Elevated interleukin-18 serum levels in chronic schizophrenia: Association with psychopathology

Interleukin 18 and the brain: neuronal functions, neuronal survival and psycho-neuro-immunology during stress

Interleukin 18 (IL-18) is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates peripheral innate and adaptive immune response and is also expressed in the brain. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the biology of IL-18 in the brain and the efforts to determine its significance concerning neurological and psychiatric conditions. The picture that emerges is that of a heavily regulated molecule that can contribute to neuroinflammatory-mediated neuronal survival but can also serve as a neuromodulator that affects behaviour. We also summarize evidence showing how the brain can control the synthesis of peripheral IL-18 during stress by hormonal and neuronal signalling, regulating tissue-specific promoter usage. We discuss how this may represent one of the mechanisms by which the brain affects immune functions and what its implications are when considering IL-18 as a biomarker of psychiatric conditions.

Lights and shadows of clozapine on the immune system in schizophrenia: a narrative literature review

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder and one of the main causes of disability in the world. Approximately 1% of the general population suffers from this disorder, and almost 30% of cases are unresponsive to antipsychotic therapies. Clozapine is a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antipsychotic drug for treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS). Clozapine is also approved for the prevention of suicide associated with schizophrenia. However, clozapine is not the preferred first-line medication because of its potential AEs, including agranulocytosis, metabolic syndromes, and myocarditis. Clozapine prescription requires weekly absolute neutrophil count (ANC) monitoring for the first six months, followed by biweekly monitoring until the patient has finished one year of treatment. Several psychiatric disorders have been reported to be associated with inflammatory biomarkers. Dysregulation of the immune system and the elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines were also reported to be associated with schizophrenia, highlighting the necessity of further research into the etiology of the disease and the relationship between the immune system and clozapine-responsiveness to support better management of symptoms and potential AEs. In this framework, we searched PubMed using the medical subject headings (MeSH) terms "clozapine", "antipsychotics", "schizophrenia", "treatment-resistant schizophrenia", "immune system", "inflammation", "neuroinflammation", "biomarker", "cytokine", and "chemokine" with the aim of overview the impact of clozapine on the immune system in individuals with treatment-responsive and treatment-resistant schizophrenia.

Comparative Analysis of Serum BAFF and IL-17 Levels Pre- and Post-Antipsychotic Treatment for Acute Schizophrenia

The interplay between the cytokine network and antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the impact of psychotropic medications on serum levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, TGF-β1, IL-17, and BAFF, and to explore their relationship with psychopathological features. We recruited 63 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia in the acute phase, all of whom were either drug-naïve or had been drug-free for at least three months. Serum levels of IL-4, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, IL-17, and BAFF were measured at baseline and after six months of antipsychotic treatment. The severity of symptoms was assessed using the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), and the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS). Fifty-two patients completed the six-month follow-up for immunoassay analysis. Antipsychotic treatment led to a significant decrease in serum levels of IFN-γ, TGF-β1, and IL-17, alongside a significant increase in BAFF levels. Changes in IFN-γ were positively correlated with SANS scores and negatively correlated with Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scores. Changes in TGF-β1 were negatively correlated with GAF scores. Changes in BAFF were negatively correlated with SAPS scores. Multivariable regression models were used to explore the association between cytokine level changes (IL-17, BAFF, IFN-γ, and TGF-β1) and independent variables, including demographic (gender, age), behavioral (tobacco use), clinical (schizophrenia type, disease course, date of onset, prior treatment), and biological (C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)) factors, as well as standardized assessment scores. No significant associations were found, except for a significant negative correlation between TGF-β1 changes and GAF scores, as well as a positive correlation with age. Interestingly, advanced statistical analyses revealed that only changes in IL-17 and BAFF levels were significantly associated with antipsychotic treatment. Our findings suggest that antipsychotic drugs exert both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects on the cytokine network. The observed modulation of IL-17 and BAFF highlights their potential as future therapeutic targets in schizophrenia.

The effect of clozapine on immune-related biomarkers in schizophrenia patients

Globally, schizophrenia is one of the main causes of disability. Approximately 1 % of the general population suffers from schizophrenia, and 30 % of cases are unresponsive to therapy. Clozapine is the gold standard for therapy-resistant schizophrenia (TRS), yet it has limited effectiveness and serious adverse events in some patients. Because of the possibility of severe neutropenia, clozapine administration requires monthly hematological monitoring in the first four months. Previous investigations have demonstrated the immune system alteration after clozapine treatment in schizophrenia patients. Besides, it has been proposed that clozapine changes the cytokines profile in schizophrenia patients. These findings highlighted the need to learn more about the disease's etiology and investigate the relationship between peripheral immune system markers and clozapine response to support strategies for better treatment outcomes. The time decision-making to start clozapine could be significantly decreased if some biomarkers were developed to assist physicians in anticipating whether a particular patient will respond to the medication. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehensively review the effect of clozapine on immune-related biomarkers in schizophrenia patients.

Elevated levels of peripheral and central nervous system immune markers reflect innate immune dysregulation in autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests dysregulated immune functions in the pathophysiology of Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), although specific immune mechanisms are yet to be identified.

METHODS

We assessed circulating levels of 25 immune/neuroinflammatory markers in a large ASD sample (n = 151) and matched controls (n = 72) using linear models. In addition, we performed global brain transcriptomics analyses of relevant immune-related genes. We also assessed the expression and function of factors and pathway elements of the inflammasome system in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) isolated from ASD and controls using in vitro methods.

RESULTS

We found higher circulating levels of IL-18 and adhesion factors (ICAM-1, MADCAM1) in individuals with ASD relative to controls. Consistent with this, brain levels of ICAM1 mRNA were also higher in ASD compared to controls. Furthermore, we found higher expression/activity of Caspase-1 and the inflammasome sensor NLRP3 in PBMCs in ASD, both at baseline and following inflammatory challenge. This corresponded with higher levels of secreted IL-18, IL-1β, and IL-8, as well as increased expression of adhesion factors following inflammasome activation in ASD PBMC cultures. Inhibition of the NLRP3-inflammasome rescued the observed immune phenotype in ASD in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest a role for inflammasome dysregulation in ASD pathophysiology.

Association between cognitive function and IL-18 levels in schizophrenia: Dependent on IL18 - 607 A/C polymorphism

Accumulating evidence suggests that immune system dysregulation is associated with debilitating neurodevelopment in schizophrenia (SZ). Cognitive impairment is a persistent feature that occurs during the onset of SZ and persists throughout the course of the disease. Early studies have found that elevated interleukin (IL)- 18 interacts with IL18 polymorphism and is correlated with psychotic symptoms in SZ. This study aimed to investigate whether elevated IL-18 levels interacted with the -607 A/C polymorphism to determine cognitive decline in patients with chronic SZ. We recruited 693 inpatients and 422 healthy controls to measure IL-18 levels and genotype the - 607 A/C polymorphism. Further, cognitive function was measured by the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). We found that IL-18 serum levels were higher in patients than those in healthy controls, and were not associated with IL18 - 607 A/C in combined subjects or either patients or healthy controls, respectively. Moreover, - 607 A/C was correlated with the visuospatial/constructional index only in the patients. In addition, our research found that IL-18 levels were positively correlated to immediate memory only in patients with the C/C genotype, but not in patients with C/A or A/A genotype. This study suggests that the relationship of IL-18 with cognitive function depends on the IL18 - 607 A/C polymorphism of SZ patients.

