Immuno-stimulating effect of the endo-polysaccharide produced by submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus

Influence of different bond types and polymerization degrees of glucose polymers on the fermentation of Inonotus obliquus for the production of hypoglycemic activity polysaccharides

This research aimed to investigate the impact of different glycosidic polymers, such as maltose, cellobiose, starch, and β-glucan, on the production of bioactive polysaccharides via deep liquid fermentation using Inonotus obliquus (I. obliquus). The focus was on their potential role as α-glucosidase inhibitors in diabetes treatment. The polysaccharides were assessed based on the induction of sugar components and the resulting α-glucosidase inhibitory rate (AGIR). The findings indicated that β-glucan was the most effective in enhancing polysaccharide production, followed by starch, maltose, and cellobiose. β-Glucan resulted in the highest AGIR increase (52.7 %), a 2.01-fold improvement compared to the control. After isolation and purification from the β-glucan fermentation products, the polysaccharide DPG-2 was identified as β-glucan, with a molecular weight of 17.02 kDa and an IC50 value of 91.71 μg/mL, surpassing that of acarbose. Structural analysis revealed that the enhanced AGIR of DPG-2 was primarily attributed to a greater proportion of β(1 →3) and β(1 → 6) glycosidic bonds compared to the control, which were crucial for its elevated AGIR. Under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions, DPG-2 formed a structured triple helix and exhibited protein binding. These results highlight the potential of β-glucan polysaccharides from I. obliquus as promising candidates for diabetes therapy.

Recent advances in Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. polysaccharides: Extractions, purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, and existing and potential applications

Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant. (A. argyi) is an important member of Asteraceae (Compositae) family, which has good medicinal potential and edible value. Phytochemical studies have shown that the A. argyi has a variety of bioactive components, mainly including polysaccharides, flavonoids, alkaloids, and volatile oil. More and more evidences show that A. argyi polysaccharide is a kind of representative pharmacological and biological active macromolecules, which has a variety of pharmacological activities in vitro and in vivo, such as estrogen-like effect, anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant and immune regulation effect. As far as we know, there are few comprehensively reviews on A. argyi polysaccharide. This review aims to comprehensively and systematically review the research progress on the extractions and purifications, structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, structure-activity relationships, existing and potential applications of A. argyi polysaccharides in the past 12 years, in order to support their therapeutic potential and health functions. Finally, prospects were made for the further development and utilization of A. argyi polysaccharides in four fields: food, medicine, packaging materials, and daily chemicals.

Comparison of the Controlled Atmosphere Treatment for Submerged and Solid-State Fermentation of Inonotus obliquus

In this study, a controlled atmosphere (CA) treatment was used in the submerged (SM) and solid-state (SS) fermentation of Inonotus obliquus to determine the optimal conditions. The goal was to accelerate the artificial fermentation to obtain I. obliquus as an ingredient for dietary supplements. The results indicated that when CA treatment was used, the SM and SS fermentation of I. obliquus yielded polysaccharide and betulinic acid contents 2-2.5 times higher than those obtained when such treatment was not used. The two fermentation methods yielded similar outcomes in terms of DPPH scavenging ability, bioactivity, and antioxidant activity. Although SS fermentation yielded highly bioactive fruiting bodies when the period of fermentation was extended to 60 days, the mycelia produced by SM reached a similar bioactivity quality with only 30 days of fermentation. It was indicated that SM fermentation is more economically feasible than SS fermentation in the production of I. obliquus.

Fungal polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus are agonists for Toll-like receptors and induce macrophage anti-cancer activity

Fungal polysaccharides can exert immunomodulating activity by triggering pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on innate immune cells such as macrophages. Here, we evaluate six polysaccharides isolated from the medicinal fungus Inonotus obliquus for their ability to activate mouse and human macrophages. We identify two water-soluble polysaccharides, AcF1 and AcF3, being able to trigger several critical antitumor functions of macrophages. AcF1 and AcF3 activate macrophages to secrete nitric oxide and the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Combined with interferon-γ, the fungal polysaccharides trigger high production of IL-12p70, a central cytokine for antitumor immunity, and induce macrophage-mediated inhibition of cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo. AcF1 and AcF3 are strong agonists of the PRRs Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4, and weak agonists of Dectin-1. In comparison, two prototypical particulate β-glucans, one isolated from I. obliquus and one from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (zymosan), are agonists for Dectin-1 but not TLR2 or TLR4, and are unable to trigger anti-cancer functions of macrophages. We conclude that the water-soluble polysaccharides AcF1 and AcF3 from I. obliquus have a strong potential for cancer immunotherapy by triggering multiple PRRs and by inducing potent anti-cancer activity of macrophages.

