Blood-brain barrier permeability study of ginger constituents

Intestinal 8 gingerol attenuates TBI-induced neuroinflammation by inhibiting microglia NLRP3 inflammasome activation in a PINK1/Parkin-dependent manner

BACKGROUND

traumatic brain injury (TBI) is irreversible brain damage, leading to inflammation and cognitive dysfunction. Microglia involved in the inflammatory response after TBI. The gut microbiota, known as the body's "second brain," regulates neurogenesis and immune responses, but its precise role in regulating TBI remains unclear.

PURPOSE

to investigate the effect of gut microbiota and metabolites disorder on TBI injury.

STUDY DESIGN

16SrRNA and metabolomics compared gut microbiota and metabolites in sham group and TBI group, then proved that the differential metabolite 8-gingerol (8G) alleviated the microglia neuroinflammatory response after TBI.

METHODS

fecal microbiota transplantation explored the role of dysbiosis in TBI. LC/MS detected the content of 8-gingerol in cecum, blood, and brain. HE, Nissl, Tunel staining and mNSS score evaluated brain injury. Western blot and immunofluorescence detected the expression of inflammasome-related proteins and mitophagy-related proteins in brain tissue and BV2 cells. RNA sequencing analyzed the molecular mechanism of 8-gingerol.

RESULT

rats transplanted with TBI feces had worse brain injury and neurological deficits than those with normal feces. 16SrRNA and metabolomics found that TBI caused dysbiosis and decreased 8-gingerol level, leading to severe neuroinflammation. Mechanistically, 8-gingerol inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome by promoting PINK1-Parkin mediated mitophagy in microglia. Inhibition of Parkin, through either small interfering RNA or the inhibitor 3MA reversed the inhibitory effect of 8-gingerol on NLRP3 by blocking mitophagy. BV2 cells transcriptome showed that 8-gingerol significantly increased the expression of autophagy factor Wipi1, and small interfering RNA of Wipi1 abolished the effect of 8-gingerol on promoting mitophagy and the inhibitory effect on NLRP3.

CONCLUSION

our findings shed light on the pivotal role of gut microbes in TBI, and identify 8 gingerol as an important anti-inflammatory compound during TBI.

Novel insights into dietary bioactive compounds and major depressive disorders: evidence from animal studies and future perspectives

Clinical depression, including major depressive disorder (MDD), is a chronic mental illness characterized by persistent sadness and indifference. Depression is associated with neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neuronal apoptosis in the brain, resulting in microglial overactivation, decreased neuronal and glial proliferation, monoamine depletion, structural abnormalities, and aberrant biochemical activity via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Recent studies have exhibited the role of dietary bioactive compounds in the mitigation of MDD progression. Here, in this narrative review, we reported the effects of commonly consumed bioactive compounds (curcumin, saffron, garlic, resveratrol, omega-3 fatty acids, ginger, blueberry, tea, and creatine) on MDD and MDD-related neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The evidence reviewed here is almost exclusively from animal studies and strongly suggest that these commonly consumed bioactive compounds have anti-MDD effects as shown in anti-depression-like behaviors, such as increased immobility, sucrose preference, and social interaction. Based on the literature/studies reviewed, the proposed molecular mechanisms include (i) the reduction of neuroinflammation activation and oxidative stress, (ii) the enhancement of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties, (iii) the reduction of monoamine oxidase-A production, and (iv) the elevation of brain-derived neurotropic factor and neurogenesis. In the future, dietary bioactive compounds on clinical randomized controlled trials are warranted to confirm the findings of preclinical efficacies using bioactive compounds in individuals with MDD.

Polypharmacology and Neuroprotective Effects of Gingerol in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative condition that results in brain shrinkage and the death of brain cells. The search for new treatment agents with many targets is now crucial due to the insufficient effectiveness, and adverse effects, including pharmacokinetic issues of traditional AD medications. Although phytochemicals have anti-disease characteristics and thus are widely used and accepted by people, researchers have also determined some of their most beneficial functions. Sesquiterpenes, volatile oils, and aromatic ketones (gingerols) are abundant in ginger. The most pharmacologically active components of ginger are considered to be gingerols. These gingerols are the compounds that impart spicy characteristics to the plant. Besides, gingerols readily undergo dehydration and produce another class of compounds, shogaols. These gingerols, shogaols, and other compounds, like zingerone, are mainly responsible for their distinctive aroma and pharmacological effects. This review aims to delineate the therapeutic potentials of gingerol in different AD models by assessing available literature reporting its effect on various cellular and molecular pathways. Although ginger is well recognized as a non-toxic nutraceutical, existing clinical research lacks robust evidence to support its efficacy in treating NDs, including AD. Clinical studies did not provide sufficient data that supports its use in treating various NDs including AD. Therefore, further research is essential to establish the safety and effectiveness of ginger and its constituents, ultimately paving the way for its development as a potential therapeutic agent for AD.

6-Gingerol Induced Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in Glioma Cells via MnSOD and ERK Phosphorylation Modulation

6-gingerol, a bioactive compound from ginger, has demonstrated promising anticancer properties across various cancer models by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting cell proliferation and invasion. In this study, we explore its mechanisms against glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), a notably aggressive and treatment-resistant brain tumor. We found that 6-gingerol crosses the blood-brain barrier more effectively than curcumin, enhancing its potential as a therapeutic agent for brain tumors. Our experiments show that 6-gingerol reduces cell proliferation and triggers apoptosis in GBM cell lines by disrupting cellular energy homeostasis. This process involves an increase in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, primarily due to the downregulation of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD). Additionally, 6-gingerol reduces ERK phosphorylation by inhibiting EGFR and RAF, leading to G1 phase cell cycle arrest. These findings indicate that 6-gingerol promotes cell death in GBM cells by modulating MnSOD and ROS levels and arresting the cell cycle through the ERFR-RAF-1/MEK/ERK signaling pathway, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent for GBM and setting the stage for future clinical research.

1-Dehydro-6-Gingerdione Exerts Anticancer Effects on MDA-MB-231 Cells and in the Xenograft Mouse Model by Promoting the Ferroptosis Pathway

Breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent malignancy among women, with millions of newly diagnosed cases emerging annually. Therefore, identifying novel pharmaceuticals for therapeutic purposes is imperative. Several natural compounds and their products have demonstrated potential in the treatment of cancer. This study examined the effects of the ginger derivative 1-dehydro-6-gingerdione (1-D-6-G) on BC and its mechanisms of action. MTT and colony formation assays were used to check the anticancer effect of 1-D-6-G. Then the anticancer mechanism of 1-D-6-G was predicted using proteomics analysis. The molecular pathway was verified by qRT-PCR and immunobloting analysis. Additionally, the anticancer properties of 1-D-6-G were investigated in vivo using xenograft mice model. Finally, an in silico study was conducted to examine the interaction of 1-D-6-G and pathway-related proteins. MTT and colony formation assay results indicated that 1-D-6-G has potent cytotoxic properties against BC cells. Proteomic analysis revealed that the anticancer mechanism of 1-D-6-G on MDA-MB-231 cells is associated with the ferroptosis signaling pathway. In addition, qRT-PCR and immunoblotting analyses revealed that the cytotoxic effects of 1-D-6-G on MDA-MB-231 cells were associated with ferroptosis signaling induction. Our in vivo results further confirmed the in vitro findings. The administration of 1-D-6-G for 14 days exhibited anticancer properties in xenograft mice by stimulating the ferroptosis pathway without causing damage to essential organs such as the liver and kidneys. Additionally, in silico results confirmed the structural stability of the molecular interaction between 1-D-6-G and ferroptosis target proteins. Our findings indicate that 1-D-6-G has the potential to serve as a novel therapeutic agent for inhibiting BC progression by targeting the ferroptosis pathway.

