatory responses, the prediction of disease risk based on the epigenotype, as well as the putative design of therapeutic interventions targeting the epigenome.

Zinc deficiency leads to reduced interleukin-2 production by active gene silencing due to enhanced CREMα expression in T cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The micronutrient zinc is essential for proper immune function. Consequently, zinc deficiency leads to impaired immune function, as seen in decreased secretion of interleukin (IL)-2 by T cells. Although this association has been known since the late 1980s, the underlying molecular mechanisms are still unknown. Zinc deficiency and reduced IL-2 levels are especially found in the elderly, which in turn are prone to chronic diseases. Here, we describe a new molecular link between zinc deficiency and reduced IL-2 expression in T cells.

METHODS

The effects of zinc deficiency were first investigated in vitro in the human T cell lines Jurkat and Hut-78 and complemented by in vivo data from zinc-supplemented pigs. A short- and long-term model for zinc deficiency was established. Zinc levels were detected by flow cytometry and expression profiles were investigated on the mRNA and protein level.

RESULTS

The expression of the transcription factor cAMP-responsive-element modulator α (CREMα) is increased during zinc deficiency in vitro, due to increased protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity, resulting in decreased IL-2 production. Additionally, zinc supplementation in vivo reduced CREMα levels causing increased IL-2 expression. On epigenetic levels increased CREMα binding to the IL-2 promoter is mediated by histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1). The HDAC1 activity is inhibited by zinc. Moreover, deacetylation of the activating histone mark H3K9 was increased under zinc deficiency, resulting in reduced IL-2 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

With the transcription factor CREMα a molecular link was uncovered, connecting zinc deficiency with reduced IL-2 production due to enhanced PP2A and HDAC1 activity.

The impact of exogenous dietary nucleotides in ameliorating Clostridium perfringens infection and improving intestinal barriers gene expression in broiler chicken

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Nucleotides are an integral part of the genetic information in each cell.

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Nucleotides are naturally present in all feeds of animal and vegetable origin but lower concentrations.

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Dietary nucleotides improve the intestinal barrier function and intestinal histomorphology which positively reflected on the growth performance of C.perfringens infected chickens.

The current study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of dietary nucleotides-supplementation on broiler chickens to alleviate the intestinal Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) levels and its adverse effect on gut and growth performance parameters. In this study, a total of 270 one-day-old mixed broiler chicks (Cobb 500) were randomly divided into six treatment groups with three replicates of 15 chicks/ replicate. Treatment 1 (CX), a negative control group was fed corn-soybean basal diet without added nucleotides. Treatment 2 (CN 0.05) and treatment 3 (CN 0.1), consisted of chicks were fed the basal diet with the addition of nucleotides on top at two levels (0.05 and 0.1%) respectively. Treatment 4 (PX), treatment 5 (PN 0.05), and treatment 6 (PN 0.1) consisted of chicks that were challenged with C. perfringens inoculum (~4 × 10⁸ CFU/ml) on day 14, 15, 16 and 17of the experiment and were fed diets similar to treatments 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The trial continued for 35 days. At the end of the experiment, the intestinal C. perfringens counts, microscopic lesion scores, intestinal histomorphology, intestinal barriers (occludin and mucin mRNA expression) and growth parameters were determined. The results showed that the pathogen challenge significantly (P˂0.05) increased both C. perfringens levels and intestinal lesion scores. Which adversely affects intestinal barriers and intestinal histomorphology resulting in a significant decrease (P˂0.05) in body weight gain (BWG) with an increase in feed conversion ratio (FCR). Whereas, nucleotides-supplementation, at 0.1%, significantly decreased both C. perfringens levels and intestinal lesion scores, and significantly improved intestinal barriers and intestinal histomorphology which consequently resulted in improved growth performance parameters to be nearly the same as that of the control un-supplemented group. In conclusion, nucleotides markedly ameliorated the negative effects of C. perfringens challenge by improving the intestinal barrier function and intestinal histomorphology which positively reflected on the growth performance of challenged birds.

