Organic fouling behaviour of structurally and chemically different forward osmosis membranes – A study of cellulose triacetate and thin film composite membranes

Advancements in cellulose nanocrystals: A review of functionalization, applications, and challenges

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have emerged as highly versatile nanomaterials due to their exceptional mechanical properties, tunable surface chemistry, and biodegradability. This review explores recent advancements in CNC functionalization, focusing on chemical and physical modification techniques to enhance their interfacial adhesion, dispersibility, and compatibility for a wide array of applications. This review article discusses the various industrial applications of CNCs, such as those explored in nanocomposites, biomedical engineering, environmental remediation, and advanced coatings. Emphasized an in-depth analysis of the latest breakthroughs addressing key challenges, including scalability, cost-efficiency, and hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance. The future perspectives highlight the necessity for green functionalization methodologies and large-scale industrial implementation. By bridging the vacuum between laboratory research and industrial feasibility, this review aims to offer a comprehensive roadmap for future CNCs' advancement.

Critical review on salt tolerance improvement and salt accumulation inhibition strategies of osmotic membrane bioreactors

The osmotic membrane bioreactor (OMBR) is a novel wastewater treatment and resource recovery technology combining forward osmosis (FO) and membrane bioreactor. It has attracted attention for its low energy consumption and high contaminant removal performance. However, in the long-term operation, OMBR faces the problem of salt accumulation due to high salt rejection and reverse salt flux, which affects microbial activity and contaminants removal efficiency. This review analyzed the feasibility of screening salt-tolerant microorganisms and determining salinity thresholds to improve the salt tolerance of OMBR. Combined with recent research, the inhibition strategies for salt accumulation were reviewed, including the draw solution, FO membrane, operating conditions and coupling with other systems. It is hoped to provide a theoretical basis and practical guidance for the further development of OMBR. Finally, future research directions were prospected. This review provides new insights for achieving stable operation of OMBR and promotes its wide application.

Viability of Total Ammoniacal Nitrogen Recovery Using a Polymeric Thin-Film Composite Forward Osmosis Membrane: Determination of Ammonia Permeability Coefficient

Total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) occurs in various wastewaters and its recovery is vital for environmental reasons. Forward osmosis (FO), an energy-efficient technology, extracts water from a feed solution (FS) and into a draw solution (DS). Asymmetric FO membranes consist of an active layer and a support layer, leading to internal concentration polarization (ICP). In this study, we assessed TAN recovery using a polymeric thin-film composite FO membrane by determining the permeability coefficients of NH4+ and NH3. Calculations employed the solution-diffusion model, Nernst-Planck equation, and film theory, applying the acid-base equilibrium for bulk concentration corrections. Initially, model parameters were estimated using sodium salt solutions as the DS and deionized water as the FS. The NH4+ permeability coefficient was 0.45 µm/s for NH4Cl and 0.013 µm/s for (NH4)2SO4 at pH < 7. Meanwhile, the NH3 permeability coefficient was 6.18 µm/s at pH > 9 for both ammonium salts. Polymeric FO membranes can simultaneously recover ammonia and water, achieving 15% and 35% recovery at pH 11.5, respectively.

Quantifying interfacial interactions for improved membrane antifouling: A novel approach using triangulation and surface element integration method

To gain a thorough understanding of interfacial behaviors such as adhesion and flocculation controlling membrane fouling, it is necessary to simulate the actual membrane surface morphology and quantify interfacial interactions. In this work, a new method integrating the rough membrane morphology reconstruction technology (atomic force microscopy (AFM) combining with triangulation technique), the surface element integration (SEI) method, the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory, the compound Simpson's approach, and the computer programming was proposed. This new method can exactly mimic the real membrane surface in terms of roughness and shape, breaking the limitation of previous fractal theory and Gaussian method where the simulated membrane surface is only statistically similar to the real rough surface, thus achieving a precise description of the interfacial interactions between sludge foulants and the real membrane surface. This method was then applied to assess the antifouling propensity of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane modified with Ni-ZnO particles (NZPs). The simulated results showed that the interfacial interactions between sludge foulants in a membrane bioreactor (MBR) and the modified PVDF-NZPs membrane transformed from an attractive force to a repulsive force. The phenomenon confirmed the significant antifouling propensity of the PVDF-NZPs membrane, which is highly consistent with the experimental findings and the interfacial interactions described in previous literature, suggesting the high feasibility and reliability of the proposed method. Meanwhile, the original programming code of the quantification was also developed, which further facilitates the widespread use of this method and enhances the value of this work.