Beneficial Effects of Ginger Root Extract on Pain Behaviors, Inflammation, and Mitochondrial Function in the Colon and Different Brain Regions of Male and Female Neuropathic Rats: A Gut-Brain Axis Study

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction have been implicated in the progression of neuropathic pain (NP) but can be mitigated by supplementation with gingerol-enriched ginger (GEG). However, the exact benefits of GEG for each sex in treating neuroinflammation and mitochondrial homeostasis in different brain regions and the colon remain to be determined.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the effects of GEG on emotional/affective pain and spontaneous pain behaviors, neuroinflammation, as well as mitochondria homeostasis in the amygdala, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and colon of male and female rats in the spinal nerve ligation (SNL) NP model.

METHODS

One hundred rats (fifty males and fifty females) were randomly assigned to five groups: sham + vehicle, SNL + vehicle, and SNL with three different GEG doses (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg BW) for 5 weeks. A rat grimace scale and vocalizations were used to assess spontaneous and emotional/affective pain behaviors, respectively. mRNA gene and protein expression levels for tight junction protein, neuroinflammation, mitochondria homeostasis, and oxidative stress were measured in the amygdala, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and colon using qRT-PCR and Western blot (colon).

RESULTS

GEG supplementation mitigated spontaneous pain in both male and female rats with NP while decreasing emotional/affective responses only in male NP rats. GEG supplementation increased intestinal integrity (claudin 3) and suppressed neuroinflammation [glial activation (GFAP, CD11b, IBA1) and inflammation (TNFα, NFκB, IL1β)] in the selected brain regions and colon of male and female NP rats. GEG supplementation improved mitochondrial homeostasis [increased biogenesis (TFAM, PGC1α), increased fission (FIS, DRP1), decreased fusion (MFN2, MFN1) and mitophagy (PINK1), and increased Complex III] in the selected brain regions and colon in both sexes. Some GEG dose-response effects in gene expression were observed in NP rats of both sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

GEG supplementation decreased emotional/affective pain behaviors of males and females via improving gut integrity, suppressing neuroinflammation, and improving mitochondrial homeostasis in the amygdala, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and colon in both male and female SNL rats in an NP model, implicating the gut-brain axis in NP. Sex differences observed in the vocalizations assay may suggest different mechanisms of evoked NP responses in females.

An overview of 6-shogaol: new insights into its pharmacological properties and potential therapeutic activities

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has traditionally been used as a cooking spice and herbal medicine for treating nausea and vomiting. More recently, ginger was found to effectively reduce the risk of diseases such as gastroenteritis, migraine, gonarthritis, etc., due to its various bioactive compounds. 6-Shogaol, the pungent phenolic substance in ginger, is the most pharmacologically active among such compounds. The aim of the present study was to review the pharmacological characteristic of 6-shogaol, including the properties of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antitumour, and its corresponding molecular mechanism. With its multiple mechanisms, 6-shogaol is considered a beneficial natural compound, and therefore, this review will shed some light on the therapeutic role of 6-shogaol and provide a theoretical basis for the development and clinical application of 6-shogaol.

Ginger Polyphenols Reverse Molecular Signature of Amygdala Neuroimmune Signaling and Modulate Microbiome in Male Rats with Neuropathic Pain: Evidence for Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis

Emerging evidence shows that the gut microbiota plays an important role in neuropathic pain (NP) via the gut-brain axis. Male rats were divided into sham, spinal nerve ligation (SNL), SNL + 200 mg GEG/kg BW (GEG200), and SNL + 600 mg GEG/kg BW (GEG600) for 5 weeks. The dosages of 200 and 600 mg GEG/kg BW for rats correspond to 45 g and 135 g raw ginger for human daily consumption, respectively. Both GEG groups mitigated SNL-induced NP behavior. GEG-supplemented animals had a decreased abundance of Rikenella, Muribaculaceae, Clostridia UCG-014, Mucispirillum schaedleri, RF39, Acetatifactor, and Clostridia UCG-009, while they had an increased abundance of Flavonifactor, Hungatella, Anaerofustis stercorihominis, and Clostridium innocuum group. Relative to sham rats, Fos and Gadd45g genes were upregulated, while Igf1, Ccl2, Hadc2, Rtn4rl1, Nfkb2, Gpr84, Pik3cg, and Abcc8 genes were downregulated in SNL rats. Compared to the SNL group, the GEG200 group and GEG600 group had increases/decreases in 16 (10/6) genes and 11 (1/10) genes, respectively. GEG downregulated Fos and Gadd45g genes and upregulated Hdac2 genes in the amygdala. In summary, GEG alleviates NP by modulating the gut microbiome and reversing a molecular neuroimmune signature.

BrainPepPass: A Framework Based on Supervised Dimensionality Reduction for Predicting Blood-Brain Barrier-Penetrating Peptides

Peptides that pass through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) not only are implicated in brain-related pathologies but also are promising therapeutic tools for treating brain diseases, e.g., as shuttles carrying active medicines across the BBB. Computational prediction of BBB-penetrating peptides (B3PPs) has emerged as an interesting approach because of its ability to screen large peptide libraries in a cost-effective manner. In this study, we present BrainPepPass, a machine learning (ML) framework that utilizes supervised manifold dimensionality reduction and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithms to predict natural and chemically modified B3PPs. The results indicate that the proposed tool outperforms other classifiers, with average accuracies exceeding 94% and 98% in 10-fold cross-validation and leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV), respectively. In addition, accuracy values ranging from 45% to 97.05% were achieved in the independent tests. The BrainPepPass tool is available in a public repository for academic use (https://github.com/ewerton-cristhian/BrainPepPass).

Ginger alleviates mechanical hypersensitivity and anxio-depressive behavior in rats with diabetic neuropathy through beneficial actions on gut microbiome composition, mitochondria, and neuroimmune cells of colon and spinal cord

The relationship among gut microbiota, mitochondrial dysfunction/neuroinflammation, and diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) has received increased attention. Ginger has antidiabetic and analgesic effects because of its anti-inflammatory property. We examined the effects of gingerols-enriched ginger (GEG) supplementation on pain-associated behaviors, gut microbiome composition, and mitochondrial function and neuroinflammation of colon and spinal cord in DNP rats. Thirty-three male rats were randomly divided into 3 groups: control group, DNP group (high-fat diet plus single dose of streptozotocin at 35 mg/kg body weight, and GEG group (DNP+GEG at 0.75% in the diet for 8 weeks). Von Frey and open field tests were used to assess pain sensitivity and anxio-depressive behaviors, respectively. Colon and spinal cord were collected for gene expression analysis. 16S rRNA gene sequencing was done from cecal samples and microbiome data analysis was performed using QIIME 2. GEG supplementation mitigated mechanical hypersensitivity and anxio-depressive behavior in DNP animals. GEG supplementation suppressed the dynamin-related protein 1 protein expression (colon) and gene expression (spinal cord), astrocytic marker GFAP gene expression (colon and spinal cord), and tumor necrosis factor-α gene expression (colon, P < .05; spinal cord, P = .0974) in DNP rats. GEG supplementation increased microglia/macrophage marker CD11b gene expression in colon and spinal cord of DNP rats. GEG treatment increased abundance of Acinetobacter, Azospirillum, Colidextribacter, and Fournierella but decreased abundance of Muribaculum intestinale in cecal feces of rats. This study demonstrates that GEG supplementation decreased pain, anxio-depression, and neuroimmune cells, and improved the composition of gut microbiomes and mitochondrial function in rats with diabetic neuropathy.