Effects of the Dietary Probiotic, Enterococcus faecium NCIMB11181, on the Intestinal Barrier and System Immune Status in Escherichia coli O78-Challenged Broiler Chickens

The effects of Enterococcus faecium on growth, intestinal barrier function, and immune response in Escherichia coli O78-challenged broiler chickens were investigated. Three hundred eight 1-day-old Ross male chickens were randomly assigned into three treatment groups: negative control (C), E. coli O78-infected positive (EP), and E. coli O78-infected with 200 mg/kg E. faecium dietary supplementation (EF). E. faecium significantly increased the body weight on day 10 (P < 0.05) and day 15. Furthermore, these birds had a greater average daily gain compared with the other groups during days 1–10 (P < 0.05). The death rate of the EF chickens dramatically declined. E. faecium supplementation improved the jejunal villus height and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth (P < 0.05) 3 and 7 days post-infection. The mRNA expression of claudin-1 significantly increased by E. faecium (P < 0.05) 3 and 7 days post-infection, and Mucin2 was markedly enhanced (P < 0.05) 3 days post-infection. E. faecium upregulated the mRNA expression of PPAR-γ and IL-10 (P < 0.05) and downregulated that of NF-κB, TLR4, and IL-1β (P < 0.05) in the spleen 3 and 7 days post-infection. Lipopolysaccharide stimulation index was markedly enhanced in the EF group (P < 0.05) 3 days post-infection. The increased liver E. coli number caused by the E. coli O78 challenge was significantly reversed by E. faecium (P < 0.05). E. faecium improved growth and reduced the death rate by regulating the immune response and maintaining the intestinal integrity in E. coli O78-challenged broiler chickens.

Influence of Dietary Zinc, Copper, and Manganese on the Intestinal Health of Broilers Under Eimeria Challenge

The incidence of enteric infections in broiler chickens may increase worldwide due to mounting pressure to limit the use of sub-therapeutic antibiotics and ionophores for coccidia suppression/prevention in the diets of broilers. For this reason, we need expand our knowledge on the role that micro-minerals have in modulating the intestinal physiology, immunology, and microbiology of broiler chickens. There are issues associated with the use of high doses of some micro-minerals in the diets of animals, such as environmental contamination, bacterial resistance, and gizzard erosion. Therefore, there is a need to maximize the absorption of these minerals by the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of birds when intestinal function may be compromised. Zinc is an essential micromineral required for growth, and influences intestinal development and/or regeneration during and after enteric disease. Two studies were conducted by our lab to determine the effects of Zn source in broilers under coccidia and Clostridium perfringens challenge. In the first study, Zn proteinate had beneficial effects on the performance of chickens challenged with coccidia plus C. perfringens by enhancing intestinal integrity and partially attenuating the inflammatory response. In the second study, Zn proteinate lowered the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and modulated the ileal microbiota. Additionally, the poultry industry has used prophylactic concentrations of dietary Cu for its ability to improve feed conversion for a long time. Copper absorption occurs mainly in the duodenum of chickens and, therefore, injuries to the intestinal epithelium of duodenum would impair Cu absorption and decrease its tissue concentration. Although there is a lack of studies relating Mn supplementation and its different sources on the immune response against coccidiosis in poultry, it is likely that Mn is beneficial during enteric challenges due to its role in the production of mucopolysaccharides. Therefore, the proper evaluation of the role of minerals on mitigating the negative impact of coccidiosis in broilers must consider their properties in modulating the physiology, immunology, and the intestinal microbiota of the host during health and disease situation events.

Epigenetics, Maternal Diet and Metabolic Programming

Background:

The maternal environment influences embryonic and fetal life. Nutritional deficits or excesses alter the trajectory of fetus/offspring’s development. The concept of “developmental programming” and “developmental origins of health and disease” consists of the idea that maternal diet may remodel the genome and lead to epigenetic changes. These changes are induced during early life, permanently altering the phenotype in the posterior adult stage, favoring the development of metabolic diseases such as obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, hyperinsulinemia, and metabolic syndrome. In this review, it is aimed to overview epigenetics, maternal diet and metabolic programming factors and determine which of these might affect future generations.

