Intracrinology-revisited and prostate cancer

Increased nuclear factor I-mediated chromatin access drives transition to androgen receptor splice variant dependence in prostate cancer

Androgen receptor (AR) splice variants, of which ARv7 is the most common, are increased in castration-resistant prostate cancer, but the extent to which they drive AR activity is unclear. We generated a subline of VCaP cells (VCaP16) that is resistant to the AR inhibitor enzalutamide (ENZ). AR activity in VCaP16 is driven by ARv7, independently of full-length AR (ARfl), and its cistrome and transcriptome mirror those of ARfl in VCaP cells. ARv7 expression increases rapidly in response to ENZ, but there is a delay in gaining chromatin binding and transcriptional activity, which is associated with increased chromatin accessibility. AR and nuclear factor I (NFI) motifs are most enriched at more accessible sites, and NFIB/X knockdown greatly diminishes ARv7 function. These findings indicate that ARv7 can drive the AR program but that its activity is dependent on adaptations that increase chromatin accessibility to enhance its intrinsically weak chromatin binding.

1,3-Disubstituted thiourea derivatives: Promising candidates for medicinal applications with enhanced cytotoxic effects on cancer cells

The distinct chemical structure of thiourea derivatives provides them with an advantage in selectively targeting cancer cells. In our previous study, we selected the most potent compounds, 2 and 8, with 3,4-dichloro- and 3-trifluoromethylphenyl substituents, respectively, across colorectal (SW480 and SW620), prostate (PC3), and leukemia (K-562) cancer cell lines, as well as non-tumor HaCaT cells. Our research has demonstrated their anticancer potential by targeting key molecular pathways involved in cancer progression, including caspase 3/7 activation, NF-κB (Nuclear Factor Kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) activation decrease, VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) secretion, ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) production, and metabolite profile alterations. Notably, these processes exhibited no significant alterations in HaCaT cells. The effectiveness of the studied compounds was also tested on spheroids (3D culture). Both derivatives 2 and 8 increased caspase activity, decreased ROS production and NF-κB activation, and suppressed the release of VEGF in cancer cells. Metabolomic analysis revealed intriguing shifts in cancer cell metabolic profiles, particularly in lipids and pyrimidines metabolism. Assessment of cell viability in 3D spheroids showed that SW620 cells exhibited better sensitivity to compound 2 than 8. In summary, structural modifications of the thiourea terminal components, particularly dihalogenophenyl derivative 2 and para-substituted analog 8, demonstrate their potential as anticancer agents while preserving safety for normal cells.

Individual and combined effects of commercial glyphosate, atrazine and 2,4-D herbicides on the gerbil ventral prostate

Exposure to pesticides, individually or in a mixture, in drinking water is one of the main sources of human contamination, which causes adverse effects on the reproductive system. Our study aimed to investigate, the effects of a 90-day exposure to low concentrations of glyphosate (GLY), atrazine (ATZ), and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), in commercial formulations, on morphological, molecular, and hormonal parameters of the ventral prostate of gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). The animals were exposed via drinking water to individual concentrations of GLY: 700 μg/L, ATZ: 3 μg/L, and 2,4-D: 70 μg/L, as well as to their mixture (MIX). Our findings showed an increase in prostatic complex relative weight in ATZ-exposed animals. Stereological and morphometric techniques indicated an increase in the percentage and thickness of muscular stroma, following an increase in the amount of collagen and reticular fibers in the MIX group. Histopathological analysis showed a decrease in the incidence of epithelial atrophy, subepithelial inflammation, and microacini in the MIX. On the other hand, ATZ-exposed animals showed an increase in hyperplasia and total prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN). The expression of caspase-3 decreased and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) increased in the 2,4-D and MIX. Western blotting showed an increase in estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) expression in MIX-exposed animals. Testosterone levels decreased in animals from the GLY, ATZ and 2,4-D groups. Our findings provide evidence that individual or combined exposure to herbicides causes hormonal imbalance and morphological alterations, besides favoring the incidence of proliferative lesions in the prostate, predisposing the gland to more severe injuries.