Rhodotorula mucilaginosa ZTHY2 Attenuates Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression in Mice

Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (R. mucilaginosa) can enhance the immune and antioxidant function of the body. However, whether R. mucilaginosa has an immunoregulatory effect on cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressed animals remains to be clarified. In this study, the R. mucilaginosa ZTHY2 that we isolated from the coastal waters of the South China Sea previously was prepared in order to investigate its immunoprotective effect on CTX-induced immunosuppression in mice, and the effects were compared to those of Lactobacillus acidophilus (LA) (a well-known probiotic). Seventy-two male SPF mice were divided into six groups: The C group (control); IM group (immunosuppressive model group) (+CTX); Rl, Rm, and Rh groups (+CTX+low, medium, and high concentration of R. mucilaginosa, respectively); and PC (positive control) group (+CTX+LA). After a 28-day feeding trial, blood samples were taken for biochemical and serum immunological analysis, and the thymus and spleen were collected to analyze the organ index, lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation, and antioxidant capacity. The findings showed that R. mucilaginosa ZTHY2 improved the spleen and thymus indices, effectively attenuated immune organ atrophy caused by CTX, and enhanced the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes induced by ConA and LPS. R. mucilaginosa ZTHY2 promoted the secretion of cytokines and immunoglobulins and significantly increased the contents of IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IgA, IgG, IgM, CD4, CD8, CD19, and CD20 in serum. The proportion of CD4+, CD8+, CD19+, and CD20+ lymphocytes in spleen, thymus, and mesenteric lymph nodes were increased. In addition, R. mucilaginosa ZTHY2 reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and increased glutathione (GSH), total superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) levels. Our results indicated that R. mucilaginosa ZTHY2 can significantly enhance the immune function of immunosuppressed mice, and improving antioxidant capacity thus attenuates CTX-induced immunosuppression and immune organ atrophy.

New Inonotus Polysaccharides: Characterization and Anticomplementary Activity of Inonotus rheades Mycelium Polymers

Inonotus is a small genus of xylotrophic basidiomycetes and a source of bioactive fungochemicals among which a special place is occupied by polymeric compounds. In this study, polysaccharides that are widespread in Europe, Asia, and North America and a poorly understood fungal species, I. rheades (Pers.) Karst. (fox polypore), were investigated. Water-soluble polysaccharides of I. rheades mycelium were extracted, purified, and studied using chemical reactions, elemental and monosaccharide analysis, UV-Vis and FTIR spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, and linkage analysis. Five homogenic polymers (IRP-1-IRP-5) with molecular weights of 110-1520 kDa were heteropolysaccharides that consist mainly of galactose, glucose, and mannose. The dominant component, IRP-4, was preliminary concluded to be a branched (1→3,6)-linked galactan. Polysaccharides of I. rheades inhibited the hemolysis of sensitized sheep erythrocytes by complement from human serum, signifying anticomplementary activity with the greatest effects for the IRP-4 polymer. These findings suggest that I. rheades mycelium is a new source of fungal polysaccharides with potential immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties.

Triterpenoids as bivalent and dual inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase/butyrylcholinesterase from the fruiting bodies of Inonotus obliquus

Inonotus obliquus, an edible and medicinal mushroom parasitic on birches, has been used in human diet and for traditional therapies in the high latitude regions of Europe and Asia for a long time. Our phytochemical study of this fungus led to the identification of fourteen triterpenoids including four undescribed ones, and two pairs of undescribed phenolic enantiomers. The undescribed compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis including 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS, quantum chemical NMR and ECD calculations, as well as single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Bioassays revealed that eight compounds showed dual inhibition against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) with IC₅₀ values ranging from 2.40 ± 0.05 to 28.72 ± 0.46 μM, while 3β-hydroxy-lanosra-8,24-dien-21-al and trametenolic acid only presented BuChE inhibitory activities with IC₅₀ values of 22.21 ± 1.01 and 7.68 ± 0.13 μM, respectively. In the kinetic studies, the most active three compounds acted as non-competitive inhibitors for both cholinesterases. Furthermore, molecular docking simulations revealed that three compounds demonstrated dual-sites bounding to AChE/BuChE. These triterpenoids emerged as bivalent and dual inhibitors of AChE/BuChE and could be effective drug candidates to prevent and treat Alzheimer's disease in the future.

Effect of alkali-treated birch sawdust on the lignocellulase secretion and exo-polysaccharide production by Inonotus obliquus under submerged fermentation and its lignocellulose degradation patterns

The objectives of this study were to investigate the medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus on the production of polysaccharides and changes of extracellular lignocellulolytic enzymes during submerged fermentation using alkali-treated birch sawdust as substrate. Meanwhile, in order to explore the degradation mode of lignocellulose in alkali-treated birch sawdust, degradation analysis of three components of lignocellulose was carried out. The fungus process in alkali-treated birch sawdust medium resulted in a higher degradation rate of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin of 39.24%, 51.00% and 31.3% after 11 days of submerged fermentation by the mycelium of I. obliquus, respectively. Maximal polysaccharide production and α-glucosidase inhibition rate determined in the alkali-treated birch sawdust medium were 6.93 mg/mL and 55.80%, while they were 4.98 mg/mL and 27.89% in the control. Moreover, high activities of laccase (51.95 IU/mL), CMCase (1.35 IU/mL), filter paper activity (0.50 IU/mL) and β-glucosidase (0.55 IU/mL) were observed in alkali-treated birch sawdust medium, respectively. The results demonstrated that the addition of alkali-treated birch sawdust could promote the yield and α-glucosidase inhibition activity of polysaccharides and induce the production of cellulase and xylanase, indicating that alkali pretreatment was conducive to utilization of birch sawdust by I. obliquus.