Mercury chloride causes cognitive impairment, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in male Wistar rats: The potential protective effect of 6-gingerol-rich fraction of Zingiber officinale via regulation of antioxidant defence system and reversal of pro-inflammatory markers increase

This study investigated the effects of 6-gingerol-rich fraction of Zingiber officinale (6-GIRIFZO) on mercury chloride (HgCl2)-induced neurotoxicity in Wistar rats. Thirty -five male Wistar rats weighing between (150-200 g) were divided randomly into five groups (n = 7): group 1: control, received 0.5 mL of normal saline, group 2: received HgCl2 (5 mg/kg), group 3: received N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (50 mg/kg) as well as HgCl2 (5 mg/kg), group 4: received 6-GIRIFZO (100 mg/kg) and HgCl2 (5 mg/kg), group 5: had 6-GIRIFZO (200 mg/kg) and HgCl2 (5 mg/kg), consecutively for 14 days. On the day14, the rats were subjected to behavioural tests using a Morris water maze and novel object recognition tests. The rats were then euthanized to obtain brain samples for the determination of biochemical parameters (acetylcholinesterase (AchE), nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), tumor necrosis factor- alpha (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)) using standard methods. The result revealed a significant increase in escape latency and a significant decrease in recognition ratio in the rats that were exposed to HgCl2 only. However, 6-GIRIFZO produced a significant reduction in the escape latency and (p < 0.05) increase in the recognition ratio. Similarly, HgCl2 exposure caused a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the brain SOD, GPx, CAT, GSH with increased brain levels of MDA, NO, AchE, TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-1β and IL-6. Similarly to the standard drug, NAC, 6-GIRIFZO (100 and 200 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.05) increased brain SOD, GPx, CAT, and GSH levels with decreased concentrations of MDA, NO, AchE, TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-1β and IL-6. Also, pre-treatment with 6-GIRIFZO prevented the HgCl2-induced morphological aberrations in the rats. This study concludes that 6-GIRIFZO prevents HgCl2-induced cognitive deficit via reduction of brain inflammation as well as oxidative stress in rats.

Bioavailable Phenolic Compounds from Olive Pomace Present Anti-Neuroinflammatory Potential on Microglia Cells

The neuroinflammatory process is considered one of the main characteristics of central nervous system diseases, where a pro-inflammatory response results in oxidative stress through the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS). Olive (Olea europaea L.) pomace is a by-product of olive oil production that is rich in phenolic compounds (PCs), known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This work looked at the antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of the bioavailable PC from olive pomace in cell-free models and microglia cells. The bioavailable PC of olive pomace was obtained through the process of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of fractionated olive pomace (OPF, particles size < 2 mm) and micronized olive pomace (OPM, particles size < 20 µm). The profile of the PC that is present in the bioavailable fraction as well as its in vitro antioxidant capacity were determined. The anti-neuroinflammatory capacity of the bioavailable PC from olive pomace (0.03-3 mg L-1) was evaluated in BV-2 cells activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 24 h. The total bioavailable PC concentration and antioxidant activity against peroxyl radical were higher in the OPM than those observed in the OPF sample. The activation of BV-2 cells by LPS resulted in increased levels of ROS and nitric oxide (NO). The bioavailable PCs from both OPF and OPM, at their lowest concentrations, were able to reduce the ROS generation in activated BV-2 cells. In contrast, the highest PC concentration of OPF and OPM was able to reduce the NO levels in activated microglial cells. Our results demonstrate that bioavailable PCs from olive pomace can act as anti-neuroinflammatory agents in vitro, independent of particle size. Moreover, studies approaching ways to increase the bioavailability of PCs from olive pomace, as well as any possible toxic effects, are needed before a final statement on its nutritional use is made.

Understanding the role of zingerone on biochemical and behavioral changes in rat brain inflicted with C6 glioma cells

Malignant glioma is the deadliest form of brain cancer. Zingerone (ZO), a polyphenolic compound found in ginger, offers pharmacological properties that make it a promising agent for containing the growth of glioma cells. The present study was conducted to understand the efficacy of ZO in containing the growth of C6 glioma cells. The study also assessed the prophylactic role of ZO on rat brain glioma induced by C6 cell lines by addressing its antioxidative action on biochemical, behavioral, and histoarchitectural indices. For dose optimization, the animals were pretreated with different doses of ZO for a period of 2 weeks before the inoculation of glioma cells (1 × 105 /10 µL phosphate-buffered saline) in the caudate region of rat brain and the treatment with ZO continued for 4 more weeks post implantation. In vitro studies were done to assess the radical scavenging activity of ZO and also to determine its effects on viability of C6 glioma cells at different concentrations. Glioma-bearing rats showed significant alterations in memory; exploratory and muscular activities which were appreciably improved upon simultaneous supplementation of ZO administered at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight and were also visible even at a higher dose. Glioma-bearing rats revealed a significant increase in reactive oxygen species, protein carbonyl contents, and lipid peroxidation, but showed a significant decrease in reduced glutathione and antioxidative enzymes in the brain tissue. Interestingly, all the biochemical indices and altered brain histoarchitecture displaying cellular atypia and hyperplasia showed appreciable improvement when supplemented with ZO at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight.

Involvement of the Spinal Serotonergic System in the Analgesic Effect of [6]-Shogaol in Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathic Pain in Mice

Oxaliplatin is a chemotherapy drug that can induce severe acute neuropathy in patients within hours of treatment. In our previous study, 10 mg/kg [6]-shogaol (i.p.) significantly alleviated cold and mechanical allodynia induced by a 6 mg/kg oxaliplatin injection (i.p.); however, the precise serotonin-modulatory effect has not been investigated. In this study, we showed that intrathecal injections of NAN-190 (5-HT1A receptor antagonist, 1 µg) and MDL-72222 (5-HT3 receptor antagonist, 15 µg), but not ketanserin (5-HT2A receptor antagonist, 1 µg), significantly blocked the analgesic effect of [6]-shogaol (10 mg/kg, i.p.). Furthermore, the gene expression of the serotonin-synthesizing enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) and serotonin levels in the spinal cord and serum were significantly downregulated (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0002) and upregulated (p = 0.0298 and p = 0.0099) after oxaliplatin and [6]-shogaol administration, respectively. Moreover, both the gene and protein expression of the spinal serotonin receptors 5-HT1A and 5-HT3 significantly increased after [6]-shogaol injections (p < 0.0001). Finally, intrathecal injections of both receptor agonists (8-OH-DPAT; 5-HT1A receptor agonist, 10 µg and m-CPBG; 5-HT3 receptor agonist, 15 µg) mimicked the effects of [6]-shogaol in oxaliplatin-injected mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate that [6]-shogaol attenuates oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain by modulating the spinal serotoninergic system.

Recent advancements on in vitro blood-brain barrier model: A reliable and efficient screening approach for preclinical and clinical investigation

INTRODUCTION

The efficiency of brain therapeutics is greatly hindered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). BBB's protective function, selective permeability, and dynamic functionality maintain the harmony between the brain and peripheral region. Thus, the design of any novel drug carrier system requires the complete study and investigation of BBB permeability, efflux transport, and the effect of associated cellular and non-vascular unit trafficking on BBB penetrability. The in vitro BBB models offer a most promising, and reliable mode of initial investigation of BBB permeability and associated factors as strong evidence for further preclinical and clinical investigation.

AREA COVERED

This review work covers the structure and functions of BBB components and different types of in vitro BBB models along with factors affecting BBB model development and model selection criteria.

EXPERT OPINION

In vivo models assume to reciprocate the physiological environment to the maximum extent. However, the interspecies variability, NVUs trafficking, dynamic behavior of BBB, etc., lead to non-reproducible results. The in vitro models are comparatively less complex, and flexible, as per the study design, could generate substantial evidence and help identify suitable in vivo animal model selection.

Evaluation of the Herb-Drug Interaction (HDI) Potential of Zingiber officinale and Its Major Phytoconstituents

Ginger is currently one of the most popular herbs commonly added to diverse foods, beverages, and dietary supplements. We evaluated the ability of a well-characterized ginger extract, and several of its phytoconstituents, to activate select nuclear receptors as well as modulate the activity of various cytochrome P450s and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters because phytochemical-mediated modulation of these proteins underlies many clinically relevant herb-drug interactions (HDI). Our results revealed ginger extract activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in AhR-reporter cells and pregnane X receptor (PXR) in intestinal and hepatic cells. Among the phytochemicals investigated, (S)-6-gingerol, dehydro-6-gingerdione, and (6S,8S)-6-gingerdiol activated AhR, while 6-shogaol, 6-paradol, and dehydro-6-gingerdione activated PXR. Enzyme assays showed that ginger extract and its phytochemicals dramatically inhibited the catalytic activity of CYP3A4, 2C9, 1A2, and 2B6, and efflux transport capabilities of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP). Dissolution studies with ginger extract conducted in biorelevant simulated intestinal fluid yielded (S)-6-gingerol and 6-shogaol concentrations that could conceivably exceed cytochrome P450 (CYP) IC50 values when consumed in recommended doses. In summary, overconsumption of ginger may disturb the normal homeostasis of CYPs and ABC transporters, which in turn, may elevate the risk for HDIs when consumed concomitantly with conventional medications.