Progress and Prospects of Nanocellulose-Based Membranes for Desalination and Water Treatment

Membrane-based desalination has proved to be the best solution for solving the water shortage issues globally. Membranes are extremely beneficial in the effective recovery of clean water from contaminated water sources, however, the durability as well as the separation efficiency of the membranes are restricted by the type of membrane materials/additives used in the preparation processes. Nanocellulose is one of the most promising green materials for nanocomposite preparation due to its biodegradability, renewability, abundance, easy modification, and exceptional mechanical properties. This nanocellulose has been used in membrane development for desalination application in the recent past. The study discusses the application of membranes based on different nanocellulose forms such as cellulose nanocrystals, cellulose nanofibrils, and bacterial nanocellulose for water desalination applications such as nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, pervaporation, forward osmosis, and membrane distillation. From the analysis of studies, it was confirmed that the nanocellulose-based membranes are effective in the desalination application. The chemical modification of nanocellulose can definitely improve the surface affinity as well as the reactivity of membranes for the efficient separation of specific contaminants/ions.

Recent Development and Environmental Applications of Nanocellulose-Based Membranes

Extensive research and development in the production of nanocellulose production, a green, bio-based, and renewable biomaterial has paved the way for the development of advanced functional materials for a multitude of applications. From a membrane technology perspective, the exceptional mechanical strength, high crystallinity, tunable surface chemistry, and anti-fouling behavior of nanocellulose, manifested from its structural and nanodimensional properties are particularly attractive. Thus, an opportunity has emerged to exploit these features to develop nanocellulose-based membranes for environmental applications. This review provides insights into the prospect of nanocellulose as a matrix or as an additive to enhance membrane performance in water filtration, environmental remediation, and the development of pollutant sensors and energy devices, focusing on the most recent progress from 2017 to 2022. A brief overview of the strategies to tailor the nanocellulose surface chemistry for the effective removal of specific pollutants and nanocellulose-based membrane fabrication approaches are also presented. The major challenges and future directions associated with the environmental applications of nanocellulose-based membranes are put into perspective, with primary emphasis on advanced multifunctional membranes.

A novel concept of Vertical Up-Flow Forward Osmosis reactor: Design, performance and evaluation

Performance of the forward osmosis (FO) process is limited due to the decline in water flux and increase in reverse salt flux. In this study, a novel Vertical Up-Flow Forward Osmosis (VUF-FO) reactor was designed and evaluated for eight different contacting patterns of feed and draw agent (DA). The best contacting pattern was compared with the basic H-shape reactor. Pulsating inlets were used for the recirculation of the feed and DA which helped in improving the performance by reducing the concentration polarization on membrane. Water flux in FO (active layer facing feed side) and PRO (active layer facing draw side) mode was 12.75 and 16.28 L/m²hr (LMH) respectively for the contacting pattern R3 and R5 after 8 h of the process. While the water flux in the H-shape reactor was 9.12 and 12.54 LMH for FO and PRO mode respectively. Diffusional behavior of water flux and reverse salt flux were also evaluated for both the FO reactors. Water flux in the H-shape reactor was declined to more than 60% from its initial value in both the modes (i.e. FO and PRO) due to the concentration polarization on membrane. Only 10% decline in water flux was observed for the VUF-FO reactor. This showed a better consistency of water flux in the VUF-FO reactor. The reverse salt flux in the VUF-FO reactor was less than 85% compared to the H-shape reactor. Therefore, a novel designed reactor improved the overall performance of FO in terms of water flux and reverse salt flux.