Immunoinflammatory and oxidative alterations in subjects with schizophrenia under clozapine: A meta-analysis

Clozapine presents immunoregulatory properties not well understood. To address this issue, we performed this systematic review to evaluate the immune alterations induced by clozapine and its relationship with the drug's clinical response and compare it with other antipsychotics. Our systematic review has selected nineteen studies meeting the inclusion criteria, from which eleven were included in the meta-analysis, totalizing 689 subjects distributed over three different comparisons. The results revealed that clozapine treatment activates the compensatory immune-regulatory system (CIRS) (Hedges's g = +1.049; CI +0.62 - +1.47, p < 0.001) but has no effects on the immune-Inflammatory Response System (IRS) (Hedges's g= -0.27; CI -1.76 - +1.22, p = 0.71), M1 macrophage (Hedges's g= -0.32; CI -1.78 - +1.14, p = 0.65) and Th1 (Hedge's g = 0.86; CI -0.93 - +1.814, p = 0.07) profiles. Comparing clozapine-treated patients with other anti-psychotics-treated, plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-6 were greater in the clozapine group (Hedge's g = 0.75; CI 0.35 - 1.15, p<0.001). In addition, higher IL-6 plasma levels after four weeks of clozapine treatment were related to the development of clozapine-induced fever; however, IL-6 levels recovered to baseline in 6-10 weeks due to an unexplained compensatory mechanism. In conclusion, our results show that clozapine treatment causes a time-dependent mixed immune profile characterized by increased IL-6 levels and CIRS activation, which may contribute to this drug mechanism of action and adverse effects. Future studies must be designed to investigate the relationship between clozapine-induced immune alterations and symptom remission, treatment resistance, and adverse effects, given the importance of this drug for treating resistant schizophrenia.

Increased prefrontal cortical cells positive for macrophage/microglial marker CD163 along blood vessels characterizes a neuropathology of neuroinflammatory schizophrenia

Transcript levels of cytokines and SERPINA3 have been used to define a substantial subset (40%) of individuals with schizophrenia with elevated inflammation and worse neuropathology in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). In this study, we tested if inflammatory proteins are likewise related to high and low inflammatory states in the human DLFPC in people with schizophrenia and controls. Levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL6, IL1β, IL18, IL8) and a macrophage marker (CD163 protein) were measured in brains obtained from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (N = 92). First, we tested for diagnostic differences in protein levels overall, then we determined the percentage of individuals that could be defined as "high" inflammation using protein levels. IL-18 was the only cytokine to show increased expression in schizophrenia compared to controls overall. Interestingly, two-step recursive clustering analysis showed that IL6, IL18, and CD163 protein levels could be used as predictors of "high and low" inflammatory subgroups. By this model, a significantly greater proportion of schizophrenia cases (18/32; 56.25%; SCZ) were identified as belonging to the high inflammatory (HI) subgroup compared to control cases (18/60; 30%; CTRL) [χ2(1) = 6.038, p = 0.014]. When comparing across inflammatory subgroups, IL6, IL1β, IL18, IL8, and CD163 protein levels were elevated in both SCZ-HI and CTRL-HI compared to both low inflammatory subgroups (all p < 0.05). Surprisingly, TNFα levels were significantly decreased (-32.2%) in schizophrenia compared to controls (p < 0.001), and were most diminished in the SCZ-HI subgroup compared to both CTRL-LI and CTRL-HI subgroups (p < 0.05). Next, we asked if the anatomical distribution and density of CD163+ macrophages differed in those with schizophrenia and high inflammation status. Macrophages were localized to perivascular sites and found surrounding small, medium and large blood vessels in both gray matter and white matter, with macrophage density highest at the pial surface in all schizophrenia cases examined. A higher density of CD163+ macrophages, that were also larger and more darkly stained, was found in the SCZ-HI subgroup (+154% p < 0.05). We also confirmed the rare existence of parenchymal CD163+ macrophages in both high inflammation subgroups (schizophrenia and controls). Brain CD163+ cell density around blood vessels positively correlated with CD163 protein levels. In conclusion, we find a link between elevated interleukin cytokine protein levels, decreased TNFα protein levels, and elevated CD163+ macrophage densities especially along small blood vessels in those with neuroinflammatory schizophrenia.

Increased NLRP3 inflammasome expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with schizophrenia: a case-control study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the gene expression of the P2X purinoceptor 7 (P2X7R)- nod-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) signal pathway in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) between schizophrenia (SCZ) patients and healthy controls (HC) to reveal its relationship with clinical variables.

METHODS

Thirty-two SCZ patients and 41 healthy controls were included in this study. The Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS) and the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale and the Functioning Assessment Short Test (FAST) scales were applied. P2X7R, NLRP3, IL-1β and IL-18 gene expression levels were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction in PBMCs.

RESULTS

NLRP3, P2RX7, IL-1β and IL-18 expression levels were significantly higher in PBMCs of SCZ patients than in HC subjects. Negative correlations were found between NLRP3 gene expression levels and GAF and FAST scales scores. There was a negative correlation between IL-18 expression levels and the GAF and FAST scales scores and a positive correlation with the SAPS scale scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Systemic inflammation is implicated in SCZ pathogenesis, according to our findings, which suggest that the NLRP3 pathway may be involved. The NLRP3 inflammasome may serve as a biomarker for SCZ, and its pharmacological regulation may be a promising treatment approach.Key pointsWe hypothesised that the NLRP3 pathway may contribute to the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia.NLRP3, IL-1β and IL-18 mRNA levels were higher in patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy controls.Negative correlations were found between NLRP3 gene expression levels and GAF and FAST scales scores.There was a negative correlation between IL-18 expression levels and the GAF and FAST scales scores.The SAPS scale scores and IL-18 expression levels had a positive correlation.Given all these findings, it can be stated that NLRP3 inflammasome may play a role in the pathogenesis and symptoms of schizophrenia.

Increased circulating IL-18 levels in severe mental disorders indicate systemic inflammasome activation

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are severe mental illnesses (SMI) that are part of a psychosis continuum, and dysregulated innate immune responses have been suggested to be involved in their pathophysiology. However, disease-specific immune mechanisms in SMI are not known yet. Recently, dyslipidemia has been linked to systemic inflammasome activation, and elevated atherogenic lipid ratios have been shown to correlate with circulating levels of inflammatory biomarkers in SMI. It is, however, not yet known if increased systemic cholesterol load leads to inflammasome activation in these patients.

METHODS

We tested the hypothesis that patients with SCZ and BD display higher circulating levels compared to healthy individuals of key members of the IL-18 system using a large patient cohort (n = 1632; including 737 SCZ and 895 BD), and healthy controls (CTRL; n = 1070). In addition, we assessed associations with coronary artery disease risk factors in SMI, focusing on relevant inflammasome-related, neuroendocrine, and lipid markers.