Decorating Bacteria with a Therapeutic Nanocoating for Synergistically Enhanced Biotherapy

Disorders in the gut microbiota have been implicated in various diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, diabetes, and cancers. Oral microecologics are of great importance due to their ability to directly intervene the gut microbiome as well as their noninvasiveness and low side effects, while have suffered from low bioavailability and a single therapeutic effect. Here, probiotics are coated with a therapeutic nanocoating for synergistically enhanced biotherapy, a method inspired by the robust protective and therapeutic effectiveness of silkworm cocoon. With its transition from a random coil to β-sheet conformation, silk fibroin can self-assemble onto the surface of bacteria. By a simple layer-by-layer procedure, an entire nanocoating can be formed along with a near quantitative coating ratio and almost uninfluenced bacterial viability. Thanks to its protective barrier role and innate pharmaceutical activity, silk fibroin nanocoating endows the coated bacteria with a markedly improved survival against gastric insults and a synergistically enhanced therapeutic effect in a murine model of intestinal mucositis. This work demonstrates how therapeutic elements can be combined with probiotics via a simple coating strategy and proposes an alternative to enhance bioavailability and treatment efficacy of oral microecologics.

Comparison of Polysaccharides Extracted from Cultivated Mycelium of Inonotus obliquus with Polysaccharide Fractions Obtained from Sterile Conk (Chaga) and Birch Heart Rot

The polysaccharides of the sterile conk of Inonotus obliquus (Chaga) have demonstrated multiple bioactivities. The mycelium of this basidiomycete, obtained after submerged cultivation, has been considered a feasible alternative to the sterile conk for the production of polysaccharides. However, previous research has paid little attention to the differences in the structures of polymers obtained from the different resources. Moreover, the birch wood colonized by I. obliquus has never been investigated as a source of bioactive polysaccharides. In the present study, polysaccharide fractions produced from cultivated mycelium, sterile conks of different geographical origins, and birch heart rot were investigated. High amounts of phenolic compounds, possibly lignans, were bound to the sterile conk polysaccharides. Mycelial polysaccharides were rich in α- and β-glucans and had high (10⁵ Da) and low (10⁴ Da) molecular weight populations. On the other hand, sterile conk polysaccharides were mainly β-glucan of lower and monodispersed molecular weight (10³ Da). Heart rot polysaccharides were comprised mainly of low molecular weight (10³ Da) hemicelluloses. Nevertheless, fungal polysaccharides were identified in the extracts. The differences in structure and molecular properties among the polysaccharide fractions of mycelium, heart rot, and sterile conk are likely associated with differences in bioactivities and, therefore, in nutraceutical potential.

Deciphering the antitumoral potential of the bioactive metabolites from medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The crude extracts of the medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus have been used as an effective traditional medicine to treat malicious tumors, gastritis, gastric ulcers, and other inflammatory conditions in Russia and most Baltic countries.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

Deciphering the antitumoral potential of the bioactive metabolites from I. obliquus and addressing its possibility to be used as effective agents for tumor treatment, restoration of compromised immunity and protection of gastrointestinal damage caused by chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analysed the current achievements and dilemma in tumor chemo- or immunotherapy. In this context, we searched the published literatures on I. obliquus covering from 1990 to 2020, and summarized the activities of antitumor, antioxidation, and immunomodulation by the polysaccharides, triterpenoids, small phenolic compounds, and hispidin polyphenols. By comparing the merits and shortcomings of current and traditional methodology for tumor treatment, we further addressed feasibility for the use of I. obliquus as an effective natural drug for tumor treatment and prevention.

RESULTS

The diverse bioactive metabolites confer I. obliquus great potential to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. Its antitumor activities are achieved either through suppressing multiple oncogenic signals including but not limited to the activation of NF-κB and FAK, and the expression of RhoA/MMP-9 via ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. The antitumor activities can also be achieved by inhibiting tyrosinase activity via PAK1-dependent signaling pathway or altering lysosomal membrane permeabilization through blocking tubulin polymerization and/or disturbing energy metabolism through LKB1/AMPK pathway. In addition, the metabolites from I. obliquus also harbour the potentials to reverse MDR either through selective inhibition on P-gp/ABCB1 or MRP1/ABCC1 proteins or the induction of G2/M checkpoint arrest in tumor cells of chemoresistant phenotypes mediated by Nox/ROS/NF-kB/STAT3 signaling pathway. In addition to the eminent effects in tumor inhibition, the metabolites in I. obliquus also exhibit immunomodulatory potential to restore the compromised immunity and protect against ulcerative damage of GI tract caused by chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

I. obliquus possesses the potential to reduce incidence of tumorigenesis in healthy people. For those whose complete remission has been achieved by chemotherapy, administration of the fungus will inhibit the activation of upstream oncogenic signals and thereby prevent metastasis; for those who are in the process of chemotherapy administration of the fungus will not only chemosensitize the tumor cells and thereby increasing the chemotherapeutic effects, but also help to restore the compromised immunity and protect against ulcerative GI tract damage and other side-effects induced by chemotherapy.