Facile Fabrication of Multi-Hydrogen Bond Self-Assembly Poly(MAAc-co-MAAm) Hydrogel Modified PVDF Ultrafiltration Membrane to Enhance Anti-Fouling Property

In this work, a facile preparation method was proposed to reduce natural organics fouling of hydrophobic membrane via UV grafting polymerization with methacrylic acid (MAAc) and methyl acrylamide (MAAm) as hydrophilic monomers, followed by multihydrogen bond self-assembly. The resulting poly(vinylidene fluoride)-membranes were characterized with respect to monomer ratio, chemical structure and morphology, surface potential, and water contact angle, as well as water flux and organic foulants ultrafiltration property. The results indicated that the optimal membrane modified with a poly(MAAc-co-MAAm) polymer gel layer derived from a 1:1 monomer ratio exhibited superior hydrophilicity and excellent gel layer stability, even after ultrasonic treatment or soaking in acid or alkaline aqueous solution. The initial water contact angle of modified membranes was only 36.6° ± 2.9, and dropped to 0° within 13 s. Moreover, flux recovery rates (FRR) of modified membranes tested by bovine serum albumin (BSA), humic acid (HA), and sodium alginate (SA) solution, respectively, were all above 90% after one-cycle filtration (2 h), significantly higher than that of the pure membrane (70–76%). The total fouling rates (R_t) of the pure membrane for three foulants were as high as 47.8–56.2%, while the R_t values for modified membranes were less than 30.8%. Where R_t of BSA dynamic filtration was merely 10.7%. The membrane designed through grafting a thin-layer hydrophilic hydrogel possessed a robust antifouling property and stability, which offers new insights for applications in pure water treatment or protein purification.

Nanocellulose Based Filtration Membrane in Industrial Waste Water Treatment: A Review

In the field of industrial wastewater treatment, membrane separation technology, as an emerging separation technology, compared with traditional separation technology such as precipitation, adsorption, and ion exchange, has advantages in separation efficiency, low energy consumption, low cost, simple operation, and no secondary pollution. The application has been expanding in recent years, but membrane fouling and other problems have seriously restricted the development of membrane technology. Natural cellulose is one of the most abundant resources in nature. In addition, nanocellulose has characteristics of high strength and specific surface area, surface activity groups, as well as being pollution-free and renewable, giving it a very wide development prospect in many fields, including membrane separation technology. This paper reviews the current status of nanocellulose filtration membrane, combs the widespread types of nanocellulose and its derivatives, and summarizes the current application of cellulose in membrane separation. In addition, for the purpose of nanocellulose filtration membrane in wastewater treatment, nanocellulose membranes are divided into two categories according to the role in filtration membrane: the application of nanocellulose as membrane matrix material and as a modified additive in composite membrane in wastewater treatment. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic ceramic filtrations and nanocellulose filtrations are compared, and the application trend of nanocellulose in the filtration membrane direction is summarized and discussed.

Combined effects of Pseudomonas quinolone signal-based quorum quenching and graphene oxide on the mitigation of biofouling and improvement of the application potential for the thin-film composite membrane

Biofouling caused by the growth of the biofilm is the main bottleneck that limits the effective operation of thin-film composite (TFC) membrane in the forward osmosis (FO) process. This study investigated the combined effects of graphene oxide (GO) immobilized thin-film nanocomposite (TFN-S) membrane and Pseudomonas quinolone signal (PQS)-based quorum quenching on biofouling mitigation, especially under the operation of pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) mode, and the influence of methyl anthranilate (MA) inhibitor on the composition and structure of biofilm was also evaluated. Synthetic wastewater was used as the feed solution, in which the model strain Pseudomonas aeruginosa was added to simulate biofouling. The results showed that GO modification and MA addition both efficiently mitigated flux decline and EPS secretion, but the interference of PQS pathway on biofouling control was better than GO embedding. TFN-S membrane with MA addition exhibited superior anti-biofouling performance based on the combined effects of GO and MA. The alleviated concentration polarization and enhanced hydrophilicity of the TFN-S membrane reduced the flux decline in the early stage. Additionally, the antibacterial property of GO inhibited the viability of the attached bacteria (under PRO mode) and MA further mitigated the EPS secretion and biofilm development in the later stage. In the presence of PQS inhibitor MA, live/total cells ratio was 15% and 13% higher than that of TFC membrane in FO and PRO modes, respectively. Furthermore, exogenous addition of MA led to a relatively loose biofilm structure, resulting in high membrane permeability in the biofouling formation process.