Scope and Approach:

Nutrients interfere with the epigenome by influencing the supply and use of methyl groups through DNA transmethylation and demethylation mechanisms. They also influence the remodeling of chromatin and arginine or lysine residues at the N-terminal tails of histone, thus altering miRNA expression. Fats, proteins, B vitamins and folates act as important cofactors in methylation processes. The metabolism of carbon in the methyl groups of choline, folic acid and methionine to S-Adenosyl Methionine (SAM), acts as methyl donors to methyl DNA, RNA, and proteins. B-complex vitamins are important since they act as coenzymes during this process.

Key Findings and Conclusion:

Nutrients, during pregnancy, potentially influence susceptibility to diseases in adulthood. Additionally, the deficit or excess of nutrients alter the epigenetic machinery, affecting genes and influencing the genome of the offspring and therefore, predisposing the development of chronic diseases in adults.

The Role of Zinc in Poultry Breeder and Hen Nutrition: an Update

Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace mineral in breeder hen diets and functions in diverse physiological processes, including reproduction, immunity, antioxidant ability, and epigenetic processes. In this paper, five main aspects of Zn nutrition in poultry breeder birds and hens, including semen quality, molting, egg production and egg quality, hatchability and embryonic development, and offspring performance, are reviewed. Zn deficiency in poultry breeder birds led to lower semen quality (reducing around 10% sperm motility) and egg production (lowering 3-10 g/day/bird egg mass) as well as poor offspring development and growth performance (increasing 9-10% weak chick ratio and 10% mortality of progeny). Adequate maternal or higher Zn supplementation was adopted not only to induce molting with a greater postmolt performance (rising 4-7% laying rate) but also to enhance progeny immune response and antioxidant ability via epigenetic mechanisms. Therefore, it is necessary to reevaluate the optimal Zn requirement for egg production as well as the embryonic development and offspring chick performance of breeder hens. In the last 10 years, greater attention has been focused on the effectiveness of organic Zn for improving the reproductive performance of breeders and progeny viability and immune status. In fact, organic Zn sources are not always beneficial to the above aspects. So far, it has been very important to know the exact mechanisms of greater bioavailability and the epigenetic role of organic Zn sources in the augmentation of immune status and antioxidant abilities in poultry breeder birds and offspring. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of these key points will not only aid in maintaining the beneficial effects of Zn nutrition for breeders and their progeny under stable conditions but will also support birds under stressful conditions such as disease as well as provide a better understanding of the integrated nutrition of breeder-offspring.

Can dietary zinc diminish the impact of necrotic enteritis on growth performance of broiler chickens by modulating the intestinal immune-system and microbiota?

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of inorganic and proteinate Zn in chickens challenged with coccidia and Clostridium perfringens. A 3 × 2 factorial design was used, with 3 dietary formulations (0 or 90 mg/kg supplemental Zn from ZnSO4 or Zn proteinate, with or without challenge). On day 14, challenged birds were orally gavaged with approx. 5,000 Eimeria maxima sporulated oocysts, and on day 19 to 21 with C. perfringens (108 CFU/D). Productive performance was assessed at day 21 and 28. At 21 D, necrotic enteritis (NE) lesion severity, intestinal permeability, gene expression, and ileal and cecal microbiota were evaluated. An interaction of Zn source by challenge was observed for lesion score and mortality, wherein Zn supplementation decreased the degree of NE lesions (P = 0.02) and mortality due to NE (P = 0.008). In the jejunum, an interaction of Zn source by challenge was observed for the expression of IL-8 (P = 0.001) and INF-γ (P = 0.03), wherein the NE challenge upregulated their expression, but not in the Zn proteinate supplemented birds. Zn proteinate supplementation downregulated iNOS vs. ZnSO4 supplemented birds (P = 0.0003), and supplemental Zn downregulated TLR-2 (P = 0.05) and ZnT5 (P = 0.04), regardless of the source. In the ileal microbiota, Zn proteinate supplementation decreased the frequency of Lactobacillus (P = 0.01), and the challenge increased Enterobacteriaceae (P = 0.01). Dietary Zn decreased NE lesion severity and mortality due to NE; Zn proteinate led to lower expression of IL-8 and INF-γ in challenged birds which may be an indicative of a lessened inflammatory response.

