Levels of miR-125a-5p are altered in Mycobacterium avium-infected macrophages and associate with the triggering of an autophagic response

Targeting Autophagy as a Strategy for Developing New Host-Directed Therapeutics Against Nontuberculous Mycobacteria

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTMs) are increasingly being recognized as opportunistic pathogens in clinical practice because of their innate resistance to antimicrobial treatment and the widespread increase in multidrug-resistant strains on a global scale. NTMs pose a tremendous infection management challenge, especially in individuals with pre-existing lung conditions, as well as those who are immunocompromised. NTMs' capability to evade or suppress the immune responses of their host is a key feature that makes them a cause of persistent chronic infection. Autophagy, an essential cellular defense mechanism that delivers and breaks down intracellular materials in lysosomes, protects the host from mycobacterial infection. Initial studies have revealed encouraging therapeutic strategies that augment endogenous autophagic mechanisms or block harmful host responses, thus having the potential to decrease intracellular mycobacterial infection, including that caused by multidrug-resistant strains. This review discusses how NTMs can evade autophagic mechanisms and considers the possibilities of using autophagy-inducing agents to develop novel therapeutic strategies to combat NTM infection.

Epigenetic maneuvering: an emerging strategy for mycobacterial intracellular survival

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has elaborated numerous mechanisms for its pathogenesis. Mtb manipulates host signaling pathways to interfere with the immune response and cell death pathways. By employing virulence factors - of which secretory proteins are emerging as significant components - it ensures successful survival in the host. In this review, we discuss advances made on the largely unexplored secretory modifiers of Mtb that alter the host epigenome to impact host pathways for the pathogen's advantage. We highlight the findings on the Mtb-encoded modification enzymes and their role in maneuvering the host machinery. We also provide pointers to the gaps that still exist in this area and approaches to address these questions for a better appreciation of the uncanny success of Mtb as an intracellular pathogen.

The critical role of miRNA in bacterial zoonosis

The public's health and the financial sustainability of international societies remain threatened by bacterial zoonoses, with limited reliable diagnostic and therapeutic options available for bacterial diseases. Bacterial infections influence mammalian miRNA expression in host-pathogen interactions. In order to counteract bacterial infections, miRNAs participate in gene-specific expression and play important regulatory roles that rely on translational inhibition and target gene degradation by binding to the 3' non-coding region of target genes. Intriguingly, according to current studies, that exogenous miRNAs derived from plants could potentially serve as effective medicinal components sourced from traditional Chinese medicine plants. These exogenous miRNAs exhibit stable functionality in mammals and mimic the regulatory roles of endogenous miRNAs, illuminating the molecular processes behind the therapeutic effects of plants. This review details the immune defense mechanisms of inflammation, apoptosis, autophagy and cell cycle disturbance caused by some typical bacterial infections, summarizes the role of some mammalian miRNAs in regulating these mechanisms, and introduces the cGAS-STING signaling pathway in detail. Evidence suggests that this newly discovered immune defense mechanism in mammalian cells can also be affected by miRNAs. Meanwhile, some examples of transboundary regulation of mammalian mRNA and even bacterial diseases by exogenous miRNAs from plants are also summarized. This viewpoint provides fresh understanding of microbial tactics and host mechanisms in the management of bacterial illnesses.

Unlocking the potential of miRNAs in detecting pulmonary tuberculosis: prospects and pitfalls

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the deadliest infectious diseases globally, ranking as 13th leading cause of mortality and morbidity. According to the Global Tuberculosis Report 2022, TB claimed the lives of 1.6 million people worldwide in 2021. Among the casualties, 1 870 000 individuals with HIV co-infections contributed to 6.7% of the total fatalities, accounting TB as the second most lethal infectious disease following COVID-19. In the quest to identify biomarkers for disease progression and anti-TB therapy, microRNAs (miRNAs) have gained attention due to their precise regulatory role in gene expression in disease stages and their ability to distinguish latent and active TB, enabling the development of early TB prognostic signatures. miRNAs are stable in biological fluids and therefore will be useful for non-invasive and broad sample collection. However, their inherent lack of specificity and experimental variations may lead to false-positive outcomes. These limitations can be overcome by integrating standard protocols with machine learning, presenting a novel tool for TB diagnostics and therapeutics. This review summarizes, discusses and highlights the potential of miRNAs as a biomarker, particularly their differential expression at disease stages. The review assesses the advantages and obstacles associated with miRNA-based diagnostic biomarkers in pulmonary TB and facilitates rapid, point-of-care testing.