6-Gingerol contents of several ginger varieties of Northeast India and correlation of their antioxidant activity in respect to phenolics and flavonoids contents

INTRODUCTION

Ginger constitutes the rhizome part of the plant Zingiber officinale from the Zingiberaceae family. A large number of ginger varieties with high sensorial and functional quality are found in Northeast India. Hence, phytopharmacological screening of different ginger varieties is essential that will serve as a guideline in applied research to develop high-end products and improve economical margins.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the variation in total phenolics content (TPC), total flavonoids content (TFC), and antioxidant activities and correlate that with 6-gingerol contents of different ginger varieties collected from Northeast India using Pearson's correlation analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The TPC and TFC values were determined using standard methods. Antioxidant activities were measured using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays, while reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analysis was utilised for quantitative determination of 6-gingerol content.

RESULTS

The result revealed that ginger variety 6 (GV6) contains the highest 6-gingerol content and TPC value showing maximum antioxidant activity, followed by GV5, GV4, GV9, GV3, GV2, GV8, GV1, and GV7. The findings also suggested that the antioxidant activity has much better correlations with TPC as compared with TFC values. Pearson's correlation analysis showed a significant correlation between 6-gingerol contents and TPC values.

CONCLUSION

This work underlines the importance of ginger varieties from Northeast India as a source of natural antioxidants with health benefits.

Anti-Neuroinflammatory Potential of Natural Products in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related chronic progressive neurodegenerative disease, which is the main cause of dementia in the elderly. Much evidence shows that the onset and late symptoms of AD are caused by multiple factors. Among them, aging is the main factor in the pathogenesis of AD, and the most important risk factor for AD is neuroinflammation. So far, there is no cure for AD, but the relationship between neuroinflammation and AD may provide a new strategy for the treatment of AD. We herein discussed the main etiology hypothesis of AD and the role of neuroinflammation in AD, as well as anti-inflammatory natural products with the potential to prevent and alleviate AD symptoms, including alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids and polyphenols, which are available with great potential for the development of anti-AD drugs.

Anxiety and Metabolic Disorders: The Role of Botanicals

Anxiety and anxiety-related disorders are becoming more evident every day, affecting an increasing number of people around the world. Metabolic disorders are often associated with anxiety. Furthermore, anxiety branches into metabolic disorders by playing multiple roles as a cofactor, symptom, and comorbidity. Taken together, these considerations open the possibility of integrating the therapy of metabolic disorders with specific drugs for anxiety control. However, anxiolytic compounds often cause disabling effects in patients. The main goal could be to combine therapeutic protocols with compounds capable of reducing side effects while performing multiple beneficial effects. In this article we propose a group of bioactive ingredients called botanicals as a healthy supplement for the treatment of metabolic disorders related to anxiety.

Cisplatin-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: Effect of Herbal Medicines

Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic agent that is widely used to treat various types of cancers. However, its side effects, most commonly nausea and vomiting, limit its widespread use. Although various drugs, such as ondansetron and aprepitant, are used to alleviate these side effects, their efficacy is still debated. This review aims to summarize the results of 14 studies on the effects of seven single herbal extracts, one multiple herbal extract, and one ginger sub-component (i.e., [6]-gingerol) on cisplatin-induced nausea and vomiting. The results of the included studies were subdivided into four categories: kaolin consumption, retching and vomiting, food intake, and weight loss. Most studies used rodents, whereas four studies used minks or pigeons. The doses of cisplatin used in the studies varied from 3 mg/kg to 7.5 mg/kg, and only a single injection was used. Nine studies analyzed the mechanisms of action of herbal medicines and assessed the involvement of neurotransmitters, cytokines, enzymes, and various hematological parameters. Although further research is needed, this review suggests herbal medicine as a viable treatment option for cisplatin-induced neuropathic pain.

Elucidating the Beneficial Effects of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease (AD), and its pathogenesis remains obscure. Current treatment approaches mainly including levodopa and dopamine agonists provide symptomatic relief but fail to halt disease progression, and they are often accompanied by severe side effects. In this context, natural phytochemicals have received increasing attention as promising preventive or therapeutic candidates for PD, given their multitarget pharmaceutical mechanisms of actions and good safety profile. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) is a very popular spice used as a medicinal herb throughout the world since the ancient years, for a wide range of conditions, including nausea, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and cancer. Emerging in vivo and in vitro evidence supports the neuroprotective effects of ginger and its main pharmaceutically active compounds (zingerone, 6-shogaol, and 6-gingerol) in PD, mainly via the regulation of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, intestinal permeability, dopamine synaptic transmission, and possibly mitochondrial dysfunction. The regulation of several transcription factors and signaling pathways, including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Ak strain transforming (Akt), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC1α) have been shown to contribute to the protective effects of ginger. Herein, we discuss recent findings on the beneficial role of ginger in PD as a preventive agent or potential supplement to current treatment strategies, focusing on potential underlying molecular mechanisms.

Neuroprotective effect of Geijigadaehwang-tang against trimethyltin-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration: An in vitro and in vivo study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Patients with dementia are diagnosed with deficiency patterns and interior patterns in traditional Chinese medicine due to decreased physical strength, mental atrophy including cognitive function, and decreased motor function in the gastrointestinal tract. Since "greater yin symptom" in Shanghanlun has been interpreted as interior, deficiency, and cold pattern in traditional Chinese medicine, it is necessary to determine whether Geijigadaehwang-tang (GDT) has therapeutic effects on neurodegenerative diseases and the underlying mechanism if it has such effects.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Trimethyltin (TMT), a neurotoxic organotin compound, has been used to induce several neurodegenerative diseases, including epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease. This study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of GDT for TMT-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration and seizures and to determine the mechanisms involved at the molecular level.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main components of GDT were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography. TMT was used to induce neurotoxicity in microglial BV-2 cells and C57BL6 mice. GDT was administered at various doses to determine its neuroprotective and seizure inhibition effects. The inhibitory effects of GDT on TMT-induced apoptosis, inflammatory pathways, and oxidative stress pathways were determined in the mouse hippocampal tissues.

RESULTS

GDT contained emodin, chrysophanol, albiflorin, paeoniflorin, 6-gingerol, and liquiritin apioside. In microglial BV-2 cells treated with TMT, GDT showed dose-dependent neuroprotective effects. Oral administration of GDT five times for 2.5 days before and after TMT injection inhibited seizures at doses of 180 and 540 mg/kg and inhibited neuronal death in the hippocampus. In hippocampal tissues extracted from mice, GDT inhibited the protein expression of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1, glial fibrillary acidic protein, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein 3, and phosphorylated nuclear factor (NF)-κB/total-NFκB ratio. Additionally, GDT inhibited the messenger RNA levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, inducible nitric oxide synthase, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain, caspase-1, interleukin-1β, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2, and heme oxygenase-1.

CONCLUSION

This study's results imply that GDT might have neuroprotective potential in neurodegenerative diseases through neuronal death inhibition and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms.