Zinc source modulates intestinal inflammation and intestinal integrity of broiler chickens challenged with coccidia and Clostridium perfringens

Two dietary sources of zinc (ZnSO4 or organic Zn) were tested in chickens challenged with coccidiosis (Co) or coccidiosis plus Clostridium perfringens (CoCPF). On day 14, the chickens were orally gavaged with ∼5,000 Eimeria maxima sporulated oocysts. On day 19, 20, and 21 chickens challenged with C. perfringens were given a broth culture containing 108 cfu of this bacterium. Productive performance parameters were determined at d 14, 21, and 28. On day 21, necrotic enteritis (NE) lesions were scored, and intestinal permeability was evaluated. Jejunum and cecal tonsils were collected for morphology and gene expression analysis. On day 21, organic Zn improved BW gain by 18.6% (P = 0.07), and FCR by 12% (P = 0.09) in CoCPF challenged chickens vs. birds fed ZnSO4. From 1 to 28, organic Zn increased BW gain (P = 0.02), and improved FCR (P = 0.03) vs. birds fed ZnSO4. At 21 d, NE lesions were only observed in CoCPF birds (P < 0.001), and mortality due to NE was only observed when CoCPF birds were fed ZnSO4 (P = 0.001). Organic Zn fed birds had increased villus height in the jejunum (P = 0.005) and decreased intestinal permeability (P = 0.01) vs. ZnSO4. In the jejunum, organic Zn fed birds showed a downregulation of expression of IL-8 (P = 0.02), and upregulation of IL-10 (P = 0.05) in CoCPF birds vs. ZnSO4- CoCPF birds. As main effect, birds supplemented with organic Zn had higher mRNA expression of TLR-2 (P = 0.02) and IgA (P = 0.01). In the cecal tonsils, organic Zn fed birds showed upregulation of iNOS (P = 0.008) in CoCPF birds vs. ZnSO4-CoCPF birds. Organic Zn supplementation reduced intestinal permeability and attenuated intestinal inflammation of broilers co-challenged with coccidia and C. perfringens.

Maternal High Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Modifies Histone Binding and Expression of Oxtr in Offspring Hippocampus in a Sex-Specific Manner

Maternal obesity during pregnancy increases risk for neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Epigenetic deregulation associates with many neurodevelopmental disorders, and recent evidence indicates that maternal nutritional status can alter chromatin marks in the offspring brain. Thus, maternal obesity may disrupt epigenetic regulation of gene expression during offspring neurodevelopment. Using a C57BL/6 mouse model, we investigated whether maternal high fat diet (mHFD)-induced obesity alters the expression of genes previously implicated in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders within the Gestational Day 17.5 (GD 17.5) offspring hippocampus. We found significant two-fold upregulation of oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) mRNA in the hippocampus of male, but not female, GD 17.5 offspring from mHFD-induced obese dams (p < 0.05). To determine whether altered histone binding at the Oxtr gene promoter may underpin these transcriptional changes, we then performed chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Consistent with the Oxtr transcriptional changes, we observed increased binding of active histone mark H3K9Ac at the Oxtr transcriptional start site (TSS) in the hippocampus of mHFD male (p < 0.05), but not female, offspring. Together, these data indicate an increased vulnerability of male offspring to maternal obesity-induced changes in chromatin remodeling processes that regulate gene expression in the developing hippocampus, and contributes to our understanding of how early life nutrition affects the offspring brain epigenome.

Dietary l-arginine Supplementation Alleviates the Intestinal Injury and Modulates the Gut Microbiota in Broiler Chickens Challenged by Clostridium perfringens