Host-directed therapy with amiodarone in preclinical models restricts mycobacterial infection and enhances autophagy

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) as well as nontuberculous mycobacteria are intracellular pathogens whose treatment is extensive and increasingly impaired due to the rise of mycobacterial drug resistance. The loss of antibiotic efficacy has raised interest in the identification of host-directed therapeutics (HDT) to develop novel treatment strategies for mycobacterial infections. In this study, we identified amiodarone as a potential HDT candidate that inhibited both intracellular Mtb and Mycobacterium avium in primary human macrophages without directly impairing bacterial growth, thereby confirming that amiodarone acts in a host-mediated manner. Moreover, amiodarone induced the formation of (auto)phagosomes and enhanced autophagic targeting of mycobacteria in macrophages. The induction of autophagy by amiodarone is likely due to enhanced transcriptional regulation, as the nuclear intensity of the transcription factor EB, the master regulator of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis, was strongly increased. Furthermore, blocking lysosomal degradation with bafilomycin impaired the host-beneficial effect of amiodarone. Finally, amiodarone induced autophagy and reduced bacterial burden in a zebrafish embryo model of tuberculosis, thereby confirming the HDT activity of amiodarone in vivo. In conclusion, we have identified amiodarone as an autophagy-inducing antimycobacterial HDT that improves host control of mycobacterial infections.

IMPORTANCE

Due to the global rise in antibiotic resistance, there is a strong need for alternative treatment strategies against intracellular bacterial infections, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Stimulating host defense mechanisms by host-directed therapy (HDT) is a promising approach for treating mycobacterial infections. This study identified amiodarone, an antiarrhythmic agent, as a potential HDT candidate that inhibits the survival of Mtb and Mycobacterium avium in primary human macrophages. The antimycobacterial effect of amiodarone was confirmed in an in vivo tuberculosis model based on Mycobacterium marinum infection of zebrafish embryos. Furthermore, amiodarone induced autophagy and inhibition of the autophagic flux effectively impaired the host-protective effect of amiodarone, supporting that activation of the host (auto)phagolysosomal pathway is essential for the mechanism of action of amiodarone. In conclusion, we have identified amiodarone as an autophagy-inducing HDT that improves host control of a wide range of mycobacteria.

MicroRNA -21 expression as an auxiliary diagnostic biomarker of acute brucellosis

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to measure the expression levels of peripheral blood miRNAs in brucellosis and their involvement in the different phases of the brucellosis.

METHODS

The expression levels of miRNAs including miR-210, miR-155, miR-150, miR-146a, miR-139-3p, miR-125a-5p, miR-29 and miR-21 were quantified in 57 brucellosis patients subgrouped into acute, under treatment & relapse phase and 30 healthy controls (HCs) using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis curve analysis was performed to find a biomarker for discrimination of different phases of brucellosis.

RESULTS

The expression of miR-155, miR-146a, miR-125a-5p, miR-29, and miR-21 was found to be elevated in the acute brucellosis patients compared to HCs. miR-29 changed in under-treatment patients, while miR-139-3p and miR-125a-5p showed alterations in relapse cases. The ROC curve analysis depicted the potential involvement of miR-21 in the pathogenesis of acute brucellosis.

CONCLUSION

The expression level of miR-21 is significantly augmented in acute brucellosis and has the potential to be a contributing diagnostic factor for acute infection.

Yi Mai granule improve energy supply of endothelial cells in atherosclerosis via miRNA-125a-5p regulating mitochondrial autophagy through Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Yi Mai granule (YMG) consists of two classic Chinese medicine formulas used to treat cardiovascular disease for centuries. The Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin pathway, a well-recognized mechanism that mediates mitochondrial autophagy, plays a big part in mitochondrial quality control and the maintenance of heart function. However, the effects of YMG on endothelial dysfunction and mitochondrial autophagy remain unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Here, we focused on the therapeutic effects of YMG in improving mitochondrial autophagy and the mechanism of YMG against cardiovascular disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, rats were fed high-fat diet (HFD) for 21 weeks and were given high, medium, and low doses of YMG in stomach. The open field test was used to evaluate the rats' behavior. Atherosclerotic plaques, blood lipids, and cytokine levels were measured. Mitochondrial autophagy changes were observed by Transmission electron microscope (TEM). Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were injured by angiotensinⅡ(AngⅡ) and were given high, medium, and low doses of YMG medicated serum in cell culture medium. Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin expression and miRNA 125a-5p expression were measured by RT-PCR and Western blot.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that the atherosclerosis model group tended to exhibit reduced vitality behaviors. We proved that the atherosclerosis model group showed obvious atherosclerotic plaques, endothelial cells destruction, and high level of blood lipid and cytokines (including hs-CRP, ET). Mitochondria were reduced, and mitophagy was inhibited in aortic cells of the model group. MiRNA-125a-5p was up-regulated; at the same time, Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin-mediated mitochondrial autophagy was prevented. We also proved that AngⅡinjured HUVEC showed obviously low mRNA levels of Pink1, Mfn2, and Parkin. Interestingly, we found that miRNA-125a-5p was significantly down regulated in Ang II-induced HUVECs. In addition, miRNA-125a-5p significantly reduced the protective effect of YiMai Granules against Ang II injury.