Stability Study of Alpinia galanga Constituents and Investigation of Their Membrane Permeability by ChemGPS-NP and the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay

Alpinia galanga Willd., greater galangal, has been used for thousands of years as a spice as well as in traditional medicine. Its central nervous system (CNS) stimulant activity and neuroprotective effects have been proved both in animal models and human trials. However, the compounds responsible for these effects have not been identified yet. Therefore, the main constituents (p-OH-benzaldehyde (1), trans-p-coumaryl-alcohol (2), p-coumaryl-aldehyde (4), galanganol A (5), galanganol B (6), trans-p-acetoxycinnamyl alcohol (7), 1'S-1'-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA, 9), and 1'S-1'-acetoxyeugenol acetate (AEA, 10)) were isolated to investigate their aqueous stability and passive diffusion across the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) membrane and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA). Our positive results for compounds 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, and 10 suggest good permeability, thus potential contribution to the effects of greater galangal in the CNS. The results of the PAMPA-BBB were corroborated by in silico chemography-based ChemGPS-NP framework experiments. In addition, examination of the chemical space position of galangal compounds in relation to known psychostimulants revealed that all the molecules in proximity are NET/SERT inhibitors. As ACA and AEA did not show much proximity to either compound, the importance of further investigation of their degradation products becomes more pronounced.

The Effect of Ginger and Its Sub-Components on Pain

Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various diseases, and its main sub-components, [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, were also reported to have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor effects. However, their effects on various types of pain and their underlying mechanisms of action have not been clearly analyzed and understood yet. Thus, in this review, by analyzing 16 studies that used Z. officinale, [6]-gingerol, and [6]-shogaol on mechanical, spontaneous and thermal pain, their effects and mechanisms of action have been analyzed. Pain was induced by either nerve injury or chemical injections in rodents. Nine studies analyzed the analgesic effect of Z. officinale, and four and three studies focused on [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, respectively. Seven papers have demonstrated the underlying mechanism of action of their analgesic effects. Studies have focused on the spinal cord and one on the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Involvement and change in the function of serotonergic receptors (5-HT_1A, _B, _D, and _5A), transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2), histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1), voltage-gated sodium channel 1.8 (Na_v1.8), substance P (SP), and sciatic nerve’s morphology have been observed.

Expression of oxytocin in hypothalamus and reduction of nociceptive stress following administration of Kamikihi-to in female rats

Hypothalamo-neurohypophysial oxytocin (OXT) plays an essential role in reproduction and in several socio-physiological functions, including stress reduction, anxiety relief, feeding suppression, social recognition, and trust building. Recent studies suggest that the central OXT system is also involved in antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory functions. Kamikihi-to (KKT), a Japanese traditional herbal (Kampo) medicine composed of 14 herbal ingredients, is clinically prescribed for patients with psychological symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and insomnia, and it has been associated with OXT expression. We investigated the antinociceptive response and OXT expression according to sex and the effects of KKT pre administration in a rat model. We found that nociceptive responses measured via the hot plate and formalin tests were attenuated following the administration of KKT-enriched feed for 4 weeks. The observation of mRFP1 fluorescence in OXT-mRFP1 transgenic rats revealed that KKT-administered rats showed increased expression of OXT in the magnocellular and parvocellular paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Food intake in the KKT-pre-administered group significantly decreased after cholecystokinin (CCK)-8 administration. Our results suggest that KKT is involved in the attenuation of nociceptive stress in female rats by enhancing the expression of OXT in the hypothalamus.

6-Gingerol attenuates subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced early brain injury via GBP2/PI3K/AKT pathway in the rat model

Numerous studies have elucidated the neuroprotective effect of 6-gingerol in central nervous system diseases. However, the potential role and mechanism of 6-gingerol on early brain injury (EBI) after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) remains poorly understood. Here, we report that 6-gingerol exerts a neuroprotective effect on SAH-induced EBI through the GBP2/PI3K/AKT pathway. A SAH rat model was established by injecting femoral artery blood into the cisterna magna. 6-gingerol or vehicle was injected intraperitoneally 1 hour post-SAH induction. We found that the neurological function score and brain edema of SAH rats were significantly improved after 6-gingerol treatment, as well as neuronal apoptosis was attenuated in SAH rats by Nissl staining assay and TUNEL assay. To further explore potential molecular mechanisms associated with 6-gingerol, RNA sequencing was implemented to investigate the differences in transcriptomes between SAH rats with and without 6-gingerol treatment; and found that the expression of guanylate-binding protein 2 (GBP2) evidently was suppressed with 6-gingerol treatment compared to vehicle group. In addition, dual immunofluorescence was also employed to investigate changes in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia after 6-gingerol treatment. The results showed that GBP2 was expressed in neurons but not astrocytes or microglia. Western blotting analysis results demonstrated that the PI3K/AKT pathway was activated in the SAH rats treated with 6-gingerol. Furthermore, recombinant GBP2 protein and LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor) treatment reversed the effects of 6-gingerol treatment in SAH rats. These results indicate that 6-gingerol suppressed the expression of GBP2 to activate the PI3K/AKT pathway, improve neurologic outcomes, reduce brain edema and neuronal apoptosis. In summary, our findings suggest that 6-gingerol could attenuate EBI post-SAH in rats, and 6-gingerol may serve as a novel candidate neuroprotective drug for SAH-induced EBI.

Gingerol-Enriched Ginger Supplementation Mitigates Neuropathic Pain via Mitigating Intestinal Permeability and Neuroinflammation: Gut-Brain Connection

Objectives: Emerging evidence suggests an important role of the gut-brain axis in the development of neuropathic pain (NP). We investigated the effects of gingerol-enriched ginger (GEG) on pain behaviors, as well as mRNA expressions of inflammation via tight junction proteins in GI tissues (colon) and brain tissues (amygdala, both left and right) in animals with NP.

Methods: Seventeen male rats were randomly divided into three groups: Sham, spinal nerve ligation (SNL, pain model), and SNL+0.375% GEG (wt/wt in diet) for 4 weeks. Mechanosensitivity was assessed by von Frey filament tests and hindpaw compression tests. Emotional responsiveness was measured from evoked audible and ultrasonic vocalizations. Ongoing spontaneous pain was measured in rodent grimace tests. Intestinal permeability was assessed by the lactulose/D-mannitol ratio in urine. The mRNA expression levels of neuroinflammation (NF-κB, TNF-α) in the colon and amygdala (right and left) were determined by qRT-PCR. Data was analyzed statistically.

Results: Compared to the sham group, the SNL group had significantly greater mechanosensitivity (von Frey and compression tests), emotional responsiveness (audible and ultrasonic vocalizations to innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli), and spontaneous pain (rodent grimace tests). GEG supplementation significantly reduced mechanosensitivity, emotional responses, and spontaneous pain measures in SNL rats. GEG supplementation also tended to decrease SNL-induced intestinal permeability markers. The SNL group had increased mRNA expression of NF-κB and TNF-α in the right amygdala and colon; GEG supplementation mitigated these changes in SNL-treated rats.

Conclusion: This study suggests GEG supplementation palliated a variety of pain spectrum behaviors in a preclinical NP animal model. GEG also decreased SNL-induced intestinal permeability and neuroinflammation, which may explain the behavioral effects of GEG.

Efficacy and safety of a food supplement with standardized menthol, limonene, and gingerol content in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) affects 9,2% of the global population and places a considerable burden on healthcare systems. Most medications for treating IBS, including spasmolytics, laxatives, and antidiarrheals, have low efficacy. Effective and safe therapeutic treatments have yet to be developed for IBS.

Purpose

This study assessed the efficacy and safety of a food supplement containing standardized menthol, limonene, and gingerol in human participants with IBS or IBS/functional dyspepsia (FD).

Design

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

Methods

We randomly assigned 56 patients with IBS or IBS/FD to an intervention group (Group 1) or control group (Group 2) that were given supplement or placebo, respectively, in addition to the standard treatment regimen for 30 d. Three outpatient visits were conducted during the study. Symptom severity was measured at each visit using a 7×7 questionnaire. Qualitative and quantitative composition of the intestinal microbiota were assessed at visits 1 and 3 based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

Results

At visit 1 (before treatment), the median total 7×7 questionnaire score was in the moderately ill range for both groups, with no difference between the groups (p = 0.1). At visit 2, the total 7×7 score decreased to mildly ill, with no difference between the groups (p = 0.4). At visit 3, the total score for group 1 indicated borderline illness and for group 2 remained indicated mild illness (p = 0.009). Even though we observed some variations in gut microbiota between the groups, we did not find any statistically significant changes.