Implementation of food safety management systems that meets ISO 22000:2018 and HACCP: A case study of capsule biotechnology products of chaga mushroom

In our study, a food safety management system was developed for a chaga mushroom biotechnology product manufacturer, with the purpose of meeting the quality demands of customers and enhancing the manufacturer's reputation. The study focused on identifying the potentially significant hazards present at each stage of the production process for chaga mushroom capsule products, and on ensuring that the biotechnology company in question has fully implemented ISO22000:2018 and the HACCP methodology. The results indicate that, in the 1 year following the implementation of ISO 22000:2018, there was a statistically significant drop (P < 0.05) in the coliforms level of the tested biotechnology product samples that started in the ninth month following implementation. The rapid screening of mycotoxin, heavy metal, and pesticide residue levels also increased monitoring intensity and strengthened the periodic rotation plan, enabling control over potential problems relating to raw materials and ensuring product quality. This finding reveals the importance and necessity of rapid screening for small- and medium-sized food industry enterprises. Furthermore, 1 year after the system's implementation, the defect rate for chaga products was also observed to have declined, and the number of process flow anomalies requiring correction was also found to have decreased significantly (P < 0.05), indicating that safety and quality levels were improving and stabilizing. If implemented over a longer period of time, the food safety management system's benefits would stand out even more, and significant improvements would be observed for more monitored items. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Few studies have touched on food safety management systems (FSMSs) developed for capsule health food products. The enterprise examined in this study had actively worked to improve its quality system and meet its customers' needs through the implementation of the FSMSs.

Simultaneous Use of Stimulatory Agents to Enhance the Production and Hypoglycaemic Activity of Polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus by Submerged Fermentation

This study aimed to determine the effect of applying stimulatory agents to liquid cultured Inonotus obliquus on the simultaneous accumulation of exo-polysaccharides (EPS) and their monosaccharide composition. Different stimulatory agents (VB₆, VB₁, betulin and birch extract) were investigated for their effects on active exo-polysaccharides by submerged fermentation of I. obliquus. The mycelial biomass, reducing sugar content, EPS yield and α-glucosidase inhibition rate were determined, and the EPS obtained was analyzed for monosaccharide composition. The results showed that the addition of all the four stimulatory agents could significantly increase the inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase of EPS than the control, whereas EPS from 4 μg/mL VB₁-containing medium had the best effect with an estimated IC₅₀ value 24.34 μg/mL. Among the four stimulatory agents, VB₆ gave maximum production of mycelial biomass and EPS at the concentration of 4 μg/mL with a increase of 50.79% and 114.46%, respectively. In addition, betulin had a significant effect on increasing the EPS yield and activity, and birch extract had a significantly stimulatory effect on the mycelial growth and the polysaccharides activity, only slightly worse than VB₆ and VB₁. Moreover, the addition of different stimulatory agents changed the monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides, which had a correlation with polysaccharide activity.

Optimization of Polysaccharide Production from Cordyceps militaris by Solid-State Fermentation on Rice and Its Antioxidant Activities

Polysaccharides are an important class of bioactive components of medical mushroom and herbs and are now used as natural drugs or dietary supplements on a global scale. In this paper, we aimed to increase the polysaccharide production of Cordyceps militaris and the antioxidant activities of fermented rice by solid-state fermentation. The media components and culture condition were optimized by orthogonal design and mono-factor tests using rice as the raw material. The optimal media consisted of (g/L): rice (50), fructose (7), glycerin (7), peptone (1), MgCl₂ (0.11), VB₁ (0.05), VB₂ (0.05), CaCl₂ (1.5), corn bran (6), and a water-materials ratio of 100%. The fermentation condition was as follows: inoculum volume of 5.5% (v/w), rice weight of 50 g in one bowl with a diameter of 120 mm and a depth of 90 mm, incubation temperature of 26 °C, and incubation time of seven days. Under the optimized condition, the maximal C. militaris polysaccharide content and free radical scavenging ratio were 68.3 mg/g dry substrate and 98.9%, respectively. This study provides a new strategy for the production of healthy food from traditional food.

Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides induces apoptosis of lung cancer cells and alters energy metabolism via the LKB1/AMPK axis

The present study explores the mechanisms underlying the anti-cancer action of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides (IOP). Thus, we characterized the IOP components extracted from Chaga sclerotium and, found that the extracts contained 70% polysaccharides with an average molecular weight of 4.5 × 10⁴ Da consisting of 75% glucose. We then showed that IOP extract activated AMPK in lung cancer cells expressing LKB1, suppressed cell viability, colony-formation, and triggered cell apoptosis. In conjunction, IOP downregulated Bcl-2, upregulated Bax, and enhanced cleavage of Caspase-3 and PARP. All of these effects were prevented by treatment with Compound C, a chemical inhibitor of AMPK. IOP diminished mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), concurrent with decreases in oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis, which was dependent on LKB1/AMPK. Finally, IOP at a dosage of 50 mg/kg significantly inhibited allograft tumor growth of the LLC1 cells in association with increased apoptosis. Collectively, our results demonstrate that IOP acts on cancer cells through a mechanism by which AMPK triggers the apoptotic pathway via the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore, and reducing MMP, leading to an inhibition of ATP production. Therefore, our study provides a solid foundation for the use of IOP as a promising alternative or supplementary medicine for cancer therapy.

The polysaccharide from Inonotus obliquus protects mice from Toxoplasma gondii-induced liver injury

The study aimed to explore the protective effects and mechanism of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide (IOP) on liver injury caused by Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection in mice. The results showed that treatment with IOP significantly decreased the liver coefficient, the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO), and increased the contents of antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH). IOP effectively decreased the expression of serum tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interluekin-4 (IL-4) in T. gondii-infected mice. In agreement with these observations, IOP also alleviated hepatic pathological damages caused by T. gondii. Furthermore, we found that IOP down-regulated the levels of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), phosphorylations of nuclear factor-κappaB (NF-κB) p65 and inhibitor kappaBα (IκBα), whereas up-regulated the expressions of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). These findings suggest that IOP possesses hepatoprotective effects against T. gondii-induced liver injury in mice, and such protection is at least in part due to its anti-inflammatory effects through inhibiting the TLRs/NF-κB signaling axis and the activation of an antioxidant response by inducing the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling.