CONCLUSION

Our finding indicated that Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin-mediated mitochondrial autophagy plays a crucial role in alleviating atherosclerosis. YMG alleviated atherosclerosis by potentially activating mitochondrial autophagy may via miRNA-125a-5p, regulating Pink1-Mfn2-Parkin pathway, and regulating proinflammatory factors, vasoconstriction cytokine, and blood lipids.

Microcystin-LR-induced autophagy via miR-282-5p/PIK3R1 pathway in Eriocheir sinensis hepatopancreas

With the intensifying climate warming, blue-green algae blooms have become more frequent and severe, releasing environmental hazards such as microcystin that pose potential threats to human and animal health. Autophagy has been shown to play a crucial role in regulating immune responses induced by environmental hazards, enabling cells to adapt to stress and protect against damage. Although microcystin-LR (MC-LR) has been identified to affect autophagy in mammalian, its impact on aquatic animals has been poorly studied. To investigate the toxicological effects of MC-LR in aquatic ecosystems, we constructed a microRNA profile of acute MC-LR stress in the hepatopancreas of the Chinese mitten crab. Interestingly, we found the MC-LR exposure activated autophagy in the hepatopancreas based on the following evidence. Specifically, mRNA expression level of ATG7, Beclin1 and Gabarap was significantly up-regulated, autophagy regulatory pathways were significantly enriched, and numerous autolysosomes and autophagosomes were observed. Additionally, we found that miR-282-5p and its target gene PIK3R1 played important regulatory roles in autophagy by in vivo and in vitro experiments. Overexpression of miR-282-5p mimicked MC-LR-induced autophagy by inhibiting PIK3R1 expression, while miR-282-5p silencing inhibited autophagy by promoting PIK3R1 expression. Altogether, our findings suggest that MC-LR increases miR-282-5p, which then targets inhibition of PIK3R1 to stimulate autophagy. This study focused on the stress response regulatory mechanisms of juvenile crabs to toxic pollutants in water, offering a potential target for alleviating the toxicity of MC-LR. These findings lay a foundation for reducing the toxicity of MC-LR and environmental hazards in organisms.

miR-125a-5p regulates the sialyltransferase ST3GAL1 in murine model of human intestinal campylobacteriosis

BACKGROUND

Zoonotic microorganisms are increasingly impacting human health worldwide. Due to the development of the global population, humans and animals live in shared and progressively crowded ecosystems, which enhances the risk of zoonoses. Although Campylobacter species are among the most important bacterial zoonotic agents worldwide, the molecular mechanisms of many host and pathogen factors involved in colonisation and infection are poorly understood. Campylobacter jejuni colonises the crypts of the human colon and causes acute inflammatory processes. The mucus and associated proteins play a central host-protective role in this process. The aim of this study was to explore the regulation of specific glycosyltransferase genes relevant to differential mucin-type O-glycosylation that could influence host colonisation and infection by C. jejuni.

RESULTS

Since microRNAs are known to be important regulators of the mammalian host cell response to bacterial infections, we focussed on the role of miR-125a-5p in C. jejuni infection. Combining in vitro and in vivo approaches, we show that miR-125a-5p regulates the expression of the sialyltransferase ST3GAL1 in an infection-dependent manner. The protein ST3GAL1 shows markedly increased intestinal levels in infected mice, with enhanced distribution in the mucosal epithelial layer in contrast to naïve mice.

CONCLUSION

From our previous studies and the data presented here, we conclude that miR-125a-5p and the previously reported miR-615-3p are involved in regulating the glycosylation patterns of relevant host cell response proteins during C. jejuni infection. The miRNA-dependent modulation of mucin-type O-glycosylation could be part of the mucosal immune response, but also a pathogen-driven modification that allows colonisation and infection of the mammalian host.