Our previous reports suggested that Dietary l-arginine supplementation attenuated gut injury of broiler chickens infected with Clostridium perfringens by enhancing intestinal immune responses, absorption and barrier function, but its effect on the gut microbiome of broiler chickens remains unclear. This experiment aimed at evaluating the effects of Dietary l-arginine supplementation on the gut bacterial community composition and function of broiler chickens challenged with C. perfringens. In total, 105 1-day-old male Arbor Acres broiler chickens were assigned to three groups: Control (CTL), C. perfringens-challenged (CP), and C. perfringens-challenged and fed diet supplemented with 0.3% l-arginine (ARGCP) groups. The challenge led to macroscopic and histomorphological gut lesions, decreased villus height and increased the number of Observed species, Shannon, Chao1 and ACE indices of ileal microbiota, whereas l-arginine addition reversed these changes. Moreover, the three treatments harbored distinct microbial communities (ANOSIM, P < 0.05). At the genus level, 24 taxa (e.g., Nitrosomonas spp., Coxiella spp., Ruegeria spp., and Thauera spp.) were significantly more abundant in CP group than in CTL group (P < 0.05), whereas the levels of 23 genera of them were significantly decreased by l-arginine supplementation (P < 0.05). The abundances of only 3 genera were different between CTL and ARGCP groups (P < 0.05). At the species level, the challenge promoted the relative abundance of Nitrospira sp. enrichment culture clone M1-9, Bradyrhizobium elkanii, Nitrospira bacterium SG8-3, and Pseudomonas veronii, which was reversed by l-arginine supplementation (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the challenge decreased the levels of Lactobacillus gasseri (P < 0.05). Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities by PICRUSt showed that compared with CP group, ARGCP group had enriched pathways relating to membrane transport, replication and repair, translation and nucleotide metabolism and suppressed functions corresponding to amino acid and lipid metabolisms (P < 0.05). The relative abundances of KEGG pathways in l-arginine-fed broilers were almost equal to those of the controls. In conclusion, l-arginine alleviated the gut injury and normalized the ileal microbiota of C. perfringens-challenged chickens to resemble that of unchallenged controls in terms of microbial composition and functionality.

Sodium butyrate improved performance while modulating the cecal microbiota and regulating the expression of intestinal immune-related genes of broiler chickens

This study evaluated the effect of sodium butyrate (SB) on performance, expression of immune-related genes in the cecal tonsils, and cecal microbiota of broiler chickens when dietary energy and amino acids concentrations were reduced. Day-old male Ross 708 broiler chicks were fed dietary treatments in a 3 × 2 factorial design (8 pens per treatment) with 3 dietary formulations (control diet; reduction of 2.3% of amino acids and 60 kcal/kg; and reduction of 4.6% of amino acids and 120 kcal/kg) with or without the inclusion of 0.1% of SB. Feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BW gain), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded until 28 d of age. From 14 to 28 d, there was an interaction of nutrient density by SB (P = 0.003) wherein BW gain of birds fed SB was impaired less by the energy/amino acids reduction than unsupplemented birds. A similar result was obtained from 1 to 28 d (P = 0.004). No interaction (P < 0.05) between nutrient density by SB was observed for FCR. Nutritional density of the diets and SB modified the structure, composition, and predicted function of the cecal microbiota. The nutritionally reduced diet altered the imputed function performed by the microbiota and the SB supplementation reduced these variations, keeping the microbial function similar to that observed in chickens fed a control diet. The frequency of bacterial species presenting the butyryl-CoA: acetate CoA-transferase gene increased in the microbiota of chickens fed a nutritionally reduced diet without SB supplementation, and was not changed by nutrient density of the diet when supplemented with SB (interaction; P = 0.01). SB modulated the expression of immune related genes in the cecal tonsils; wherein SB upregulated the expression of A20 in broilers fed control diets (P < 0.05) and increased IL-6 expression (P < 0.05). These results show that SB had positive effects on the productive performance of broilers fed nutritionally reduced diets, partially by modulating the cecal microbiota and exerting immune-modulatory effects.

The beneficial effects of Zn on Akt-mediated insulin and cell survival signaling pathways in diabetes

Zinc is one of the essential trace elements and participates in numerous physiological processes. Abnormalities in zinc homeostasis often result in the pathogenesis of various chronic metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and its complications. Zinc has insulin-mimetic and anti-diabetic effects and deficiency has been shown to aggravate diabetes-induced oxidative stress and tissue injury in diabetic rodent models and human subjects with diabetes. Akt signaling pathway plays a central role in insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism and cell survival. Anti-diabetic effects of zinc are largely dependent on the activation of Akt signaling. Zn is also an inducer of metallothionein that plays important role in anti-oxidative stress and damage. However, the exact molecular mechanisms underlying zinc-induced activation of Akt signaling pathway remains to be elucidated. This review summarizes the recent advances in deciphering the possible mechanisms of zinc on Akt-mediated insulin and cell survival signaling pathways in diabetes conditions. Insights into the effects of zinc on epigenetic regulation and autophagy in diabetic nephropathy are also discussed in the latter part of this review.