Bioactivity-based analysis and chemical characterization of cytotoxic constituents from Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) that induce apoptosis in human lung adenocarcinoma cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inonotus obliquus, also known as Chaga mushroom, is one of the most widely appreciated wild edible mushrooms in Russia and northern European countries and is renowned for its use in cancer treatment. Indeed, recently published in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated its anticancer activity in various types of cancer and support its potential application for therapeutic intervention in cancer. However, its activity against lung cancer, the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, and the underlying molecular basis of its action remain to be fully elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic activity of I. obliquus in four human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines with different p53 status (A549, H1264, H1299, and Calu-6) and identify its active constituents by bioactivity-based analysis and the underlying molecular basis of their cytotoxicity on lung cancer cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bioactivity-guided fractionation and preparative/semi-preparative HPLC purification were used with LC/MS analysis to separate the bioactive constituents. Cell viability and apoptosis in human lung cancer cell lines (A549, H1264, H1299, and Calu-6) were assessed using the WST-1 assay and TUNEL staining, respectively. Caspase activation was assessed by detecting its surrogate markers, cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and caspase-3, using an immunoblot assay.

RESULTS

The MeOH extract of I. obliquus reduced cell viability in all lung cancer cell lines tested through induction of apoptosis accompanied by caspase-3 cleavage. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the MeOH extract and chemical investigation of its cytotoxic hexane-soluble and CH₂Cl₂-soluble fractions led to the isolation of eight triterpenoids (1-8), including a new lanostane-type triterpenoid named chagabusone A (7). The structures of the isolates were elucidated based on spectroscopic analysis, including 1D and 2D NMR and high-resolution ESIMS. Among isolated compounds, compounds 1, 6, and 7 showed the most potent cytotoxic activity in all human lung cancer cell lines examined, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 75.1 to 227.4 μM. Cytotoxicity of these compounds was mediated by apoptosis with caspase-3 activation.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide experimental evidence supporting the potential application of I. obliquus in lung cancer treatment and reveal the molecular basis underlying its cytotoxic activity against human lung cancer cells.

Immunopotentiating effect of Inonotus obliquus fermentation products administered at vaccination in chickens

Vaccination is an important approach for the control of avian viral diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the immune-potentiating effect of oral administration of Inonotus obliquus fermentation products (IOFP) at vaccination in chickens. In total, 120 one-day-old specific-pathogen-free chickens were randomly assigned to six groups: groups 1 to 3 were vaccinated with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) LaSota live vaccine via intranasal and eye-dropped route at seven days of age, and boosted two weeks later. Before each immunization, chickens in groups 1 and 2 were orally administered 0.8% IOFP and 0.2% astragalus polysaccharide (APS) in their diets, respectively, for seven consecutive days and group 3 was fed with commercial diet. At the same time, group 4, 5 and 6 were inoculated in the same manner with PBS and fed with commercial diet, containing 0.8% IOFP and 0.2% APS diet, respectively, as negative controls. At 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 days post-inoculation (dpi) firstly, the temporal changes in serum Newcastle disease hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and neutralizing antibody titers were determined. Meanwhile, proliferations of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from each group in response to concanavalin A stimulation and the expression levels of Th1-type (IFN-γ) and Th2-type (IL-4) cytokines were determined by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, and ELISA methods. On days 0, 14 and 28 after the first vaccination, the percentages of CD3⁺, CD3⁺CD8⁺, and CD3⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes were detected by flow cytometry. At 35 dpi, a challenge test was carried out and protective efficacy was determined. Results showed that oral administration of IOFP could significantly enhance ND HI and neutralizing antibody titers, proliferation of PBMCs, proportions of CD3⁺, CD3⁺CD8⁺, and CD3⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes, as well as the ratio of Th1/Th2, and all of these values were superior to those seen with APS as a positive control, and other groups. Therefore, IOFP possesses significant immune-potentiating properties in chickens and may be a more economical and convenient oral adjuvant to improve vaccination in avian species.

Medicinal mushrooms as an attractive new source of natural compounds for future cancer therapy

Medicinal mushrooms have been used throughout the history of mankind for treatment of various diseases including cancer. Nowadays they have been intensively studied in order to reveal the chemical nature and mechanisms of action of their biomedical capacity. Targeted treatment of cancer, non-harmful for healthy tissues, has become a desired goal in recent decades and compounds of fungal origin provide a vast reservoir of potential innovational drugs. Here, on example of four mushrooms common for use in Asian and Far Eastern folk medicine we demonstrate the complex and multilevel nature of their anticancer potential, basing upon different groups of compounds that can simultaneously target diverse biological processes relevant for cancer treatment, focusing on targeted approaches specific to malignant tissues. We show that some aspects of fungotherapy of tumors are studied relatively well, while others are still waiting to be fully unraveled. We also pay attention to the cancer types that are especially susceptible to the fungal treatments.