Forward osmosis membrane technology for nutrient removal/recovery from wastewater: Recent advances, proposed designs, and future directions

In recent years, the concept of nutrient removal/recovery has been applied as a sustainable solution to develop and design various modern wastewater treatment technologies for recovering nutrients from waste streams and is one of the high-priority research areas. Forward osmosis (FO) technology has received increasing interests as a potential low-fouling membrane process and a new approach to remove/recover nutrients from wastewater and sludge. The main objective of this review is to summarize the state of FO technology for nutrient removal/recovery from wastewater and sludge in order to identify areas of future improvements. In this study, nutrient removal processes, FO membrane technology, main factors affecting the FO process performance, the source water for nutrient recovery, the previous studies on the FO membrane process for nutrient removal/recovery from wastewater and sludge, membrane fouling, and recent advances in FO membranes for nutrient removal/recovery were briefly and critically reviewed. Then, the proposed possible designs to apply FO process in conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were theoretically presented. Finally, based on the gaps identified in the area, challenges ahead, future perspectives, and conclusions were discussed. Further investigations on the properties of FO associated with real wastewater, wastewater pre-treatment, the long-term low fouling operation, membrane cleaning strategies, water flux and the economic feasibility of the FO process are still desirable to apply FO technology for nutrient removal/recovery at full-scale (decentralized or centralized) in the future.

Treatment of biologically treated landfill leachate with forward osmosis: Investigating membrane performance and cleaning protocols

This study presents systematic investigations to evaluate the performance, rejection rate, fouling, cleaning protocols and impact of physical and chemical cleaning strategies on the performance of commercial cellulose triacetate (CTA) membrane. The treatment of landfill leachate (LFL) solution was performed in the active layer facing feed solution and support layer facing the draw solution (AL-FS mode), and active layer facing the draw solution and support layer facing the feed solution (AL-DS mode). Compared to the AL-FS mode, a higher flux for AL-DS mode was achieved, but membrane fouling was more severe in the latter. In both membrane orientations, the rejection rate of the FO membrane to heavy ions and contaminants in the wastewater was between 93 and 99%. Physical and chemical cleaning strategies were investigated to recover the performance of the FO membrane and to study the impact of cleaning methods on the membrane rejection rate. Physical cleaning with hot water at 35 °C and osmotic backwashing with 1.5 M NaCl demonstrated excellent water flux recovery compared to chemical cleaning. In the chemical cleaning, an optimal concentration of 3% hydrogen peroxide was determined for 100% flux recovery of the fouled membrane. However, slight membrane damage was achieved at this concentration on the active layer side. Alkaline cleaning at pH 11 was more effective than acid cleaning at pH 4, although both protocols compromised the membrane rejection rate for some toxic ions. A comparison of the membrane long-term performance found that cleaning with osmotic backwashing and hot water were effective methods to restore water flux without comprising the membrane rejection rate. Overall, it was found that physical cleaning protocols are superior to chemical cleaning protocols for forward osmosis membrane fouled by landfill leachate wastewater.

Organic Fouling in Forward Osmosis: A Comprehensive Review

Organic fouling in the forward osmosis process is complex and influenced by different parameters in the forward osmosis such as type of feed and draw solution, operating conditions, and type of membrane. In this article, we reviewed organic fouling in the forward osmosis by focusing on wastewater treatment applications. Model organic foulants used in the forward osmosis literature were highlighted, which were followed by the characteristics of organic foulants when real wastewater was used as feed solution. The various physical and chemical cleaning protocols for the organic fouled membrane are also discussed. The study also highlighted the effective pre-treatment strategies that are effective in reducing the impact of organic fouling on the forward osmosis (FO) membrane. The efficiency of cleaning methods for the removal of organic fouling in the FO process was investigated, including recommendations on future cleaning technologies such as Ultraviolet and Ultrasound. Generally, a combination of physical and chemical cleaning is the best for restoring the water flux in the FO process.