RESULTS

We report higher baseline levels of circulating IL-18 system components (IL-18, IL-18BPA, IL-18R1), and increased expression of inflammasome-related genes (NLRP3 and NLRC4) in the blood of patients relative to CTRL. We demonstrate a cholesterol dyslipidemia pattern in psychotic disorders, and report correlations between levels of blood cholesterol types and the expression of inflammasome system elements in SMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these results, we suggest a role for inflammasome activation/dysregulation in SMI. Our findings further the understanding of possible underlying inflammatory mechanisms and may expose important therapeutic targets in SMI.

Elevated levels of IL-18 associated with schizophrenia and first episode psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM

To determine whether interleukin 18 (IL-18) is elevated in the blood of schizophrenia (SCZ) and first episode psychosis patients, as well as investigate whether this potential relationship is causal.

METHOD

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of IL-18 levels in the blood of SCZ patients, comprising of both chronic and first episode psychosis (FEP) cohorts. To investigate causality, we undertook the two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study.

RESULTS

A total of eight studies were included in our meta-analysis, our results did indeed show an association between elevated levels of IL-18 and SCZ compared to healthy controls (Z = 3.50, P = .0005). This association remained significant in subsequent subgroup analyses for chronic (Z = 3.15, P = .002) and achieved borderline significance in FEP (Z = 1.93, P = .05) SCZ. Our MR analysis failed to detect any causal relationship between IL-18 levels and SCZ.

CONCLUSION

The results of our study demonstrate that even though IL-18 levels are elevated in SCZ patients, IL-18 levels do not seem to cause of the disorder itself. Our findings suggest that IL-18 may have utility as a biomarker of SCZ and aid in research into the early intervention of the disease.

Peripheral immune markers and antipsychotic non-response in psychosis

BACKGROUND

Peripheral immune markers have previously been linked to a poor response to antipsychotic medication and more severe negative symptoms at the onset of psychosis. The present study investigated the association of blood cytokines and complement markers with the presence of antipsychotic non-response and symptom severity in patients with psychosis.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited 94 patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses, of whom 47 were defined as antipsychotic responders and 47 as antipsychotic non-responders. In all subjects we measured plasma levels of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, TNF-α, and IFN-γ), complement markers (C1-inhibitor, C3, C4, C3a, C3b, Bb, factor D, C5a, terminal complement complex) and high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP). Symptom severity was recorded using the Positive and Negative Syndrome scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS). Binary logistic regression tested each immune marker as predictor of response status while covarying for relevant socio-demographic variables. Correlation analyses tested the association between immune markers and the severity of symptoms.

RESULTS

Interleukin (IL)-8 significantly predicted antipsychotic non-response (OR=24.70, 95% CI, 1.35-453.23, p = 0.03). Other immune markers were not associated with antipsychotic response. IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α significantly positively correlated with negative psychotic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher levels of IL-8 are associated with a poor response to antipsychotic treatment. Increased cytokines levels are specifically associated with more severe negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses.

Association of the kynurenine pathway metabolites with clinical, cognitive features and IL-1β levels in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder and their siblings

OBJECTIVE

There is evidence suggesting that tryptophan (TRP)-kynurenine (KYN) pathway dysregulation is involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and is regulated by inflammatory cytokines. The study investigate for the first time whether this dysregulation occurs in advanced stages of the disease as a byproduct or emerges as one of the early and inherited manifestations of schizophrenia.

METHOD

Sera of 148 patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SCZ), 139 unaffected siblings (SIB) and 210 controls were investigated. Serum interleukin (IL)-1β levels were measured by ELISA, and TRP, KYN and kynurenic acid (KYNA) levels were measured by a high-performance liquid chromatography system. Also, we collected clinical data by applying Comprehensive Assessment of Symptoms and History in SCZ, and SIS-R in SIB and control groups.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, SCZ and SIB groups had lower TRP and higher KYNA levels. TRP levels showed significant differences only between SCZ and controls (p < 0.01). KYNA levels of both SCZ (p ≤ 0.001) and SIB (p < 0.05) were higher than controls. No statistical significance was found for KYN levels across groups. SCZ and SIB groups had higher serum IL-1β levels than controls (p ≤ 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with SCZ and their siblings exhibited similar clinical features and TRP metabolite levels suggesting that TRP-KYN dysregulation may be an inherited component of the disease putatively conferring increased risk to schizophrenia. Elevation of IL-1β is one of the factors promoting overconsumption of the TRP-KYN pathway leading to increased production of neuroregulatory KYNA and presumably to neurodegeneration.

Relationship Between Curative Effect and Serum Inflammatory Factors Level in Male Patients With First-Episode Schizophrenia Treated With Olanzapine

Background: A growing body of evidence shows that immune system disorders are one of the important etiological factors of schizophrenia. Inflammatory cytokines play a very critical role in the pathogenesis and treatment of schizophrenia. However, in the actual clinical practice, there is still a lack of confirmed biological indicators that can be used to evaluate the therapeutic effect of antipsychotics. Methods: In this study, 82 male patients with first-episode schizophrenia and 30 healthy controls were included. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) scores were evaluated, and the serum levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 17 (IL-17), and transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) were detected, both at baseline and 4 weeks later. The patients were divided into two groups, the effective group and the ineffective group, according to the reduction rate of PANSS. Results: In the case group, the levels of hs-CRP were significantly elevated (p = 0.00), whereas IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17 were significantly reduced as compared to the baseline (p = 0.01, 0.02, and 0.00, respectively). Importantly, the baseline levels of the five inflammatory factors were significantly higher in the case group as compared to the control group (p = 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, and 0.00, respectively). Post-treatment, the serum levels for IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17 were significantly higher in the effective group than in the ineffective group (p = 0.00, 0.00, and 0.01, respectively). For every increase in the amount of IL-1β, the risk of ineffectiveness increased by 7% (OR = 0.93 [0.86-1.00]; p = 0.04), whereas for every increase in the amount of IL-17, the risk of ineffectiveness increased by 5% (OR = 0.95 [0.90-0.99]; p = 0.03). Conclusion: The results of the study showed that the levels of inflammatory factors in patients with different therapeutic effects were different, and the changes in the amounts of IL-1β and IL-17 acted as predictors of poor efficacy.

Cytokine Imbalance in Schizophrenia. From Research to Clinic: Potential Implications for Treatment

Cytokines are one of the most important components of the immune system. They orchestrate the brain's response to infectious and other exogenous insults and are crucial mediators of the cross-talk between the nervous and immune systems. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that severe infections and autoimmune disorders, in addition to genetic predisposition, are risk factors for schizophrenia. Furthermore, maternal infection during pregnancy appears to increase the risk of schizophrenia, and proinflammatory cytokines may be negatively involved in the neurodevelopmental process. A cytokine imbalance has been described in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of schizophrenia patients, particularly in the T helper type 1 [Th1] and type 2 [Th2] cytokines, albeit the results of such studies appear to be contradictory. Chronic stress, likewise, appears to contribute to a lasting proinflammatory state and likely also promotes the disorder. The aim of this mini-review is to investigate the roles of different cytokines in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and define how cytokines may represent key molecular targets to regulate for the prevention and treatment of schizophrenia. How current antipsychotic drugs impact cytokine networks is also evaluated. In this context, we propose to change the focus of schizophrenia from a traditionally defined brain disorder, to one that is substantially impacted by the periphery and immune system.