Chaga ( Inonotus obliquus), a Future Potential Medicinal Fungus in Oncology? A Chemical Study and a Comparison of the Cytotoxicity Against Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells (A549) and Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (BEAS-2B)

Background:Inonotus obliquus, also known as Chaga, is a parasitic fungus growing on birches and used in traditional medicine (especially by Khanty people) to treat various health problems. In this study, we aimed to quantify the 3 metabolites frequently cited in literature, that is, betulin, betulinic acid, and inotodiol in the Chaga recently discovered in forests located in Normandy (France), and to compare their concentrations with Ukrainian and Canadian Chaga. This study also explores the cytotoxicity of the French Chaga against cancer-derived cells and transformed cells. Methods: A quantification method by HPLC-MS-MS (high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry) of betulin, betulinic acid, and inotodiol was developed to study the French Chaga and compare the concentration of these metabolites with extracts provided from Chaga growing in Canada and Ukraine. This method was also used to identify and quantify those 3 compounds in other traditional preparations of Chaga (aqueous extract, infusion, and decoction). Among these preparations, the aqueous extract that contains betulin, betulinic acid, and inotodiol was chosen to evaluate and compare its cytotoxic activity toward human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549 line) and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B line). Results: French Chaga contains betulin and betulinic acid at higher levels than in other Chaga, whereas the concentration of inotodiol is greater in the Canadian Chaga. Moreover, the results highlighted a cytotoxic activity of the Chaga’s aqueous extract after 48 and 72 hours of exposure with a higher effect on cancer-derived cells A549 than on normal transformed cells BEAS-2B (P = 0.025 after 48 hours of exposure and P = 0.004 after 72 hours of exposure).

Structural characterization of bioactive heteropolysaccharides from the medicinal fungus Inonotus obliquus (Chaga)

The aim of this paper was to perform a comprehensive characterization of polysaccharides isolated from the interior (IOI) and exterior (IOE) parts of the fungus Inonotus obliquus. Pre-extraction with DCM and MeOH, followed by water and alkali extraction and ethanol precipitation gave two water extracts and two alkali extracts. Neutral and acidic polysaccharide fractions were obtained after anion-exchange chromatography of the water extracts. The neutral polysaccharides (60-73 kDa) were heterogeneous and branched and consisted of a (1 → 3)-linked β-Glc backbone with (1 → 6)-linked kinks in the chain at approximately every fifth residue, with branches of (1 → 6)-linked β-Glc in addition to substantial amounts of (1 → 6)-linked α-Gal with 3-O-methylation at about every third Gal residue. The acidic polysaccharide fractions (10-31 kDa) showed similar structural motifs as the neutral fractions differing mainly by the presence of (1 → 4)-linked α-GalA and α-GlcA. β-Xyl, α-Man and α-Rha were also present in varying amounts in all fractions. No major structural differences between the IOI and IOE fractions were observed. An alkaline polysaccharide fraction (>450 kDa) was obtained from the IOI alkali extract, and consisted mainly of (1 → 3)- and (1 → 6)-linked β-Glc and (1 → 4)-linked β-Xyl. Several of the fractions showed in vitro immunomodulatory effect by increasing NO production in the murine macrophage and dendritic cell lines J774.A1 and D2SC/1. Most fractions managed to increase NO production only at the highest concentration tested (100 μg/ml), while the neutral fraction IOE-WN activated potent NO production at 10 μg/ml and was considered the most promising immunomodulating fraction in this study.

Antitumor and immunomodulatory activity of Inonotus obliquus

The article presents the antitumor and immunomodulatory activity of compounds and extracts from Inonotus obliquus. Polysaccharides isolated from sclerotium have a direct antitumor effect due to protein synthesis inhibition in tumor cells. Polysaccharides derived from the mycelium function by activating the immune system. Due to the limited toxicity of these substances, both extracts as well as isolated and purified chemicals may be a good alternative to current chemotherapy and play a role in cancer prevention. In vitro experiments have shown the inhibition of inflammation with the influence of action of I. obliquus extracts; however, in vivo experiments on animals implanted with tumor cells of different types have shown the activation of the host immune system. This led to decrease in tumor mass and prolonged survival. The immunomodulatory mechanism of action is complex and it seems that stimulation of macrophages and induction of apoptosis in cancer cells is of great importance.

A new pyrrole alkaloid from the mycelium of Inonotus obliquus

Inotopyrrole B, a new pyrrole alkaloid, was isolated from the mycelium of Inonotus obliquus together with two known ones, inotopyrrole and 5-(hydroxymethyl)-1 H-pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde. The structure of the new compound was established via detailed analyses of the spectroscopic data, in particular, 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS.

Anti-tumor effect of polysaccharide from Hirsutella sinensis on human non-small cell lung cancer and nude mice through intrinsic mitochondrial pathway

Our previous works had proved the structural properties of Hirsutella sinensis polysaccharide-III(HSP-III). Herein, its anti-tumor effect on lung cancer correlated with mitochondrial apoptosis pathway was investigated. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that HSP-III induces the apoptosis of H1299 cells; however the proliferation viability of normal lung epithelial cells is not affected. HSP-III treatment collapses the H1299 cell mitochondrial membrane potential, and western blot analysis of cytochrome C, Bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 further indicates that apoptotic effects induced by HSP-III is through the mitochondrial pathway. Furthermore, we found the apoptotic effects of HSP-III are triggered by Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Blue native Polyacrylamide Gel-Electrophoresis (PAGE) showed the expressions of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I-V were also decreased. Taken together, anti-tumor effect of HSP-III is through intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis mechanism pathway and involving ROS increasing. Finally, in vivo nude mice experiment, HSP-III attenuated the growth of tumor compared with control. In contrast, N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) could restore the cell apoptosis effects induced by HSP-III. These findings suggest that HSP-III induce apoptosis of H1299 cells and attenuated growth of nude mice tumor in vivo through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway and stimulating ROS. HSP-III could be a composition for lung cancer treatment.