Effects of Maternal Zinc Glycine on Mortality, Zinc Concentration, and Antioxidant Status in a Developing Embryo and 1-Day-Old Chick

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of maternal zinc glycine (Zn-Gly) supplementation as an alternative for zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄) on mortality, zinc (Zn) concentration, and antioxidant status in a developing embryo and 1-day-old chick. Six hundred 39-week-old broiler breeders were randomly assigned to 6 treatments, each treatment including 5 replicates with 20 birds each. Six treatments received a basal diet (control, 24 mg Zn/kg diet) or a basal diet supplemented with ZnSO₄ (80 mg Zn/kg) or Zn-Gly (20, 40, 60, or 80 mg Zn/kg), respectively. The experiment lasted for 8 weeks after a 4-week pre-experiment with a basal diet. At the last week, 100 eggs per replicate were randomly collected for incubation. Compared with the control treatment, Zn supplementation decreased (P < 0.05) embryo mortalities of the late stage and the whole period, increased (P < 0.05) liver Zn concentration in the embryo of d9, d19, and 1-day-old chick, and improved (P < 0.05) antioxidant status in the embryo of d19 and 1-day-old chick. Compared with the ZnSO₄ treatment, 80 mg Zn/kg Zn-Gly treatment significantly decreased (P < 0.05) the late stage embryo mortality and increased (P < 0.05) liver Zn concentration in the embryo of d9, d19, and 1-day-old chick. The 80 mg Zn/kg Zn-Gly treatment significantly increased (P < 0.05) copper-zinc superoxide dismutase activity in d19 embryo and 1-day-old chick, total superoxide dismutase activity in 1-day-old chick, and copper-zinc superoxide dismutase messenger RNA (mRNA) abundance of d9 embryo and 1-day-old chick than that in ZnSO₄ treatment. The liver metallothionein concentration of the developing embryo and 1-day-old chick and its mRNA abundance of d19 embryo were also significantly increased (P < 0.05) in the 80 mg Zn/kg Zn-Gly treatment in comparison with ZnSO₄ treatment. In conclusion, maternal Zn supplementation decreased embryo mortalities of the late stage and the whole period by increasing liver Zn concentration and antioxidant status in d19 embryo and 1-day-old chick, and 80 mg Zn/kg from Zn-Gly treatment was the optimum choice.

Mechanistic insights into the protective impact of zinc on sepsis

Sepsis, a systemic inflammation as a response to a bacterial infection, is a huge unmet medical need. Data accumulated over the last decade suggest that the nutritional status of patients as well as composition of their gut microbiome, are strongly linked with the risk to develop sepsis, the severity of the disease and prognosis. In particular, the essential micronutrient zinc is essential in the resistance against sepsis and has shown to be protective in animal models as well as in human patients. The potential mechanisms by which zinc protects in sepsis are discussed in this review paper: we will focus on the inflammatory response, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, immune response, oxidative stress and modulation of the microbiome. A full understanding of the mechanism of action of zinc may open new preventive and therapeutic interventions in sepsis.

Zinc as a Gatekeeper of Immune Function

After the discovery of zinc deficiency in the 1960s, it soon became clear that zinc is essential for the function of the immune system. Zinc ions are involved in regulating intracellular signaling pathways in innate and adaptive immune cells. Zinc homeostasis is largely controlled via the expression and action of zinc "importers" (ZIP 1-14), zinc "exporters" (ZnT 1-10), and zinc-binding proteins. Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of zinc have long been documented, however, underlying mechanisms are still not entirely clear. Here, we report molecular mechanisms underlying the development of a pro-inflammatory phenotype during zinc deficiency. Furthermore, we describe links between altered zinc homeostasis and disease development. Consequently, the benefits of zinc supplementation for a malfunctioning immune system become clear. This article will focus on underlying mechanisms responsible for the regulation of cellular signaling by alterations in zinc homeostasis. Effects of fast zinc flux, intermediate "zinc waves", and late homeostatic zinc signals will be discriminated. Description of zinc homeostasis-related effects on the activation of key signaling molecules, as well as on epigenetic modifications, are included to emphasize the role of zinc as a gatekeeper of immune function.