Increased interleukin 18 activity in adolescents with early-onset psychosis is associated with cortisol and depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Evidence indicates that the pathophysiology of adult psychosis involves immune dysregulation, but its associations with stress are often not considered. The inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-18, which is elevated in adult schizophrenia, is suggested to be sensitive to stress. We compared the associations of IL-18 with cortisol and clinical variables in adolescents with early-onset psychosis (EOP) aged 12-18 years and age-matched healthy controls (HC).

METHOD

We measured serum IL-18, IL-18 binding protein (IL-18BP), IL-18 receptor accessory protein (IL-18RAP), IL-18 receptor 1 (IL-18R1) and cortisol, and calculated the IL-18/IL-18BP ratio in patients (n = 31) and HC (n = 60). Psychotic symptoms were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale and depressive symptoms by the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire-Child version (MFQ-C). Bivariate correlation analysis was used to explore relationships between IL-18/IL-18BP ratio and cortisol, depression and other clinical characteristics. Hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess their individual contributions to the variance of the IL-18/IL-18BP ratio.

RESULTS

Patients had significantly higher IL-18 levels and IL-18/IL-18BP ratios than HC, but similar IL-18BP, IL-18RAP and IL-18R1. Both cortisol (R² change = 0.05) and the MFQ-C score (R² change = 0.09) contributed significantly to the variance in IL-18/IL-18BP ratios after controlling for confounders.

CONCLUSION

We found increased IL-18 system activity in adolescents with EOP. Cortisol and depressive symptoms each contributed to the variance in the IL-18/IL-18BP ratio. Our findings support activation of inflammatory pathways in adolescent psychosis and suggest interactions between stress, inflammation and depressive symptoms in EOP.

The Role of Aberrations in the Immune-Inflammatory Response System (IRS) and the Compensatory Immune-Regulatory Reflex System (CIRS) in Different Phenotypes of Schizophrenia: the IRS-CIRS Theory of Schizophrenia

Several lines of evidence indicate that aberrations in immune-inflammatory pathways may contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Here, we propose a novel theoretical framework that was previously developed for major depression and bipolar disorder, namely, the compensatory immune-regulatory reflex system (CIRS), as applied to the neuro-immune pathophysiology of schizophrenia and its phenotypes, including first-episode psychosis (FEP), acute relapses, chronic and treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS), comorbid depression, and deficit schizophrenia. These schizophrenia phenotypes and manifestations are accompanied by increased production of positive acute-phase proteins, including haptoglobin and α2-macroglobulin, complement factors, and macrophagic M1 (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), T helper (Th)-1 (interferon-γ and IL-2R), Th-2 (IL-4, IL-5), Th-17 (IL-17), and T regulatory (Treg; IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1) cytokines, cytokine-induced activation of the tryptophan catabolite (TRYCAT) pathway, and chemokines, including CCL-11 (eotaxin), CCL-2, CCL-3, and CXCL-8. While the immune profiles in the different schizophrenia phenotypes indicate the activation of the immune-inflammatory response system (IRS), there are simultaneous signs of CIRS activation, including increased levels of the IL-1 receptor antagonist (sIL-1RA), sIL-2R and tumor necrosis factor-α receptors, Th-2 and Treg phenotypes with increased IL-4 and IL-10 production, and increased levels of TRYCATs and haptoglobin, α2-macroglobulin, and other acute-phase reactants, which have immune-regulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Signs of activated IRS and CIRS pathways are also detected in TRS, chronic, and deficit schizophrenia, indicating that these conditions are accompanied by a new homeostatic setpoint between upregulated IRS and CIRS components. In FEP, increased baseline CIRS activity is a protective factor that may predict favorable clinical outcomes. Moreover, impairments in the CIRS are associated with deficit schizophrenia and greater impairments in semantic and episodic memory. It is concluded that CIRS plays a key role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia by negatively regulating the primary IRS and contributing to recovery from the acute phase of illness. Therefore, components of the CIRS may offer promising therapeutic targets for schizophrenia.

Changes in serum TNF-α, IL-18, and IL-6 concentrations in patients with chronic schizophrenia at admission and at discharge

OBJECTIVE

Schizophrenia is correlated with aberrant cytokine concentrations. The goal of our study was to detect the serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-18, and IL-6 concentrations in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the acute relapse state at admission and at discharge and to analyze the correlations between the three cytokine concentrations with psychosis symptoms.

METHODS

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to analyze serum concentrations of TNF-α, IL-18, and IL-6 in 68 patients with chronic schizophrenia at admission and at discharge and in 80 controls. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used to analyze psychosis symptoms of the patients.

RESULTS

Serum concentrations of TNF-α, IL-18, and IL-6 in patients at admission were significantly elevated compared to those in controls. After treatment, IL-6 concentrations in patients at discharge were significantly reduced compared to those in patients at admission, and IL-6 concentrations showed no significant difference between patients at discharge and controls. In contrast, TNF-α and IL-18 concentrations showed no significant difference between patients at discharge and patients at admission, and TNF-α and IL-18 concentrations in patients at discharge were still significantly elevated compared to those in controls. IL-6 concentrations in patients at admission showed a positive correlation with negative scores, and IL-6 concentrations in patients at discharge showed positive correlations with positive, negative, and total scores. Reduction in IL-6 concentrations showed positive correlations with reduction in positive, negative, and total scores in patients at discharge.

CONCLUSION

Serum concentrations of TNF-α, IL-18, and IL-6 were significantly elevated in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the acute relapse state. After treatment, IL-6 concentrations in patients at discharge were significantly reduced compared to these in patients at admission.

Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor Gene and Environmental Interaction in the Development of Psychiatric Disorders

CB2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2R) gene is associated with depression. We investigated the gene-environment interaction between CB2R function and diverse stressors. First, anxiety-like behavior during chronic-mild-stress (CMS) was evaluated in C57BL/6JJmsSlc mice following treatment with CB2R agonist JWH015 or inverse-agonist AM630. Second, locomotor activity and anxiety-like behavior were measured following exposure to an immune poly I:C stressor. Gene expressions of HPA axis related molecules, Fkbp5, Nr3c1 and Crf and pro-inflammatory cytokine Il-1b, as well as Bdnf as a key neurotrophin that supports neuron health, function, and synaptic plasticity, were determined in hippocampus of Cnr2 knockout mice, as indicators of stressful environment. CMS-induced anxiety-like behavior was enhanced by AM630 and reduced by JWH015 and fluvoxamine. Poly I:C reduced locomotor activity and increased anxiety-like behavior, and these effects were pronounced in the heterozygote than in the wild type mice. Fkbp5 and Nr3c1 expression were lower in the Cnr2 heterozygotes than in the wild type mice with Poly I:C treatment. These findings indicate that interaction between CB2R gene and stressors increases the risk of depression-like behaviors that may be linked with neuro-immune crosstalk. Further studies in human subjects are necessary to determine the role of CB2R and environmental interaction in the development of depression.

Cytokines dysregulation in schizophrenia: A systematic review of psychoneuroimmune relationship

INTRODUCTION

Schizophrenia is a multifactorial psychiatric disease with complex interactions among the brain and the immune system. A psycho-immune relationship underling schizophrenia is supported by several studies and integrates a specific area of knowledge - psychoneuroimmunology.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed by 2009 Preferred Reporting Items (PRISMA) recommendations. Based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria, publications with relevant information (evaluated by the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisals tools to quality assessment) were included.