Increased chromatin accessibility mediated by nuclear factor I drives transition to androgen receptor splice variant dependence in castration-resistant prostate cancer

Androgen receptor (AR) splice variants, of which ARv7 is the most common, are increased in prostate cancer (PC) that develops resistance to androgen signaling inhibitor drugs, but the extent to which these variants drive AR activity, and whether they have novel functions or dependencies, remain to be determined. We generated a subline of VCaP PC cells (VCaP16) that is resistant to the AR inhibitor enzalutamide (ENZ) and found that AR activity was independent of the full-length AR (ARfl), despite its continued high-level expression, and was instead driven by ARv7. The ARv7 cistrome and transcriptome in VCaP16 cells mirrored that of the ARfl in VCaP cells, although ARv7 chromatin binding was weaker, and strong ARv7 binding sites correlated with higher affinity ARfl binding sites across multiple models and clinical samples. Notably, although ARv7 expression in VCaP cells increased rapidly in response to ENZ, there was a long lag before it gained chromatin binding and transcriptional activity. This lag was associated with an increase in chromatin accessibility, with the AR and nuclear factor I (NFI) motifs being most enriched at these more accessible sites. Moreover, the transcriptional effects of combined NFIB and NFIX knockdown versus ARv7 knockdown were highly correlated. These findings indicate that ARv7 can drive the AR program, but that its activity is dependent on adaptations that increase chromatin accessibility to enhance its intrinsically weak chromatin binding.

Androgen deprivation therapy in localized prostate cancer. Current status and future trends

INTRODUCTION

Prostate cancer (PCa) has been recognized as an androgen-sensitive disease since the investigations from Huggins and Hodges in 1941. Thanks to these findings, they received the Nobel Prize in 1966. This was the beginning of the development of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) as treatment for patients with PCa.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the current indications of ADT in localized PCa.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

We conducted a comprehensive English and Spanish language literature research, focused on the main indications for ADT in localized PCa.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Nowadays, the indications for ADT as monotherapy in localized PCa have been limited to specific situations, to patients unwilling or unable to receive any form of local treatment if they have a PSA-DT < 12 months, and either a PSA > 50 ng/mL, a poorly differentiated tumor, or troublesome local disease-related symptoms. ADT can be used in combination with local treatment in different scenarios. Although neoadjuvant treatment with ADT prior to surgery with curative intent has no clear oncological impact, as a future sight, PCa is a heterogeneous disease, and there could be a group of patients with high-risk localized disease that could benefit.

CONCLUSIONS

We need to optimize the treatment with ADT in localized PCa, selecting the patients accordingly to their disease characteristics. Given that the therapeutic armamentarium evolves day by day, there is a need for the development of new clinical trials, as well as a molecular studies of patients to identify those who might benefit from an early multimodal treatment.

Germline Mutations in Steroid Metabolizing Enzymes: A Focus on Steroid Transforming Aldo-Keto Reductases

Steroid hormones synchronize a variety of functions throughout all stages of life. Importantly, steroid hormone-transforming enzymes are ultimately responsible for the regulation of these potent signaling molecules. Germline mutations that cause dysfunction in these enzymes cause a variety of endocrine disorders. Mutations in SRD5A2, HSD17B3, and HSD3B2 genes that lead to disordered sexual development, salt wasting, and other severe disorders provide a glimpse of the impacts of mutations in steroid hormone transforming enzymes. In a departure from these established examples, this review examines disease-associated germline coding mutations in steroid-transforming members of the human aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily. We consider two main categories of missense mutations: those resulting from nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) and cases resulting from familial inherited base pair substitutions. We found mutations in human AKR1C genes that disrupt androgen metabolism, which can affect male sexual development and exacerbate prostate cancer and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Others may be disease causal in the AKR1D1 gene that is responsible for bile acid deficiency. However, given the extensive roles of AKRs in steroid metabolism, we predict that with expanding publicly available data and analysis tools, there is still much to be uncovered regarding germline AKR mutations in disease.