Conclusion

The food supplement with standardized menthol, limonene, and gingerol content increased the efficacy of standard therapy in IBS and FD patients. The use of the supplement did not cause any obvious side effects.

Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04484467

[6]-Shogaol Attenuates Oxaliplatin-Induced Allodynia through Serotonergic Receptors and GABA in the Spinal Cord in Mice

Although oxaliplatin is a well-known anti-cancer agent used for the treatment of colorectal cancer, treated patients often experience acute cold and mechanical allodynia as side effects. Unfortunately, no optimal treatment has been developed yet. In this study, [6]-shogaol (10 mg/kg, i.p.), which is one of the major bioactive components of Zingiber officinale roscoe (Z. officinale), significantly alleviated allodynia induced by oxaliplatin (6 mg/kg, i.p.) injection. Cold and mechanical allodynia were assessed by acetone drop and von Frey filament tests, respectively. The analgesic effect of [6]-shogaol was blocked by the intrathecal injection of 5-HT1A, 5-HT3, and GABAB receptor antagonists, NAN-190 (1 μg), MDL-72222 (15 μg), and CGP 55845 (10 μg), respectively. Furthermore, oxaliplatin injection lowered the GABA concentration in the superficial laminae of the spinal dorsal horn, whereas [6]-shogaol injection significantly elevated it. The GAD (glutamic acid decarboxylase) 65 concentration also increased after [6]-shogaol administration. However, pre-treatment of NAN-190 completely inhibited the increased GABA induced by [6]-shogaol in the spinal dorsal horn, whereas MDL-72222 partially blocked the effect. Altogether, these results suggest that [6]-shogaol could attenuate oxaliplatin-induced cold and mechanical allodynia through 5-HT_1A and 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists located in the GABAergic neurons in the spinal dorsal horn in mice.

The Effectiveness of Add-on Treatment with Nutraceutical

Aim:evaluation of the effectiveness of the nutraceutical “Standard Zdorovia: Gastro” (“SZ Gastro”) in the treatment of patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Materials and methods.52 patients (62 % women) diagnosed with IBS and IBS in combination with functional dyspepsia (FD) were included in the study and divided into two groups. Both groups received basic therapy according to the guidelines. The experimental group received as add-on the nutraceutical “SZ Gastro” (containing a standardized amount of menthol, gingerol and D-limonene); patients in the control group — placebo. The duration of the study was 30 days. The severity of somatic symptoms was assessed with the 7×7 questionnaire. Emotional state was assessed with the Four Dimensional Distress, Depression, Anxiety, and Somatization Questionnaire (4DSQ).

Results.Patients of the experimental and control groups did not differ from each other either in terms of demographics, basic treatment, or in the severity of symptoms at the beginning of the study.

The effectiveness of the treatment in the patients, who received add-on “SZ Gastro” was significantly higher than in the patients of the control group: in the control group the percentage of improvement of somatic symptoms was 22.35 %, in the experimental group it amounted to 49.18 % (χ2= 15.9;p= 0.0001). The percentage of patients with significant decrease of emotional disturbances was also higher in the experimental group: distress (χ2= 18.7;p= 0.0000), anxiety (χ2= 6.9;p= 0.0097) and somatization (χ2= 14.99;p= 0.0001). No significant side effects were registered in any of the groups.

Conclusions.Add-on of nutraceutical “SZ Gastro” to basic treatment is safe and significantly increases effectiveness of the therapy in the patients with IBS and IBS in combination with PD.

In vitro and in silico evaluation of Ononis isoflavonoids as molecules targeting the central nervous system

Isoflavonoids with various structural elements show a promising potential effect on central nervous system activities. Despite their favorable medicinal properties, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of this thoroughly investigated group of natural phenolics have only been described to a limited extent. Regarding the lack of information about the BBB permeability of isoflavones, isoflavanones, and pterocarpans found in Ononis species, the aim of our study was to investigate their physico-chemical properties influencing their absorption and distribution. Furthermore, we aimed to characterize the possible MAO-B inhibiting features of Ononis isoflavonoids in silico. Octanol-water partitioning and BBB-PAMPA permeability of formononetin, calycosin D, onogenin, sativanone, medicarpin and maackiain were assessed for the first time in our study. The log P values ranged from 2.21 to 3.03 and log D^7.4 values from 2.48 to 3.03, respectively, indicating optimal polarity for BBB permeation. The results of PAMPA-BBB expressed as log P_e values fell between -5.60 and -4.45, predicting their good permeation capability as well. The effective permeability values showed structure-dependent differences, indicating that the pterocarpan type skeleton was the most preferred type, followed by isoflavanones, then isoflavones. The methoxy or methylenedioxy substitution of the same skeleton did not influence the permeability significantly, contrary to an additional hydroxyl group. Membrane retention showed a similar structure dependent pattern to that of effective permeability, ranging from 16% to 70%. For the identification of volumes of chemical space related to particular biological activities the ChemGPS-NP framework was used. The MAO-B inhibitory potency and selectivity were also predicted and validated. Based on our results, MAO-B inhibitory potency could be predicted with good precision, but in the case of selectivity, only the direction could be concluded (favors MAO-B or MAO-A), not the magnitude. Our finding reflects that Ononis isoflavonoid aglycones show an excellent fit with the suggested parameters for BBB permeability and this is the first study to confirm the highly favorable position of these natural products for MAO-B inhibition.

Impact of drying and extractions processes on the recovery of gingerols and shogaols, the main bioactive compounds of ginger

Ginger extracts have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, and antibacterial activities mainly due to gingerols and shogaols. Extract composition and functionality can be affected by drying and extraction processes. Alternative methods to obtain ginger extracts based on high contents of gingerols and shogaols have been reported. However, there were no studies that present a broad overview of how these methods affect the composition and functionalities of ginger extracts. Based on literature data from 2011 to 2022, this review shows how drying, extraction, and complementary processes (i.e., enzymatic, acidic, and carbonic maceration) affect the composition and bioactivity of the ginger extract. Lower temperature processes, including freeze-drying, cold ultrasound-, or enzyme-assisted extraction, lead to extracts richer in phenolics, gingerols, and antioxidant activity. On the other hand, acidic solvents or "hot" processes including microwave-drying, pressurized liquid, and microwave-assisted extraction can favor higher shogaols concentrations, which have higher antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities than the gingerols precursors. Thus, in this review, we analyzed and discussed the relation between ginger processing and their bioactive compounds, focusing especially on gingerols and shogaols, as well as the main processes that increase the content of 6-shogaol without compromising other phenolic compounds to produce highly functional extracts for future applications in the food packaging sector.

Potential Role of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in the Prevention of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Ginger is composed of multiple bioactive compounds, including 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 10-gingerol, gingerdiones, gingerdiols, paradols, 6-dehydrogingerols, 5-acetoxy-6-gingerol, 3,5-diacetoxy-6-gingerdiol, and 12-gingerol, that contribute to its recognized biological activities. Among them, the major active compounds are 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol. Scientific evidence supports the beneficial properties of ginger, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities and in contrast, a specific and less studied bioactivity is the possible neuroprotective effect. The increase in life expectancy has raised the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), which present common neuropathological features as increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and protein misfolding. The structure-activity relationships of ginger phytochemicals show that ginger can be a candidate to treat NDs by targeting different ligand sites. Its bioactive compounds may improve neurological symptoms and pathological conditions by modulating cell death or cell survival signaling molecules. The cognitive enhancing effects of ginger might be partly explained via alteration of both the monoamine and the cholinergic systems in various brain areas. Moreover, ginger decreases the production of inflammatory related factors. The aim of the present review is to summarize the effects of ginger in the prevention of major neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis.