RESULTS

In this review, we considered the inflammatory activity promoted by cytokine alterations in schizophrenia aetiology, which reflects the systemic comprehension of this disease in opposition to the traditional approach focused solely on the brain. We focus on the analysis of several specific outcomes, such as proinflammatory cytokines, sample sort, laboratory techniques, diagnosis scales and results of each publication.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review confirms the existence of cytokines abnormalities in schizophrenia disease. Immune imbalances such as increased levels of some cytokines (either at protein level or at mRNA expression), cytokine mRNAs, as well as cytokine gene polymorphisms have been reported with a large support in schizophrenia. These findings provide a strong evidence of a concomitant process of inflammatory activity in schizophrenia illness course.

The immune system and schizophrenia: an update for clinicians

It has long been recognised that the pathology of schizophrenia may involve the immune system, yet this has been a relatively neglected area of research. Recent advances in our understanding of the complexities and functioning of the immune system have allowed new investigation into this area from many angles, including cellular and genetic avenues. A number of prominent theories have been developed. This article gives an overview of our understanding of the immune system and highlights recent advances pertaining to schizophrenia.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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Mice lacking interleukin-18 gene display behavioral changes in animal models of psychiatric disorders: Possible involvement of immunological mechanisms

Preclinical and clinical evidence suggests pro-inflammatory cytokines might play an important role in the neurobiology of schizophrenia and stress-related psychiatric disorders. Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a member of the IL-1 family of cytokines and it is widely expressed in brain regions involved in emotional regulation. Since IL-18 involvement in the neurobiology of mental illnesses, including schizophrenia, remains unknown, this work aimed at investigating the behavior of IL-18 null mice (KO) in different preclinical models: 1. the prepulse inhibition test (PPI), which provides an operational measure of sensorimotor gating and schizophrenic-like phenotypes; 2. amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion, a model predictive of antipsychotic activity; 3. resident-intruder test, a model predictive of aggressive behavior. Furthermore, the animals were submitted to models used to assess depressive- and anxiety-like behavior. IL-18KO mice showed impaired baseline PPI response, which was attenuated by d-amphetamine at a dose that did not modify PPI response in wild-type (WT) mice, suggesting a hypodopaminergic prefrontal cortex function in those mice. d-Amphetamine, however, induced hyperlocomotion in IL-18KO mice compared to their WT counterparts, suggesting hyperdopaminergic activity in the midbrain. Moreover, IL-18KO mice presented increased basal levels of IL-1β levels in the hippocampus and TNF-α in the prefrontal cortex, suggesting an overcompensation of IL-18 absence by increased levels of other proinflammatory cytokines. Although no alteration was observed in the forced swimming or in the elevated plus maze tests in naïve IL-18KO mice, these mice presented anxiogenic-like behavior after exposure to repeated forced swimming stress. In conclusion, deletion of the IL-18 gene resembled features similar to symptoms observed in schizophrenia (positive and cognitive symptoms, aggressive behavior), in addition to increased susceptibility to stress. The IL-18KO model, therefore, could provide new insights into how changes in brain immunological homeostasis induce behavioral changes related to psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia.

Altered serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-18 in depressive disorder patients

OBJECTIVE

Depressive disorder is associated with abnormal changes in cytokines levels. This study aimed to assess serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α, interleukin (IL) 6, and IL-18 in depressive patients. The correlations between these three cytokine concentrations and the patients' clinical characteristics were also assessed.

METHODS

Serum TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-18 concentrations were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay from 64 depressive patients and 80 healthy control subjects. Depressive symptoms of patients were assessed using Hamilton Depression Scale-17.

RESULTS

Depressive patients had increased serum TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations but decreased IL-18 concentrations than controls. TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations were significantly positively associated with Hamilton Depression Scale-17 scores in depressive patients.

CONCLUSION

These findings provided additional evidence that altered TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-18 activities may contribute to the pathophysiology of depressive disorder.

A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression

Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder (MDD) have all been associated with aberrant blood cytokine levels; however, neither the pattern of cytokine alterations nor the impact of clinical status have been compared across disorders. We performed a meta-analysis of blood cytokines in acutely and chronically ill patients with these major psychiatric disorders. Articles were identified by searching the PubMed, PsycInfo and Web of Science, and the reference lists of these studies. Sixty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria (40 schizophrenia, 10 bipolar disorder and 18 MDD) for acutely ill patients. Forty-six studies met the inclusion criteria (18 schizophrenia, 16 bipolar disorder and 12 MDD) for chronically ill patients. Levels of two cytokines (interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)), one soluble cytokine receptor (sIL-2R), and one cytokine receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) were significantly increased in acutely ill patients with schizophrenia, bipolar mania and MDD compared with controls (P<0.01). Following treatment of the acute illness, IL-6 levels significantly decreased in both schizophrenia and MDD (P<0.01); sIL-2R levels increased in schizophrenia; and IL-1RA levels in bipolar mania decreased. In chronically ill patients, the levels of IL-6 were significantly increased in schizophrenia, euthymic (but not depressed) bipolar disorder and MDD compared with controls (P<0.01). The levels of IL-1β and sIL-2R were significantly increased in both chronic schizophrenia and euthymic bipolar disorder. Overall, there were similarities in the pattern of cytokine alterations in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and MDD during acute and chronic phases of illness, raising the possibility of common underlying pathways for immune dysfunction. Effects of treatment on cytokines were more robust for schizophrenia and MDD, but were more frequently studied than for acute mania. These findings have important implications for our understanding of the pathophysiology and treatment of major psychiatric disorders.

Characterization of peripheral cannabinoid receptor expression and clinical correlates in schizophrenia

The relationship between cannabinoid receptor signaling and psychosis vulnerability requires further exploration. The endocannabinoid signaling system is extensive, with receptors exerting regulatory functions in both immune and central nervous systems. In the brain, cannabinoid receptors (CBR) directly modulate neurotransmitter systems. In the peripheral lymphocyte, CBRs mediate cytokine release, with dysregulated cytokine levels demonstrated in schizophrenia. mRNA levels of CBRs were measured in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from 70 participants (35 non-clinical controls, 35 participants with schizophrenia), who were recruited for the absence of marijuana use/abuse by self-report. Changes in mRNA expression were measured using qRT-PCR. Clinical measurements collected included the MATRICS Cognitive Battery and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Levels of CB1R and CB2R mRNA in PBMCs were significantly higher in participants with schizophrenia compared to the non-clinical controls. Additionally, CB1R and CB2R mRNA levels correlated with impairments in cognitive processing and clinical symptom severity in multiple domains. These results continue to support dysregulation of particular aspects of the endocannabinoid signaling system in participants with schizophrenia selected for the self-reported absence of marijuana abuse/dependence.