Feasibility of concentrating textile wastewater using a hybrid forward osmosis-membrane distillation (FO-MD) process: Performance and economic evaluation

The forward osmosis-membrane distillation (FO-MD) hybrid process has shown great promise in achieving zero liquid discharge in the textile industry, recovering valuable dye molecules while producing large amounts of clean water. However, the progress of this technology seems to have stagnated with the direct coupling of commercial asymmetric FO and MD membranes, because water management in the system is found to be rather complicated owing to the processing of the different membranes. Herein, we propose, for the first time, an FO-MD hybrid process using a custom-made self-standing and symmetric membrane and a hydrophobic polytetrafluoroethylene membrane in the FO and MD units, respectively. Three types of operation modes were investigated to systematically study the process performance in the concentration treatment of model textile wastewater; two commercial FO membranes were also tested for comparison. Owing to its low fouling propensity and lack of an internal concentration polarization effect, the water transfer rate of our symmetric FO membrane quickly reaches equilibrium with that in the MD unit, resulting in continuous and stable operation. Consequently, the hybrid process using the symmetric FO membrane was found to consume the least energy, as indicated by its lowest total cost in both lab- and large-scale systems. Overall, our study provides a new strategy for using a symmetric FO membrane in the FO-MD hybrid process and highlights its great potential for use in the treatment of textile wastewater.

New insights into the organic fouling mechanism of an in situ Ca2+ modified thin film composite forward osmosis membrane

In this study, the effect of organic substances on the fouling behavior of a thin film composite (TFC) membrane with in situ Ca²⁺ addition (TFC-Ca membrane) was evaluated. Bovine serum albumin (BSA), humic acid (HA) and sodium alginate (SA) were used as surrogate foulants for protein, natural organic substances and polysaccharides, respectively, thus enabling the analysis of foulant–membrane interaction in the membrane fouling process. Fouling experiments were carried out and the fouling mechanism was investigated by extended Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (XDLVO) theory. SEM-EDX, ICP-OES and TOC analysis were applied to characterize the fouled TFC-Ca membrane. Results suggested that the interfacial free energies obtained from advanced contact angle measurements were correlated strongly with the rates of membrane fouling. In situ Ca²⁺ addition in the TFC membrane resulted in the decrease of the interfacial adhesion free energy (i.e., foulant–membrane interaction) and thus the mitigation of membrane fouling. The permeate flux of TFC-Ca FO membrane after organic fouling could be fully restored by simple physical cleaning. The antifouling mechanism of Ca²⁺ pre-binding carboxyl groups in the TFC-Ca FO membrane was demonstrated, which provides new insights into the development of antifouling TFC membranes in the future.

In this study, the effect of organic substances on the fouling behavior of a thin film composite (TFC) membrane with in situ Ca²⁺ addition (TFC-Ca membrane) was evaluated.

Characteristics and influencing factors of organic fouling in forward osmosis operation for wastewater applications: A comprehensive review

Wastewater reuse is considered one of the most promising practices for the achievement of sustainable water management on a global scale. In the context of the safe reuse of water, membrane filtration is a competitive technique due to its superior efficiency in several processes. However, membrane fouling by organics is an inevitable challenge that is encountered during the practical application of membrane processes. The resolution of the membrane fouling challenge requires an in-depth understanding of many complex interactions between organic foulants and the membrane. In the last few decades, the forward osmosis (FO) membrane process, which exploits osmosis as a driving force, has emerged as an effective technology for water production with low energy consumption, thus leveraging the water-energy nexus. However, their successful application is severely hampered by membrane fouling, which is caused by such complex fouling mechanisms as cake enhanced osmotic pressure (CEOP), reverse salt diffusion (RSD), internal, and external concentration polarization as well as by the traditional fouling processes encompassing colloids, microbial (biofouling), inorganic, and organic fouling. Of these fouling types, the fouling potential of organic matter in FO has not been given sufficient attention, in particular, when FO is applied to wastewater treatment. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of FO membrane fouling for wastewater applications with a special focus on the identification of the major factors that lead to the unique properties of organic fouling in this filtration process. Based on the critical assessment of organic fouling formation and the governing mechanisms, proposals were advanced for future research aimed at the mitigation of FO membrane fouling to enhance process efficiency in wastewater applications.

Comparing membrane and spacer biofouling by Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gram-positive Anoxybacillus sp. in forward osmosis

Bacteria of different Gram-types have inherently different outer cell structures, influencing cell surface properties and bacterial attachment. Dynamic biofouling experiments were conducted over four days in a bench-scale forward osmosis (FO) system with Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Gram-positive Anoxybacillus sp. Biofouling resulted in ∼10% decline in FO permeate water flux and was found to be significant for Anoxybacillus sp. but not for P. aeruginosa. Additionally, a stronger permeate water flux decline for P. aeruginosa in experiments with a superhydrophilic feed spacer demonstrated that mitigation methods require testing with different bacterial Gram-types. It was found that although permeate water flux decline can be affected by bacterial Gram-type the stable performance under enhanced biofouling conditions highlights the potential of FO for wastewater reclamation.