Renal Protective Effects of Low Molecular Weight of Inonotus obliquus Polysaccharide (LIOP) on HFD/STZ-Induced Nephropathy in Mice

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease in diabetes mellitus. Oxidative stress, insulin resistance and pro-inflammatory cytokines have been shown to play an important role in pathogeneses of renal damage on type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). Inonotus obliquus (IO) is a white rot fungus that belongs to the family Hymenochaetaceae; it has been used as an edible mushroom and exhibits many biological activities including anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperglycemic properties. Especially the water-soluble Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides (IOPs) have been previously reported to significantly inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines in mice and protect from streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. In order to identify the nephroprotective effects of low molecular weight of IOP fraction (LIOP), from the fruiting bodies of Inonotus obliquus, high-fat diet (HFD) plus STZ-induced type 2-like diabetic nephropathy C57BL/6 mice were investigated in this study. Our data showed that eight weeks of administration of 10–100 kDa, LIOP (300 mg/kg) had progressively increased their sensitivity to glucose (less insulin tolerance), reduced triglyceride levels, elevated the HDL/LDL ratio and decreased urinary albumin/creatinine ratio(ACR) compared to the control group. By pathological and immunohistochemical examinations, it was indicated that LIOP can restore the integrity of the glomerular capsules and increase the numbers of glomerular mesangial cells, associated with decreased expression of TGF-β on renal cortex in mice. Consistently, three days of LIOP (100 μg/mL) incubation also provided protection against STZ + AGEs-induced glucotoxicity in renal tubular cells (LLC-PK1), while the levels of NF-κB and TGF-β expression significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Our findings demonstrate that LIOP treatment could ameliorate glucolipotoxicity-induced renal fibrosis, possibly partly via the inhibition of NF-κB/TGF-β1 signaling pathway in diabetic nephropathy mice.

Preparation of novel butyryl galactose ester-modified coix component microemulsions and evaluation on hepatoma-targeting in vitro and in vivo

The butyryl galactose ester-modified coix component microemulsions (But-Gal-CMEs) was developed for enhanced liver tumor-specific targeting. The study was aimed to evaluate the hepatoma-targeting potential of But-Gal-CMEs in vitro and in vivo. But-Gal-CMEs with a uniform spherical shape exhibited a small particle size (56.68 ± 0.07 nm), a narrow polydispersity (PDI, 0.144 ± 0.005) and slightly negative surface charge (-0.102 ± 0.008 mV). In the cell uptake studies, But-Gal-CMEs showed a significant enhancement on the intracellular fluorescent intensity on HepG2 cells model, which was 1.93-fold higher relative to coix component microemulsions (CMEs). The IC₅₀ of But-Gal-CMEs against HepG2 cells was 64.250 μg/mL, which was notably stronger than that of CMEs. In the cell apoptosis studies, compared with CMEs, But-Gal-CMEs (50 μg/mL) treatment resulted in a 1.34-fold rise in total apoptosis cells of HepG2. In the biodistribution studies in vivo, the intratumorous fluorescence of Cy5-loaded But-Gal-CMEs was 1.43-fold higher relative to that of Cy5-loaded CMEs, suggesting an obviously enhanced accumulation in the tumor sites. Taken as together, But-Gal could be incorporated into the coix component microemulsions as a novel ligand for realizing hepatoma-targeting drugs delivery.

Continuous intake of the Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) aqueous extract suppresses cancer progression and maintains body temperature in mice

AIMS

Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide; therefore, effective measures for cancer prevention and treatment are in constant demand. The extracts of Inonotus obliquus (Chaga mushroom) demonstrate potent anti-tumor activities and have been used to treat cancer in several countries; however, the actual effect and underlying mechanisms are still unclear. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of continuous intake of aqueous extract from I. obliquus on tumor suppression.

MAIN METHODS

Anticancer activity of the I. obliquus extract was examined in mouse models of Lewis lung carcinoma growth and spontaneous metastasis after 3 weeks of continuous extract intake at the dose of 6 mg/kg/day, which corresponded to that ingested daily with Chaga infusion in Japan.

KEY FINDINGS

The extract of I. obliquus caused significant tumor suppressive effects in both models. Thus, in tumor-bearing mice, 60% tumor reduction was observed, while in metastatic mice, the number of nodules decreased by 25% compared to the control group. Moreover, I. obliquus extract-treated mice demonstrated the increase in tumor agglomeration and inhibition of vascularization. Interestingly, I. obliquus intake decreased body weight in middle-aged mice and increased body temperature in response to light-dark switching in mature adult mice. Furthermore, I. obliquus prevented temperature drop in mice after tumor implantation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings suggest that the I. obliquus extract could be used as a natural remedy for cancer suppression by promoting energy metabolism.

Effect of Inonotus Obliquus Polysaccharides on physical fatigue in mice

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the potential beneficial effects of Inonotus obliquuspolysaccharides (IOP) on the alleviation of physical fatigue in mice.