Transcriptome sequencing of the choroid plexus in schizophrenia

The choroid plexus (CP) has a key role in maintaining brain homeostasis by producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), by mediating transport of nutrients and removing metabolic products from the central nervous system and by responding to peripheral inflammatory signals. Although abnormal markers of immune response and inflammation are apparent in individuals with schizophrenia, the CP of these individuals has not been characterized. We therefore sequenced mRNA from the CP from two independent collections of individuals with schizophrenia and unaffected controls. Genes related to immune function and inflammation were upregulated in both collections. In addition, a co-expression module related to immune/inflammation response that was generated by combining mRNA-Seq data from both collections was significantly associated with disease status. The immune/inflammation-related co-expression module was positively correlated with levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), cortisol and several immune modulator proteins in the serum of the same individuals and was also positively correlated with CRP, cortisol and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the frontal cortex of the same individuals. In addition, we found a substantial number of nodes (genes) that were common to our schizophrenia-associated immune/inflammation module from the pooled data and a module we generated from lippopolysaccharides-treated mouse model data. These results suggest that the CP of individuals with schizophrenia are responding to signals from the periphery by upregulating immune/inflammation-related genes to protect the brain and maintain the homeostasis but nevertheless fails to completely prevent immune/inflammation related changes in the brain.

Altered serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 in manic, depressive, mixed state of bipolar disorder patients

Bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with alterations of cytokines in the immune system. The aim of this study was to assess the serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 in manic, depressive, mixed state patients of BD. The correlations between the serum cytokines levels with the demographic characteristics and the psychiatric symptoms were also assessed. We measured serum TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 levels using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) from 59 BD patients (37 in manic state, 12 in depressive state, 10 in mixed state) and 80 healthy control subjects. The psychotic symptoms of BD were assessed using the Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD) and the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS). The results showed that serum TNF-α and IL-6 levels in manic, depressive and mixed state BD patients were significantly higher than that in controls, while serum IL-18 level was only significantly higher in depressive patients. Serum IL-6 level was significantly positively correlated with YMRS scores in manic episode as well as in mixed episode. When gender and age were added as potentially confounding covariate terms, the differences between controls and each mood state patients were still significant. Our findings provided additional evidence that elevated TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 pathway activities may be involved in the psychopathology of BD. Due to the lack of controlling important confounding factors, such as BMI, smoking status and alcohol use, further studies are required to confirm the roles of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18.

Serum IL-18 level, clinical symptoms and IL-18-607A/C polymorphism among chronic patients with schizophrenia in a Chinese Han population

Literature suggests that alterations in the inflammatory and immune systems are involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Specifically, patients diagnosed with schizophrenia exhibit increased IL-18, a pleiotropic proinflammatory cytokine in type 1 T-helper (Th1) responses. The functional 607A/C promoter polymorphism of the IL-18 gene is also associated with the psychopathology of this disorder. However, no current study has explored its role in the clinical symptoms of schizophrenia as mediated through IL-18 levels. We recruited 772 inpatients with schizophrenia and 775 healthy controls in a Han Chinese population and genotyped the IL-18-607A/C polymorphism. Patient psychopathology was assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Serum IL-18 levels were measured in 80 patients and 93 healthy controls. Our results showed that there were no significant differences in the distribution of the allele and genotype frequencies between the patients and controls. Both increased IL-18 serum level and the IL-18-607A/C polymorphism were positively associated with the PANSS general psychopathology subscore and the PANSS total score. Moreover, interaction of increased IL-18 serum level and the IL-18-607A/C polymorphism influenced the clinical psychopathological symptoms, indicating that association of IL-18 level with the PANSS general psychopathology subscale or the total scores was present only among patients carrying the C allele. We demonstrate an association between the IL-18-607A/C variant and clinical psychopathological symptoms in schizophrenia. Findings suggest that the association between higher IL-18 levels and clinical symptoms in schizophrenia is dependent on the IL-18-607A/C polymorphism.

Altered interleukin-18 levels are associated with cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia

The pathophysiology of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia may involve the neuroinflammation mediated by cytokines. This study examined the IL-18 levels, the cognitive function, and their association in schizophrenia. We recruited 70 chronic patients and 75 normal controls and examined the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) and IL-18 levels. Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was assessed in chronic patients. IL-18 levels were increased in chronic patients as compared to normal controls (p < 0.01). RBANS total score and the subscales of immediate memory and delayed memory were lower in patients than controls (all p < 0.001). In patients, IL-18 levels were positively associated with RBANS total score and the subscales of immediate and delayed memory (all p < 0.05). Multiple regression analysis further confirmed that IL-18 was an independent contributor to RBANS total score and the aforementioned two indexes (all p < 0.05). Our data demonstrate that immune responses may play an important role in cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and the abnormal levels of IL-18 reflecting the disturbed balance of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory mechanisms may be relevant to cognitive deficits of this disorder.

Potential involvement of the interleukin-18 pathway in schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Accumulating evidence implicates inflammatory cytokines in the development of psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia (SZ). IL-18 is one of cytokines that plays a crucial role in immune response and neurodevelopment. We aimed to investigate potential genetic alterations of the cytokine system underpinning SZ.

METHODS

We tested the association of genetic variants within the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction (CCRI) pathway with SZ, using GWAS-derived data involving 768 adult SZ patients and 1348 controls, and replicated the association of IL18R1 rs1035130 with SZ in an independent sample of 1957 adult patients and 1509 controls. We compared expression levels of IL18, IL18R1 and IL18RAP in peripheral blood of a cohort of adolescent participants (<18 years), including 14 early-onset SZ patients and 13 healthy controls. Furthermore, we carried out a cis-eQTL (expression Quantitative Trait Loci) and a cis-mQTL (Methylation Quantitative Trait Loci) analysis for IL18R1 rs1035130.

RESULTS

In the discovery stage, we detected association signals within two IL18 pathway genes, IL18R1 and IL18RAP, with the most significant marker being IL18R1 rs1035130 (P = 1.84E-7, OR = 0.70). In the validation stage, we found rs1035130 was associated with SZ (P = 0.028, OR = 0.89). Expressions of IL18 and IL18R1 were altered in blood of SZ patients compared with 13 controls. Furthermore, cis-QTL analyses indicated that rs1035130 was associated with an eQTL and 5 mQTLs.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest the alteration of IL18 pathway may contribute to the psychopathology of SZ.

Relationship of serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 and schizophrenia-like symptoms in chronic ketamine abusers

OBJECTIVE

Exposing to NMDAR receptor antagonists, such as ketamine, produces schizophrenia-like symptoms in humans and deteriorates symptoms in schizophrenia patients. Meanwhile, schizophrenia is associated with alterations of cytokines in the immune system. This study aims to examine the serum TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 levels in chronic human ketamine users as compared to healthy subjects. The correlations between the serum cytokines levels with the demographic, ketamine use characteristics and psychiatric symptoms were also assessed.

METHODS

155 subjects who fulfilled the criteria of ketamine dependence and 80 healthy control subjects were recruited. Serum TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The psychiatric symptoms of the ketamine abusers were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS).

RESULTS

Serum IL-6 and IL-18 levels were significantly higher, while serum TNF-α level was significantly lower among ketamine users than among healthy controls (p<0.05). Serum TNF-α levels showed a significant negative association with PANSS total score (r=-0.210, p<0.01) and negative subscore (r=-0.300, p<0.01). No significant association was found between PANSS score and serum levels of IL-6 and IL-18.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-18 were altered in chronic ketamine abusers which may play a role in schizophrenia-like symptoms in chronic ketamine abusers.