Mechanisms of Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis, is characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation due to a complex interaction of genetic determinants, disruption of mucosal barriers, aberrant inflammatory signals, loss of tolerance, and environmental triggers. Importantly, the incidence of pediatric IBD is rising, particularly in children younger than 10 years. In this review, we discuss the clinical presentation of these patients and highlight environmental exposures that may affect disease risk, particularly among people with a background genetic risk. With regard to both children and adults, we review advancements in understanding the intestinal epithelium, the mucosal immune system, and the resident microbiota, describing how dysfunction at any level can lead to diseases like IBD. We conclude with future directions for applying advances in IBD genetics to better understand pathogenesis and develop therapeutics targeting key pathogenic nodes.

Zinc Signals and Immunity

Zinc homeostasis is crucial for an adequate function of the immune system. Zinc deficiency as well as zinc excess result in severe disturbances in immune cell numbers and activities, which can result in increased susceptibility to infections and development of especially inflammatory diseases. This review focuses on the role of zinc in regulating intracellular signaling pathways in innate as well as adaptive immune cells. Main underlying molecular mechanisms and targets affected by altered zinc homeostasis, including kinases, caspases, phosphatases, and phosphodiesterases, will be highlighted in this article. In addition, the interplay of zinc homeostasis and the redox metabolism in affecting intracellular signaling will be emphasized. Key signaling pathways will be described in detail for the different cell types of the immune system. In this, effects of fast zinc flux, taking place within a few seconds to minutes will be distinguish from slower types of zinc signals, also designated as “zinc waves”, and late homeostatic zinc signals regarding prolonged changes in intracellular zinc.

Zinc in Infection and Inflammation

Micronutrient homeostasis is a key factor in maintaining a healthy immune system. Zinc is an essential micronutrient that is involved in the regulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses. The main cause of zinc deficiency is malnutrition. Zinc deficiency leads to cell-mediated immune dysfunctions among other manifestations. Consequently, such dysfunctions lead to a worse outcome in the response towards bacterial infection and sepsis. For instance, zinc is an essential component of the pathogen-eliminating signal transduction pathways leading to neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) formation, as well as inducing cell-mediated immunity over humoral immunity by regulating specific factors of differentiation. Additionally, zinc deficiency plays a role in inflammation, mainly elevating inflammatory response as well as damage to host tissue. Zinc is involved in the modulation of the proinflammatory response by targeting Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB), a transcription factor that is the master regulator of proinflammatory responses. It is also involved in controlling oxidative stress and regulating inflammatory cytokines. Zinc plays an intricate function during an immune response and its homeostasis is critical for sustaining proper immune function. This review will summarize the latest findings concerning the role of this micronutrient during the course of infections and inflammatory response and how the immune system modulates zinc depending on different stimuli.

Dietary Allium hookeri reduces inflammatory response and increases expression of intestinal tight junction proteins in LPS-induced young broiler chicken

We undertook a study to assess the effects of Allium hookeri (AH) root and fermented root on inflammation and intestinal integrity of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged broiler chickens. Birds were assigned to six groups (n = 25 birds/treatment) and fed with basal diets (CON) or basal diets supplemented with AH root or fermented root at two concentrations (1 or 5%). At 7 d of age, five groups (n= 125) in each dietary treatment were injected with LPS (1 mg/kg body weight), and the remaining 25 birds were injected with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as a negative control. LPS challenge significantly reduced average body weight gain at 24 h post-injection compared with PBS control. Fermented root supplementation increased average body weight gain by 1% compared with the LPS-challenged control. Serum α- 1-AGP levels, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor superfamily member 15 (TNFSF15), and LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-α factor (LITAF) transcript levels were significantly higher in the small intestine in LPS-injected chickens. However α-1-AGP levels were reduced by AH root or fermented root (1 and 5%) supplementation and IL-1β, IL-8, and LITAF were also down-regulated by root and fermented root (1 and 5%) supplementation. The reduced expression of tight junction proteins (junctional adhesion molecule 2 (JAM2) and occludin) and intestinal mucin 2 (MUC2) by LPS challenge was reversed by root or fermented root (1 and 5%) supplementation. These findings demonstrate that dietary AH root and fermented root influence antiinflammatory activity and tight junction protein expression in LPS-induced chickens.