METHODS

Sixty-four male mice were randomly divided into four groups (n = 16 per group). Mice were orally administered IOP for a period of 14 days at 0, 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg/d, and were assigned to the control, IOP-100, IOP-200, and IOP-300 groups, respectively by the random number table method. Mice in the control group received an oral administration of sterile distilled water. A forced swimming test was performed for 8 mice per group at one hour after the last treatment. The other 8 mice in each group swam for 30 min. Blood, liver and muscle samples were taken after resting for 30 min. Levels of blood urea nitrogen and lactate, as well as glycogen contents of the liver and muscle were measured. Morphology of liver was observed by light microscopy.

RESULTS

IOP extended the swimming time of mice, and increased the glycogen content of liver and muscle, but decreased blood lactic acid and serum urea nitrogen levels, IOP had no toxic effects on major organs such as the liver as assessed by histopathological examinations.

CONCLUSION

IOP might be a potential anti-fatigue pharmacological agent.

Systematic Review of the Use of Phytochemicals for Management of Pain in Cancer Therapy

Pain in cancer therapy is a common condition and there is a need for new options in therapeutic management. While phytochemicals have been proposed as one pain management solution, knowledge of their utility is limited. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the biomedical literature for the use of phytochemicals for management of cancer therapy pain in human subjects. Of an initial database search of 1,603 abstracts, 32 full-text articles were eligible for further assessment. Only 7 of these articles met all inclusion criteria for this systematic review. The average relative risk of phytochemical versus control was 1.03 [95% CI 0.59 to 2.06]. In other words (although not statistically significant), patients treated with phytochemicals were slightly more likely than patients treated with control to obtain successful management of pain in cancer therapy. We identified a lack of quality research literature on this subject and thus were unable to demonstrate a clear therapeutic benefit for either general or specific use of phytochemicals in the management of cancer pain. This lack of data is especially apparent for psychotropic phytochemicals, such as the Cannabis plant (marijuana). Additional implications of our findings are also explored.

CARI III inhibits tumor growth in a melanoma-bearing mouse model through induction of G0/G1 cell cycle arrest

Mushroom-derived natural products have been used to prevent or treat cancer for millennia. In this study, we evaluated the anticancer effects of CARI (Cell Activation Research Institute) III, which consists of a blend of mushroom mycelia from Phellinus linteus grown on germinated brown rice, Inonotus obliquus grown on germinated brown rice, Antrodia camphorata grown on germinated brown rice and Ganoderma lucidum. Here, we showed that CARI III exerted anti-cancer activity, which is comparable to Dox against melanoma in vivo. B16F10 cells were intraperitoneally injected into C57BL6 mice to develop solid intra-abdominal tumors. Three hundred milligrams of the CARI III/kg/day p.o. regimen reduced tumor weight, comparable to the doxorubicin (Dox)-treated group. An increase in life span (ILS% = 50.88%) was observed in the CARI III-administered group, compared to the tumor control group. CARI III demonstrates anti-proliferative activity against B16F10 melanoma cells through inducing G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. CARI III inhibits the expression of cyclin D1, CDK4 and CDK2 and induces p21. Therefore, CARI III could be a potential chemopreventive supplement to melanoma patients.

Inhibitory and Acceleratory Effects of Inonotus obliquus on Tyrosinase Activity and Melanin Formation in B16 Melanoma Cells

The aim of the present study is to preliminarily investigate the antimelanogenesis effect of Inonotus obliquus extracts by cell-free mushroom tyrosinase assay. It was found that petroleum ether and n-butanol extracts might contain unknown potential tyrosinase inhibitors, while its ethyl acetate extract might contain some unknown accelerators. Six compounds were isolated and their structures were identified by interpretation of NMR data and nicotinic acid was first discovered in Inonotus obliquus. In cells testing, betulin and trametenolic acid decreased tyrosinase activity and melanin content, while inotodiol and lanosterol significantly increased tyrosinase activity and melanin content, showing an AC⁡₅₀ of 9.74 and 8.43 μM, respectively. Nicotinie acid, 3β,22,25-trihydroxy-lanosta-8-ene, had a little or no effect on tyrosinase. Betulin exhibited a mode of noncompetitive inhibition with a K_I = K_IS of 0.4 μM on tyrosinase activity showing an IC₅₀ of 5.13 μM and being more effective than kojic acid (6.43 μM), and trametenolic acid exhibited a mode of mixed inhibition with a K_I of 0.9 μM, K_IS of 0.5 μM, and an IC₅₀ of 7.25 μM. We proposed betulin and trametenolic acid as a new candidate of potent tyrosinase inhibitors and inotodiol and lanosterol as accelerators that could be used as therapeutic agent.

Protective Effect of Polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus on Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Symptoms and Their Potential Mechanisms in Rats

The present study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus (PIO) on streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced diabetic symptoms and their potential mechanisms. The effect of PIO on body weight, blood glucose, damaged pancreatic β-cells, oxidative stresses, proinflammatory cytokines, and glucose metabolizing enzymes in liver was studied. The results show that administration of PIO can restore abnormal oxidative indices near normal levels. The STZ-damaged pancreatic β-cells of the rats were partly recovered gradually after the mice were administered with PIO 6 weeks later. Therefore, we may assume that PIO is effective in the protection of STZ-induced diabetic rats and PIO may be of use as antihyperglycemic agent.