Increased IL-3 serum levels in chronic patients with schizophrenia: Associated with psychopathology

Schizophrenia is associated with the inflammation-related pathways, including aberrant cytokines levels. In this study, we examined the association of serum IL-3 levels with psychopahological symtoms in chronic schizophrenia. Serum IL-3 levels were assessed in 42 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and compared to 43 healthy control subjects matched for age and gender. Schizophrenia symptomatology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), and serum IL-3 levels were measured by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Our results showed that IL-3 levels were significantly increased in patients with chronic schizophrenia compared to healthy control subjects. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the IL-3 levels and the PANSS general subscore. Moreover, IL-3 levels were significantly positively correlated with depressive subscore. Our results suggested that IL-3 related pathway is associated with psychopathology of schizophrenia patients.

IL-6, IL-18, sIL-2R, and TNFα proinflammatory markers in depression and schizophrenia patients who are free of overt inflammation

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and schizophrenia are associated with inflammatory processes. Studies have shown that these disorders exhibit increase in the level of one or more proinflammatory markers. However, these studies did not exclude patients with obvious inflammation (i.e., CRP>6mg/L). Therefore, a comprehensive study should include those inflammatory disorders. In the present study, the inflammatory natures of MDD and schizophrenia were investigated. To achieve this goal, serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-18 (IL-18), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and soluble interleukin 2 receptor (sIL-2R) in depressed and schizophrenic patients were obtained and compared with those of the control group. Results showed a significant increase (p<0.05) in serum levels of IL-6, IL-18, TNFα, and sIL-2R in MDD and schizophrenic patients compared with the control group. Also patients with schizophrenia group showed higher levels of the inflammatory markers than MDD and control groups. The current study concluded that the immunological response in the MDD and schizophrenic patients groups was significantly stimulated. These disorders may be considered an inflammatory disorder because of elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines in spite of lacking an overt inflammation. Furthermore results of this study suggested the possibility of the use of anti-inflammatory drugs as adjuvant therapy in schizophrenic and depressive disorders.

Hippocampal volume and depressive symptoms are linked to serum IL-18 in schizophrenia

Objective:

Since schizophrenia (SCZ) is often accompanied by hippocampal abnormalities and dysregulation of cytokine production, this study aimed to investigate the impact of the cytokine interleukin (IL)-18, whose biological system appears to be perturbed in SCZ, on brain structure and clinical severity in patients with chronic SCZ.

Methods:

The serum levels of IL-18, including its free bioactive form (i.e., the cytokine fraction not bound to its specific endogenous inhibitor IL-18 binding protein), were evaluated in a case-control study involving 71 individuals with SCZ diagnosis and 29 healthy controls. All participants underwent brain MRI automatic evaluation for hippocampal volume estimation. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was administered to measure severity of symptoms in patients with SCZ.

Results:

Lower amounts of free IL-18 were related to smaller hippocampal volume measures in patients with SCZ. Furthermore, in line with a possible neuroprotective effect of the cytokine, higher levels of free IL-18 corresponded to lower subscores of PANSS depression in patients with SCZ.

Conclusions:

These findings demonstrate that the levels of circulating bioactive IL-18 are related to both hippocampal volume and severity of psychopathologic symptoms in patients with SCZ, confirming the involvement of the cytokine in SCZ pathophysiology and suggesting hippocampal-dependent and neuroprotective functions of IL-18 in this clinical context.

Metabolic and inflammatory genes in schizophrenia

Energy metabolism and immunity are characterized as abnormal in schizophrenia. Because these two systems are highly coordinated, we measured expression of prototypic obesogenic and immunogenic genes in freshly harvested PBMC from controls and participants with schizophrenia. We report significant increases in PPARγ, SREBP1, IL-6 and TNFα, and decreases in PPARα and C/EPBα and mRNA levels from patients with schizophrenia, with additional BMI interactions, characterizing dysregulation of genes relating to metabolic-inflammation in schizophrenia.

Increased Interleukin-17 and decreased BAFF serum levels in drug-free acute schizophrenia

Hypotheses regarding an immune-cytokine basis of schizophrenia have been postulated with controversial findings and a lack of data related to many cytokines. The aim of this study was to assess serum levels of Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), Interleukin-4 (IL-4), Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β), Interleukin-17 (IL-17) and B-cell Activating Factor (BAFF) in schizophrenic patients and to determine correlations between cytokine levels and clinical parameters. Serum cytokine levels were measured with ELISA techniques in 60 neuroleptic-free patients on acute phase of the disease (BPRS≥40) and 28 healthy controls matched for age and sex. Current symptoms were assessed with Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS) and Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS). No significant difference was found between patients and controls regarding IFN-γ serum levels. IL-4 was not detected in both groups. Patients exhibited significantly higher IL-17 and lower BAFF serum levels. IL-17 and BAFF levels were negatively correlated in schizophrenic patients. SANS global score was negatively correlated with IL-17 and positively correlated with IFN-γ serum levels. These results argue against the involvement of Th1 or Th2 population cells in schizophrenia. IL-17 and BAFF could be valuable markers for schizophrenia.

Reduced serum TNF alpha level in chronic schizophrenia patients with or without tardive dyskinesia

BACKGROUND

Mounting evidences have demonstrated the association of altered immune factors with neurodevelopmental and pathological progression of schizophrenia. However, whether immune factors play any role in the pathogenesis of tardive dyskinesia (TD) has been underexplored. To our best knowledge, ours is among the piloting studies examining the association of TNF alpha with extrapyramidal symptoms of schizophrenic patients so far.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the clinical significance of serum TNF alpha level in chronic schizophrenia, especially its potential association with TD.

METHODS

Serum TNF alpha level was measured in a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) from 46 medicated chronic schizophrenia patients with TD, 43 chronic schizophrenia patients without TD, and 43 healthy control subjects. The symptoms of schizophrenia were assessed by the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS).

RESULTS

Chronic patients both with TD and without TD had significantly lower serum level of TNF alpha than controls (TD=9.5±2.1pg/ml, non-TD=10.7±1.8pg/ml, control=37.8±3.4pg/ml, p<0.001). Compared to patients without TD, TD patients showed marginally significant reduction in the serum TNF alpha level (p=0.05). The reduced TNF alpha level was not significantly affected by daily dose or duration of antipsychotic drugs (p>0.05). Serum TNF alpha level was negatively correlated with the PANSS total score in the whole schizophrenia patients (p<0.01), but no significant association with TD severity was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that at chronic stage, serum TNF activity is associated with psychopathology of schizophrenia patients, but whether it can be a biomarker for TD needs further clarification in the future.

Changes in serum levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor-beta in schizophrenic patients before and after treatment

Schizophrenia is one of the most debilitating diseases among psychiatric disorders. Recent studies suggest the existence of effective immunological changes in the pathophysiology of this disease. The purpose of the current study was to determine the changes in serum levels of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Nerve Growth Factor-beta (NGF) in schizophrenic patients before treatment and 40 days after treatment. In this case-control study, serum levels of BDNF and NGF were measured by ELISA in 26 patients with schizophrenia and 26 healthy controls. All patients were treated with clozapine or risperidone for 40 days. A positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) questionnaire has been used to recognize the severity of the disease and to assess the response to treatment. Neurotrophin concentrations were compared before and after the treatment and with control groups using paired t-test and ANOVA test. BDNF and NGF levels in the case group were more than levels after treatment, but these differences were significant only for NGF. Concentrations in both neurotrophins were higher than the control group. The statistically significant difference was observed between changes in the NGF levels in the case and the control group, while no significant difference was seen in changes of BDNF. The main conclusion to be drawn from this study was that the increase in BDNF and particularly NGF may have an important role in causing schizophrenia. And possibly drugs clozapine and risperidone help to treat the disease by reducing the concentration of Neurotrophins.