Structure-function of DHEA binding proteins

Dehydroepiandrosterone (3β-hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one, DHEA) and its sulfated metabolite DHEA-S are the most abundant circulating steroids and are precursors for active sex steroid hormones, estradiol and testosterone. DHEA has a broad range of reported effects in the central nervous system (CNS), cardiovascular system, adipose tissue, kidney, liver, and in the reproductive system. The mechanisms by which DHEA and DHEA-S initiate their biological effects are diverse. DHEA and DHEA-S may directly bind to plasma membrane (PM) receptors, including a DHEA-specific, G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) in endothelial cells; various neuroreceptors, e.g., aminobutyric-acid-type A (GABA(A)), N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and sigma-1 (S1R) receptors (NMDAR and SIG-1R). DHEA and DHEA-S directly bind the nuclear androgen and estrogen receptors (AR, ERα, or ERβ) although with significantly lower binding affinities compared to the steroid hormones, e.g., testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol, which are the cognate ligands for AR and ERs. Thus, extra-gonadal metabolism of DHEA to the sex hormones must be considered for many of the biological benefits of DHEA. DHEA also actives GPER1 (G protein coupled estrogen receptor 1). DHEA activates constitutive androstane receptor CAR (CAR) and proliferator activated receptor (PPARα) by indirect dephosphorylation. DHEA affects voltage-gated sodium and calcium ion channels and DHEA-2 activates TRPM3 (Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily M Member 3). This chapter updates our previous 2018 review pertaining to the physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms of DHEA and DHEA-S activity.

Quantitative analysis of specific androgens in serum and urine samples from male, pre, and postmenopausal subjects using LC-MRM-MS

Androgens are endogenous hormones that play a crucial role in the paracrine and intracrine hormone system to perform and maintain vital physiological functions. Altered levels of androgens are implicated in many diseases such as sexual dysregulation, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and heart diseases etc. In this manuscript we describe a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) for quantitatively measuring specific androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, androsterone sulphate, androstenedione, and dihydrotestosterone in serum and urine samples. Serum acquired from nine different subjects (three pre-menopausal women, three postmenopausal women, and three healthy males) were used to evaluate the developed methods. In the sample preparation methods for serum either protein precipitation or liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) was used while the analysis of urinary androgens used LLE. The extracted androgens were quantitatively measured using LC-MRM-MS to which known amounts of stable isotope labeled standards were added. This manuscript also presents a LC-MRM-MS method mode for the analysis of oxime derivatized androgens potentially to enhance the sensitivity of the assay if required, from urine and venous-drawn serum samples.

Comprehensive Sex Steroid Profiling in Multiple Tissues Reveals Novel Insights in Sex Steroid Distribution in Male Mice

A comprehensive atlas of sex steroid distribution in multiple tissues is currently lacking, and how circulating and tissue sex steroid levels correlate remains unknown. Here, we adapted and validated a gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous measurement of testosterone (T), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androstenedione, progesterone (Prog), estradiol, and estrone in mouse tissues. We then mapped the sex steroid pattern in 10 different endocrine, reproductive, and major body compartment tissues and serum of gonadal intact and orchiectomized (ORX) male mice. In gonadal intact males, high levels of DHT were observed in reproductive tissues, but also in white adipose tissue (WAT). A major part of the total body reservoir of androgens (T and DHT) and Prog was found in WAT. Serum levels of androgens and Prog were strongly correlated with corresponding levels in the brain while only modestly correlated with corresponding levels in WAT. After orchiectomy, the levels of the active androgens T and DHT decreased markedly while Prog levels in male reproductive tissues increased slightly. In ORX mice, Prog was by far the most abundant sex steroid, and, again, WAT constituted the major reservoir of Prog in the body. In conclusion, we present a comprehensive atlas of tissue and serum concentrations of sex hormones in male mice, revealing novel insights in sex steroid distribution. Brain sex steroid levels are well reflected by serum levels and WAT constitutes a large reservoir of sex steroids in male mice. In addition, Prog is the most abundant sex hormone in ORX mice.