Adverse effects of parental zinc deficiency on metal homeostasis and embryonic development in a zebrafish model

The high prevalence of zinc deficiency is a global public health concern, and suboptimal maternal zinc consumption has been associated with adverse effects ranging from impaired glucose tolerance to low birthweights. The mechanisms that contribute to altered development and poor health in zinc deficient offspring are not completely understood. To address this gap, we utilized the Danio rerio model and investigated the impact of dietary zinc deficiency on adults and their developing progeny. Zinc deficient adult fish were significantly smaller in size, and had decreases in learning and fitness. We hypothesized that parental zinc deficiency would have an impact on their offspring's mineral homeostasis and embryonic development. Results from mineral analysis showed that parental zinc deficiency caused their progeny to be zinc deficient. Furthermore, parental dietary zinc deficiency had adverse consequences for their offspring including a significant increase in mortality and decreased physical activity. Zinc deficient embryos had altered expression of genes that regulate metal homeostasis including several zinc transporters (ZnT8, ZnT9) and the metal-regulatory transcription factor 1 (MTF-1). Zinc deficiency was also associated with decreased expression of genes related to diabetes and pancreatic development in the embryo (Insa, Pax4, Pdx1). Decreased expression of DNA methyltransferases (Dnmt4, Dnmt6) was also found in zinc deficient offspring, which suggests that zinc deficiency in parents may cause altered epigenetic profiles for their progeny. These data should inform future studies regarding zinc deficiency and pregnancy and suggest that supplementation of zinc deficient mothers prior to pregnancy may be beneficial.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of zinc. Zinc-dependent NF-κB signaling

Zinc is a nutritionally fundamental trace element, essential to the structure and function of numerous macromolecules, including enzymes regulating cellular processes and cellular signaling pathways. The mineral modulates immune response and exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. Zinc retards oxidative processes on a long-term basis by inducing the expression of metallothioneins. These metal-binding cysteine-rich proteins are responsible for maintaining zinc-related cell homeostasis and act as potent electrophilic scavengers and cytoprotective agents. Furthermore, zinc increases the activation of antioxidant proteins and enzymes, such as glutathione and catalase. On the other hand, zinc exerts its antioxidant effect via two acute mechanisms, one of which is the stabilization of protein sulfhydryls against oxidation. The second mechanism consists in antagonizing transition metal-catalyzed reactions. Zinc can exchange redox active metals, such as copper and iron, in certain binding sites and attenuate cellular site-specific oxidative injury. Studies have demonstrated that physiological reconstitution of zinc restrains immune activation, whereas zinc deficiency, in the setting of severe infection, provokes a systemic increase in NF-κB activation. In vitro studies have shown that zinc decreases NF-κB activation and its target genes, such as TNF-α and IL-1β, and increases the gene expression of A20 and PPAR-α, the two zinc finger proteins with anti-inflammatory properties. Alternative NF-κB inhibitory mechanism is initiated by the inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase, whereas another presumed mechanism consists in inhibition of IκB kinase in response to infection by zinc ions that have been imported into cells by ZIP8.

Epigenetic Matters: The Link between Early Nutrition, Microbiome, and Long-term Health Development

Epigenetic modifications are among the most important mechanisms by which environmental factors can influence early cellular differentiation and create new phenotypic traits during pregnancy and within the neonatal period without altering the deoxyribonucleic acid sequence. A number of antenatal and postnatal factors, such as maternal and neonatal nutrition, pollutant exposure, and the composition of microbiota, contribute to the establishment of epigenetic changes that can not only modulate the individual adaptation to the environment but also have an influence on lifelong health and disease by modifying inflammatory molecular pathways and the immune response. Postnatal intestinal colonization, in turn determined by maternal flora, mode of delivery, early skin-to-skin contact and neonatal diet, leads to specific epigenetic signatures that can affect the barrier properties of gut mucosa and their protective role against later insults, thus potentially predisposing to the development of late-onset inflammatory diseases. The aim of this review is to outline the epigenetic mechanisms of programming and development acting within early-life stages and to examine in detail the role of maternal and neonatal nutrition, microbiota composition, and other environmental factors in determining epigenetic changes and their short- and long-term effects.