Cytokine function in medication-naive first episode psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review sets out to give a comprehensive overview of the cytokine profile at the onset of psychosis un-confounded by medication. We aim to provide insight into the early pathophysiological process of psychosis and areas for future research of potential biomarkers able to chart the extent of illness or effectiveness of treatment. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic primary search identified 4638 citations, 4651 studies were retrieved and screened, and 23 studies met the inclusion criteria (published in English before June 2013, patients with neuroleptic naive first episode psychosis, and assessed circulating cytokines). These reported 570 patients, 683 healthy control subjects, and 20 cytokine/cytokine receptors. Papers that contained sufficient stratified data were included in a random-effects pooled effect size meta-analysis. Highly significant effect sizes were found for elevated IL-1β, sIL-2r, IL-6, and TNF-α. Non-significant effect size estimates were obtained for IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ. Thus, we found significant elevation in pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in the serum of patients with medication-naive first episode psychosis. This adds to the evidence of a pro-inflammatory immune deregulation in schizophrenia and suggests these cytokines should be the focus for further research in biomarkers of progress and extent of illness. Future studies should focus on the medication-naive group at the early stages of illness with numbers large enough to allow for the control of other potential confounding factors.

Interleukin 18 and cognitive impairment in first episode and drug naïve schizophrenia versus healthy controls

Alterations in the inflammatory and immune systems have been documented to occur from the earliest stages of schizophrenia, and have been associated with neurodevelopmental changes. Cognitive impairment is a core feature in the pathology of schizophrenia, and recent studies showed a significant increase in serum IL-18 in schizophrenia, and a putative role of IL-18 in neuroprogression and thus neurocognitive defects. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of IL-18 with cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. We recruited 77 first episode and drug naïve schizophrenic patients and 75 healthy control subjects and examined the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) and serum IL-18 in both groups. Schizophrenic symptoms were assessed using the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS). We found that IL-18 levels were non-significantly higher in patients than controls (206.0±92.9 pg/ml vs 193.2±41.8 pg/ml, p=0.28). Cognitive scores on the RBANS and nearly all of its five subscales (all p<0.05) except for the Visuospatial/Constructional index (p>0.05) were significantly lower in schizophrenic patients than normal controls. For the patients, IL-18 was positively associated with the Visuospatial/Constructional domain of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Our findings suggest that cognitive deficits occur during the acute stage of a schizophrenic episode, and IL-18 may be involved in Visuospatial/Constructional deficits of these patients.

Gene expression profiling in treatment-naive schizophrenia patients identifies abnormalities in biological pathways involving AKT1 that are corrected by antipsychotic medication

Distinct gene expression profiles can be detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in patients with schizophrenia; however, little is known about the effects of antipsychotic medication. This study compared gene expression profiles in PMBCs from treatment-naive patients with schizophrenia before and after antipsychotic drug treatment. PBMCs were obtained from 10 treatment-naive schizophrenia patients before and 6 wk after initiating antipsychotic drug treatment and compared to PMBCs collected from 11 healthy community volunteers. Genome-wide expression profiling was conducted using Illumina HumanHT-12 expression bead arrays and analysed using significance analysis of microarrays. This analysis identified 624 genes with altered expression (208 up-regulated, 416 down-regulated) prior to antipsychotic treatment (p < 0.05) including schizophrenia-associated genes AKT1, DISC1 and DGCR6. After 6-8 wk treatment of patients with risperidone or risperidone in combination with haloperidol, only 106 genes were altered, suggesting that the treatment corrected the expression of a large proportion of genes back to control levels. However, 67 genes continued to show the same directional change in expression after treatment. Ingenuity® pathway analysis and gene set enrichment analysis implicated dysregulation of biological functions and pathways related to inflammation and immunity in patients with schizophrenia. A number of the top canonical pathways dysregulated in treatment-naive patients signal through AKT1 that was up-regulated. After treatment, AKT1 returned to control levels and less dysregulation of these canonical pathways was observed. This study supports immune dysfunction and pathways involving AKT1 in the aetiopathophysiology of schizophrenia and their response to antipsychotic medication.

Missing and Possible Link between Neuroendocrine Factors, Neuropsychiatric Disorders, and Microglia

Endocrine systems have long been suggested to be one of the important factors in neuropsychiatric disorders, while the underlying mechanisms have not been well understood. Traditionally, neuropsychiatric disorders have been mainly considered the consequence of abnormal conditions in neural circuitry. Beyond the neuronal doctrine, microglia, one of the glial cells with inflammatory/immunological functions in the central nervous system (CNS), have recently been suggested to play important roles in neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the crosstalk between neuroendocrine factors, neuropsychiatric disorders, and microglia has been unsolved. Therefore, we herein introduce and discuss a missing and possible link between these three factors; especially highlighting the following hormones; (1) Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis-related hormones such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and glucocorticoids, (2) sex-related hormones such as estrogen and progesterone, and (3) oxytocin. A growing body of evidence has suggested that these hormones have a direct effect on microglia. We hypothesize that hormone-induced microglial activation and the following microglia-derived mediators may lead to maladaptive neuronal networks including synaptic dysfunctions, causing neuropsychiatric disorders. Future investigations to clarify the correlation between neuroendocrine factors and microglia may contribute to a novel understanding of the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Elevated levels of circulating IL-18BP and perturbed regulation of IL-18 in schizophrenia

Background

The pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokine Interleukin (IL)-18 has been proposed to play a role in schizophrenia, since elevated circulating levels of its protein and altered frequencies of genetic variants in its molecular system are reported in schizophrenic patients.

Methods

We analyzed 77 patients with schizophrenia diagnosis (SCZ) and 77 healthy control subjects (HC) for serum concentration of both IL-18 and its natural inhibitor, the IL-18 binding protein (IL-18BP).

Results

We confirmed that serum levels of total IL-18 are significantly increased in SCZ, as compared to HC. However, due to a highly significant increase in levels of circulating IL-18BP in SCZ, as compared to HC, the levels of free, bioactive IL-18 are not significantly different between the two groups. In addition, the relationships between the levels of IL-18 and its inhibitor, as well as between the two molecules and age appear dissimilar for SCZ and HC. In particular, the elevated levels of IL-18BP, likely a consequence of the body’s attempt to counteract the early prominent inflammation which characterizes schizophrenia, are maintained in earlier and later stages of the disease. However, the IL-18BP elevation appears ineffective to balance the IL-18 system in younger SCZ patients, while in older patients the levels of circulating bioactive IL-18 are comparable to those of HC, if not lower.

Conclusions

In conclusion, these findings indicate that the IL-18 system is perturbed in schizophrenia, supporting the idea that this pro-inflammatory cytokine might be part of a pathway of genetic and environmental components for vulnerability to the disease.