The Role of Kisspeptin in the Control of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis and Reproduction

The discovery of kisspeptin as a critical central regulatory factor of GnRH release has given people a novel understanding of the neuroendocrine regulation in human reproduction. Kisspeptin activates the signaling pathway by binding to its receptor kisspeptin receptor (KISS1R) to promote GnRH secretion, thereby regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG) axis. Recent studies have shown that kisspeptin neurons located in arcuate nucleus (ARC) co-express neurokinin B (NKB) and dynorphin (Dyn). Such neurons are called KNDy neurons. KNDy neurons participate in the positive and negative feedback of estrogen to GnRH secretion. In addition, kisspeptin is a key factor in the initiation of puberty, and also regulates the processes of female follicle development, oocyte maturation, and ovulation through the HPG axis. In male reproduction, kisspeptin also plays an important role, getting involved in the regulation of Leydig cells, spermatogenesis, sperm functions and reproductive behaviors. Mutations in the KISS1 gene or disorders of the kisspeptin/KISS1R system may lead to clinical symptoms such as idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (iHH), central precocious puberty (CPP) and female infertility. Understanding the influence of kisspeptin on the reproductive axis and related mechanisms will help the future application of kisspeptin in disease diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we critically appraise the role of kisspeptin in the HPG axis, including its signaling pathways, negative and positive feedback mechanisms, and its control on female and male reproduction.

Tracing steroidogenesis in prostate biopsy samples to unveil prostate tissue androgen metabolism characteristics and potential clinical application

Androgens are essential for prostate cancer development. However, steroidogenesis has mainly been investigated in a limited number of prostate cancer cell lines, leading to varied conclusions and elusive clinical significance. Here, we established an ex vivo research platform with fresh biopsy samples transiently cultured with tritium- labelled androgens to trace steroidogenesis in prostate tissues and investigate its potential clinical application. DHEA was confirmed as the major precursor for androgen synthesis in the prostate. Significant amounts of oxidized DHEA and 5α-androstanedione were generated from DHEA in prostate biopsy samples. Prostatic steroidogenesis was independent of other clinical factors. Furthermore, prostatic steroidogenesis was suppressed after androgen deprivation therapy but increased upon treatment resistance, indicating that prostatic steroidogenesis was affected by clinical treatments. Overall, we provide an accessible research platform to characterize steroidogenesis in prostate tissue and indicate the correlation between prostatic steroidogenesis and disease progression.

Adrenal androgens, adrenarche, and zona reticularis: A human affair?

In humans, reticularis cells of the adrenal cortex fuel the production of androgen steroids, constituting the driver of numerous morphological changes during childhood. These steps are considered a precocious stage of sexual maturation and are grouped under the term "adrenarche". This review describes the molecular and enzymatic characteristics of the zona reticularis, along with the possible signals and mechanisms that control its emergence and the associated clinical features. We investigate the differences between species and discuss new studies such as genetic lineage tracing and transcriptomic analysis, highlighting the rodent inner cortex's cellular and molecular heterogeneity. The recent development and characterization of mouse models deficient for Prkar1a presenting with adrenocortical reticularis-like features prompt us to review our vision of the mouse adrenal gland maturation. We expect these new insights will help increase our understanding of the adrenarche process and the pathologies associated with its deregulation.

Determination of Intraprostatic and Intratesticular Androgens

Androgens represent the main hormones responsible for maintaining hormonal balance and function in the prostate and testis. As they are involved in prostate and testicular carcinogenesis, more detailed information of their active concentration at the site of action is required. Since the introduction of the term intracrinology as the local formation of active steroid hormones from inactive precursors of the adrenal gland, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and DHEA-S, it is evident that blood circulating levels of sex steroid hormones need not reflect their actual concentrations in the tissue. Here, we review and critically evaluate available methods for the analysis of human intraprostatic and intratesticular steroid concentrations. Since analytical approaches have much in common in both tissues, we discuss them together. Preanalytical steps, including various techniques for separation of the analytes, are compared, followed by the end-point measurement. Advantages and disadvantages of chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS, GC-MS), immunoanalytical methods (IA), and hybrid (LC-IA) are discussed. Finally, the clinical information value of the determined steroid hormones is evaluated concerning differentiating between patients with cancer or benign hyperplasia and between patients with different degrees of infertility. Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated androgens are mentioned as perspective prognostic markers for these purposes.