Dietary supplementation of gingerols- and shogaols-enriched ginger root extract attenuate pain-associated behaviors while modulating gut microbiota and metabolites in rats with spinal nerve ligation

Neuroinflammation is a central factor in neuropathic pain (NP). Ginger is a promising bioactive compound in NP management due to its anti-inflammatory property. Emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiome and gut-derived metabolites play a key role in NP. We evaluated the effects of two ginger root extracts rich in gingerols (GEG) and shogaols (SEG) on pain sensitivity, anxiety-like behaviors, circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA (ccf-mtDNA), gut microbiome composition, and fecal metabolites in rats with NP. Sixteen male rats were divided into four groups: sham, spinal nerve ligation (SNL), SNL+0.75%GEG in diet, and SNL+0.75%SEG in diet groups for 30 days. Compared to SNL group, both SNL+GEG and SNL+SEG groups showed a significant reduction in pain- and anxiety-like behaviors, and ccf-mtDNA level. Relative to the SNL group, both SNL+GEG and SNL+SEG groups increased the relative abundance of Lactococcus, Sellimonas, Blautia, Erysipelatoclostridiaceae, and Anaerovoracaceae, but decreased that of Prevotellaceae UCG-001, Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, Mucispirillum and Desulfovibrio, Desulfovibrio, Anaerofilum, Eubacterium siraeum group, RF39, UCG-005, Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group, Acetatifactor, Eubacterium ruminantium group, Clostridia UCG-014, and an uncultured Anaerovoracaceae. GEG and SEG had differential effects on gut-derived metabolites. Compared to SNL group, SNL+GEG group had higher level of 1'-acetoxychavicol acetate, (4E)-1,7-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-hepten-3-one, NP-000629, 7,8-Dimethoxy-3-(2-methyl-3-buten-2-yl)-2H-chromen-2-one, 3-{[4-(2-Pyrimidinyl)piperazino]carbonyl}-2-pyrazinecarboxylic acid, 920863, and (1R,3R,7R,13S)-13-Methyl-6-methylene-4,14,16-trioxatetracyclo[11.2.1.0∼1,10∼.0∼3,7∼]hexadec-9-en-5-one, while SNL+SEG group had higher level for (±)-5-[(tert-Butylamino)-2'-hydroxypropoxy]-1_2_3_4-tetrahydro-1-naphthol and dehydroepiandrosteronesulfate. In conclusion, ginger is a promising functional food in the management of NP, and further investigations are necessary to assess the role of ginger on gut-brain axis in pain management.

Chemical profiling and in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of bioactive fraction(s) from Trichodesma indicum (L.) R.Br. against LPS induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. (family: Boraginaceae) is a medicinal herb largely used to treat arthralgia, rheumatoid arthritis, wound healing, dysentery, etc. It's mechanism of anti-inflammatory activity has not been systematically analyzed yet.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was undertaken to examine the anti-inflammatory effects of successive solvent extracts (n-hexane extract (HE), ethyl acetate extract (EA), ethanol extract (EE), aqueous extract (AE) and fractions of HE) from the aerial parts of Trichodesma indicum (TI) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated inflammatory reaction using mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytotoxic effects of the extracts and fractions of TI were assessed by MTT assay. The effect of extracts and fractions on the production of nitric oxide (NO) in RAW 264.7 macrophages were measured using the Griess reagent method. IL - 6, IL - 1β, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2 gene expressions were examined by a qRT-PCR method.

RESULTS

RAW 264.7 macrophages pretreated with HE, EA, EE and AE of TI showed a significant decrease in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and NO without exhibiting cytotoxicity. The potent HE was fractionated using flash chromatography into FA, FB, FC, FD and FE. Among the five fractions, FE displayed a stronger ability to reduce IL - 1β, TNF-α, iNOS, COX2 and NO importantly no cytotoxicity was observed. The phytochemical compounds present in FE were further screened by Gas chromatography - Mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). GC-MS analysis revealed that 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester is the major compound in FE. Molecular docking analysis showed good inhibition of 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester against TLR-4, NIK and TACE.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diisooctyl ester could be a potential candidate in alleviating inflammatory reactions in TI.

6-Gingerol Alleviates Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Cerebral and White Matter Injury and Contributes to Functional Recovery

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is one main cause of neonatal death and disability, causing substantial injury to white and gray matter, which can lead to severe neurobehavioral dysfunction, including intellectual disability and dyskinesia. Inflammation, nerve cell death, and white matter injury are important factors in the pathological process of HIE. 6-Gingerol is a ginger extract, which reduces inflammatory response and cell death. However, the role of 6-Gingerol in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI) remains unknown. In this study, we constructed a mouse HIBI model and analyzed the protective effect of 6-Gingerol on HIBI by using behavioral tests, histological staining, qPCR and western blot. Here, we found that 6-Gingerol treatment could alleviate HIBI and improve short-term reflex performance, which is closely related to cell death and neuroinflammation. Additionally, 6-Gingerol reduced neuronal apoptosis, pro-inflammatory factor release, as well as microglial activation. Furthermore, 6-Gingerol significantly improved motor disability, which is associated with white matter damage. Thus, our results showed that 6-Gingerol could reduce the loss of myelin sheaths, alleviate cell death of oligodendrocytes, and stimulate the maturation of oligodendrocytes. In terms of mechanism, we found that 6-Gingerol decreased histone H3K27me3 levels, activated AKT pathway and inhibited the activation of ERK and NF-κB pathway at 3 days post-HIBI. Taken together, our data clearly indicate that 6-Gingerol plays a neuroprotective role against HIBI by epigenetic modification and regulation of AKT, ERK, and NF-κB pathways, inhibiting inflammatory responses and reducing cell death.

JI017 Attenuates Oxaliplatin-Induced Cold Allodynia via Spinal TRPV1 and Astrocytes Inhibition in Mice

Oxaliplatin, a well-known chemotherapeutic agent, can induce severe neuropathic pain, which can seriously decrease the quality of life of patients. JI017 is an herb mixture composed of Aconitum carmichaelii, Angelica gigas, and Zingiber officinale. Its anti-tumor effect has been reported; however, the efficacy of JI017 against oxaliplatin-induced allodynia has never been explored. Single oxaliplatin injection [6 mg/kg, intraperitoneal, (i.p.)] induced both cold and mechanical allodynia, and oral administration of JI017 (500 mg/kg) alleviated cold but not mechanical allodynia in mice. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis demonstrated that the upregulation of mRNA of spinal transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and astrocytes following oxaliplatin injection was downregulated after JI017 treatment. Moreover, TRPV1 expression and the activation of astrocytes were intensely increased in the superficial area of the spinal dorsal horn after oxaliplatin treatment, whereas JI017 suppressed both. The administration of TRPV1 antagonist [capsazepine, intrathecal (i.t.), 10 μg] attenuated the activation of astrocytes in the dorsal horn, demonstrating that the functions of spinal TRPV1 and astrocytes are closely related in oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain. Altogether, these results suggest that JI017 may be a potent candidate for the management of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy as it decreases pain, spinal TRPV1, and astrocyte activation.