Study of polyamide thin film characteristics impact on permeability/selectivity performance and fouling behavior of forward osmosis membrane

In recent years, forward osmosis (FO) has received considerable attention due to its huge potentials in water desalination. The thin film composite (TFC) membrane used in the FO desalination consists of a bottom support layer covered by an active layer on top. Polyamide (PA) is commonly employed as an active layer forming via interfacial polymerization between m-phenylenediamine (MPD) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) monomers. In this study, the effects that the MPD and TMC concentrations could have on the performance and anti-fouling behavior of the obtained FO membrane have been investigated. Results showed that there is a trade-off relationship between the water flux and salt rejection, which by increasing MPD concentration, the water flux was reducedو while the salt rejection was enhanced. Also, by increasing the TMC concentration, an opposite trend was observed. Using 0.20 wt.% of TMC monomer, the highest water fluxes of 21.6 LMH and 29.3 LMH were achieved in two different membrane configurations. Furthermore, higher TMC concentration caused better anti-fouling property, when PA active layer of the membrane was in a high fouling potential environment.

Realization of quantifying interfacial interactions between a randomly rough membrane surface and a foulant particle

Quantification of interfacial interaction with randomly rough surface is the prerequisite to quantitatively understand and control the interface behaviors such as adhesion, flocculation and membrane fouling. In this study, it was found that membrane surface was randomly rough with obvious fractal characteristics. The randomly rough surface of membrane could be well reconstructed by the fractal geometry represented by a modified Weierstrass-Mandelbrot function. A novel method, which combined composite Simpson's approach, surface element integration method and approximation by computer programming, was developed. By using this method, this study provided the first realization of quantifying interfacial energy between randomly rough surface of membrane and a foulant particle. The calculated interactions with randomly rough surface of membrane were significantly different from those with smooth surface of membrane, indicating the significant effect of surface topography on interactions. This proposed method could be also potentially used to investigate various natural interface environmental phenomena.

Salinity Gradients for Sustainable Energy: Primer, Progress, and Prospects

Combining two solutions of different composition releases the Gibbs free energy of mixing. By using engineered processes to control the mixing, chemical energy stored in salinity gradients can be harnessed for useful work. In this critical review, we present an overview of the current progress in salinity gradient power generation, discuss the prospects and challenges of the foremost technologies - pressure retarded osmosis (PRO), reverse electrodialysis (RED), and capacitive mixing (CapMix) and provide perspectives on the outlook of salinity gradient power generation. Momentous strides have been made in technical development of salinity gradient technologies and field demonstrations with natural and anthropogenic salinity gradients (for example, seawater-river water and desalination brine-wastewater, respectively), but fouling persists to be a pivotal operational challenge that can significantly ebb away cost-competitiveness. Natural hypersaline sources (e.g., hypersaline lakes and salt domes) can achieve greater concentration difference and, thus, offer opportunities to overcome some of the limitations inherent to seawater-river water. Technological advances needed to fully exploit the larger salinity gradients are identified. While seawater desalination brine is a seemingly attractive high salinity anthropogenic stream that is otherwise wasted, actual feasibility hinges on the appropriate pairing with a suitable low salinity stream. Engineered solutions are foulant-free and can be thermally regenerative for application in low-temperature heat utilization. Alternatively, PRO, RED, and CapMix can be coupled with their analog separation process (reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and capacitive deionization, respectively) in salinity gradient flow batteries for energy storage in chemical potential of the engineered solutions. Rigorous techno-economic assessments can more clearly identify the prospects of low-grade heat conversion and large-scale energy storage. While research attention is squarely focused on efficiency and power improvements, efforts to mitigate fouling and lower membrane and electrode cost will be equally important to reduce levelized cost of salinity gradient energy production and, thus, boost PRO, RED, and CapMix power generation to be competitive with other renewable technologies. Cognizance of the recent key developments and technical progress on the different technological fronts can help steer the strategic advancement of salinity gradient as a sustainable energy source.