6-Gingerol, a Major Constituent of Zingiber officinale Rhizoma, Exerts Anticonvulsant Activity in the Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Seizure Model in Larval Zebrafish

Zingiber officinale is one of the most frequently used medicinal herbs in Asia. Using rodent seizure models, it was previously shown that Zingiber officinale hydroethanolic extract exerts antiseizure activity, but the active constituents responsible for this effect have not been determined. In this paper, we demonstrated that Zingiber officinale methanolic extract exerts anticonvulsant activity in the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced hyperlocomotion assay in larval zebrafish. Next, we isolated 6-gingerol (6-GIN)-a major constituent of Zingiber officinale rhizoma. We observed that 6-GIN exerted potent dose-dependent anticonvulsant activity in the PTZ-induced hyperlocomotion seizure assay in zebrafish, which was confirmed electroencephalographically. To obtain further insight into the molecular mechanisms of 6-GIN antiseizure activity, we assessed the concentration of two neurotransmitters in zebrafish, i.e., inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and excitatory glutamic acid (GLU), and their ratio after exposure to acute PTZ dose. Here, 6-GIN decreased GLU level and reduced the GLU/GABA ratio in PTZ-treated fish compared with only PTZ-bathed fish. This activity was associated with the decrease in grin2b, but not gabra1a, grin1a, gria1a, gria2a, and gria3b expression in PTZ-treated fish. Molecular docking to the human NR2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor suggests that 6-GIN might act as an inhibitor and interact with the amino terminal domain, the glutamate-binding site, as well as within the ion channel of the NR2B-containing NMDA receptor. In summary, our study reveals, for the first time, the anticonvulsant activity of 6-GIN. We suggest that this effect might at least be partially mediated by restoring the balance between GABA and GLU in the epileptic brain; however, more studies are needed to prove our hypothesis.

Piperine phytosomes for bioavailability enhancement of domperidone

The markedly low oral bioavailability of domperidone (anti-emetic drug) is associated with rapid first-pass metabolism in the intestine and liver. To counteract such affects, there is a need to devise a strategy to enhance absorption and subsequently bioavailability. Thus, the current study was aimed at synthesizing phytosomes consisting of phosphatidylcholine and piperine (a P-glycoprotein inhibitor). Phytosomes were prepared by salting-out method. The developed phytosomes were extensively characterized for size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency (EE %), infra-red spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, in vitro drug release, ex vivo permeation, in vivo pharmacokinetic and toxicity. The engineered formulations of phytosomes with piperine exhibited a significant improvement in oral bioavailability of domperidone (79.5%) in comparison with the pure drug suspension under the same conditions. Pharmacokinetic parameters such as maximal plasma concentration (C_max) and the plasma concentration (estimated from area under the curve; AUC) of domperidone have been greatly increased relative to drug alone. The improved drug absorption was attributed to inhibition of P-glycoprotein transporter. The findings of current research work suggest that the optimized phytosomes based drug delivery containing phytochemicals as bioenhancers have the potential to improve bioavailability of poorly bioavailable drugs that are substrate to P-glycoprotein.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Rhizomes Attenuate Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathic Pain in Mice

Oxaliplatin is a platinum derivative chemotherapeutic drug widely used against cancers, but even a single treatment can induce a severe allodynia that requires treatment interruption and dose diminution. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale roscoe (Z. officinale, ginger), has been widely used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases causing pain; however, its effect against oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain has never been assessed. In mice, a single oxaliplatin (6 mg/kg, i.p.) treatment induced significant cold and mechanical allodynia. Cold and mechanical allodynia were assessed by acetone drop and von Frey filament tests, respectively. Water extracts of Z. officinale (100, 300, and 500 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly attenuated both cold and mechanical allodynia induced by oxaliplatin. Intrathecal pre-treatment with the antagonist 5-HT1A (NAN-190, i.t., 1 μg), but not with the antagonist 5-HT2A (ketanserin, i.t., 1 μg), significantly blocked the analgesic effect of Z. officinale against both cold and mechanical allodynia. However, 5-HT3 antagonist (MDL-72222, i.t., 15 μg) administration only blocked the anti-allodynic effect of Z. officinale against cold allodynia. Real-time PCR analysis demonstrated that Z. officinale significantly increased the mRNA expression of the spinal 5-HT1A receptor that was downregulated after oxaliplatin injection. These results suggest that Z. officinale may be a viable treatment option for oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain.

Effects of Spices (Saffron, Rosemary, Cinnamon, Turmeric and Ginger) in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent dementia in the elderly, causing disability, physical, psychological, social, and economic damage to the individual, their families, and caregivers. Studies have shown some spices, such as saffron, rosemary, cinnamon, turmeric, and ginger, have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that act in inhibiting the aggregation of acetylcholinesterase and amyloid in AD. For this reason, spices have been studied as beneficial sources against neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. In this sense, this study aims to present a review of some spices (Saffron, Rosemary, Cinnamon, Turmeric and Ginger) and their bioactive compounds, most consumed and investigated in the world regarding AD. In this article, scientific evidence is compiled in clinical trials in adults, the elderly, animals, and in vitro, on properties considered neuroprotective, having no or negative effects on neuroprotection of these spices and their bioactive compounds. The importance of this issue is based on the pharmacological treatment for AD that is still not very effective. In addition, the recommendations and prescriptions of these spices are still permeated by questioning and lack of robust evidence of their effects on neurodegeneration. The literature search suggests all spices included in this article have bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions associated with neuroprotection. To date, the amounts of spice ingestion in humans are not uniform, and there is no consensus on its indication and chronic consumption guarantees safety and efficacy in neuroprotection. Therefore, clinical evidence on this topic is necessary to become a formal adjuvant treatment for AD.

Natural Compounds as Inhibitors of Aβ Peptide Aggregation: Chemical Requirements and Molecular Mechanisms

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders, with no cure and preventive therapy. Misfolding and extracellular aggregation of Amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides are recognized as the main cause of AD progression, leading to the formation of toxic Aβ oligomers and to the deposition of β-amyloid plaques in the brain, representing the hallmarks of AD. Given the urgent need to provide alternative therapies, natural products serve as vital resources for novel drugs. In recent years, several natural compounds with different chemical structures, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, tannins, saponins and vitamins from plants have received attention for their role against the neurodegenerative pathological processes. However, only for a small subset of them experimental evidences are provided on their mechanism of action. This review focuses on those natural compounds shown to interfere with Aβ aggregation by direct interaction with Aβ peptide and whose inhibitory mechanism has been investigated by means of biophysical and structural biology experimental approaches. In few cases, the combination of approaches offering a macroscopic characterization of the oligomers, such as TEM, AFM, fluorescence, together with high-resolution methods could shed light on the complex mechanism of inhibition. In particular, solution NMR spectroscopy, through peptide-based and ligand-based observation, was successfully employed to investigate the interactions of the natural compounds with both soluble NMR-visible (monomer and low molecular weight oligomers) and NMR-invisible (high molecular weight oligomers and protofibrils) species. The molecular determinants of the interaction of promising natural compounds are here compared to infer the chemical requirements of the inhibitors and the common mechanisms of inhibition. Most of the data converge to indicate that the Aβ regions relevant to perturb the aggregation cascade and regulate the toxicity of the stabilized oligomers, are the N-term and β1 region. The ability of the natural aggregation inhibitors to cross the brain blood barrier, together with the tactics to improve their low bioavailability are discussed. The analysis of the data ensemble can provide a rationale for the selection of natural compounds as molecular scaffolds for the design of new therapeutic strategies against the progression of early and late stages of AD.

Therapeutic Effects of Licorice and Dried Ginger Decoction on Activity-Based Anorexia in BALB/c AnNCrl Mice

Licorice and dried ginger decoction (Gancao-ganjiang-tang, LGD) is used for nausea and anorexia, accompanied by excessive sweating in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Herein, we investigated the therapeutic effects of LGD using the activity-based anorexia (ABA) in a mouse model. Six-week-old female BALB/c AnNCrl mice were orally administered LGD, water, licorice decoction, dried ginger decoction, or chronic olanzapine, and their survival, body weight, food intake, and wheel activity were compared in ABA. Additionally, dopamine concentration in brain tissues was evaluated. LGD significantly reduced the number of ABA mice reaching the drop-out criterion of fatal body weight loss. However, LGD showed no significant effects on food intake and wheel activity. We found that in the LGD group the rise of the light phase activity rate inhibited body weight loss. Licorice or dried ginger alone did not improve survival rates, they only showed longer survival periods than chronic olanzapine when combined. In addition, LGD increased the dopamine concentration in the brain. The results from the present study showed that LGD improves the survival of ABA mice and its mechanism of action might be related to the alteration of dopamine concentration in the brain.