Long non-coding RNA-XLOC_002383 enhances the inhibitory effects of THP-1 macrophages on Mycobacterium avium and functions as a competing endogenous RNA by sponging miR-146a-5p to target TRAF6

The morbidity associated with infection by Mycobacterium avium (M. avium), a type of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), has increased in recent years due to infections that are easily missed, and thus, difficult to diagnose and treat. Here, we reported that miR-146a-5p was highly expressed, and XLOC_002383 and TRAF6 were downregulated in a time- and MOI-dependent manner in THP-1 macrophages infected with M. avium. In macrophages obtained from peripheral blood mononuclear cells, the expression levels of XLOC_002383 and TRAF6 were also decreased, and miR-146a-5p expression was increased following 24 h of infection with M. avium. miR-146a-5p was a target of XLOC_002383 and TRAF6 mRNA was a target of miR-146a-5p, and XLOC_002383 regulated TRAF6 expression by adsorbing miR-146a-5p, and further increased IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β and iNOS levels in THP-1 macrophages. The results of qPCR and CFU assays indicated that XLOC_002383 decreased the intracellular M. avium loads. Overall, the present study demonstrated that XLOC_002383 may function as a competing endogenous RNA and interacts with miR-146a-5p to increase THP-1 macrophage inflammatory factors and microbicidal mediators iNOS. This enhanced the inhibitory effects of THP-1 macrophages on M. avium, which improved the understanding of the pathogenesis and host defenses in the process of NTM infectious diseases.

Dimethyl itaconate is effective in host-directed antimicrobial responses against mycobacterial infections through multifaceted innate immune pathways

BACKGROUND

Itaconate, a crucial immunometabolite, plays a critical role in linking immune and metabolic functions to influence host defense and inflammation. Due to its polar structure, the esterified cell-permeable derivatives of itaconate are being developed to provide therapeutic opportunities in infectious and inflammatory diseases. Yet, it remains largely uncharacterized whether itaconate derivatives have potentials in promoting host-directed therapeutics (HDT) against mycobacterial infections. Here, we report dimethyl itaconate (DMI) as the promising candidate for HDT against both Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and nontuberculous mycobacteria by orchestrating multiple innate immune programs.

RESULTS

DMI per se has low bactericidal activity against Mtb, M. bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), and M. avium (Mav). However, DMI robustly activated intracellular elimination of multiple mycobacterial strains (Mtb, BCG, Mav, and even to multidrug-resistant Mtb) in macrophages and in vivo. DMI significantly suppressed the production of interleukin-6 and -10, whereas it enhanced autophagy and phagosomal maturation, during Mtb infection. DMI-mediated autophagy partly contributed to antimicrobial host defenses in macrophages. Moreover, DMI significantly downregulated the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling during infection with Mtb, BCG, and Mav.

CONCLUSION

Together, DMI has potent anti-mycobacterial activities in macrophages and in vivo through promoting multifaceted ways for innate host defenses. DMI may bring light to new candidate for HDT against Mtb and nontuberculous mycobacteria, both of which infections are often intractable with antibiotic resistance.

microRNAs associated with the pathogenesis and their role in regulating various signaling pathways during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Despite more than a decade of active study, tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious health concern across the world, and it is still the biggest cause of mortality in the human population. Pathogenic bacteria recognize host-induced responses and adapt to those hostile circumstances. This high level of adaptability necessitates a strong regulation of bacterial metabolic characteristics. Furthermore, the immune reponse of the host virulence factors such as host invasion, colonization, and survival must be properly coordinated by the pathogen. This can only be accomplished by close synchronization of gene expression. Understanding the molecular characteristics of mycobacterial pathogenesis in order to discover therapies that prevent or resolve illness relies on the bacterial capacity to adjust its metabolism and replication in response to various environmental cues as necessary. An extensive literature details the transcriptional alterations of host in response to in vitro environmental stressors, macrophage infection, and human illness. Various studies have recently revealed the finding of several microRNAs (miRNAs) that are believed to play an important role in the regulatory networks responsible for adaptability and virulence in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. We highlighted the growing data on the existence and quantity of several forms of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis, considered their possible relevance to disease etiology, and discussed how the miRNA-based signaling pathways regulate bacterial virulence factors.

MicroRNAs as immune regulators and biomarkers in tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB), which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is one of the most lethal infectious disease worldwide, and it greatly affects human health. Some diagnostic and therapeutic methods are available to effectively prevent and treat TB; however, only a few systematic studies have described the roles of microRNAs (miRNAs) in TB. Combining multiple clinical datasets and previous studies on Mtb and miRNAs, we state that pathogens can exploit interactions between miRNAs and other biomolecules to avoid host mechanisms of immune-mediated clearance and survive in host cells for a long time. During the interaction between Mtb and host cells, miRNA expression levels are altered, resulting in the changes in the miRNA-mediated regulation of host cell metabolism, inflammatory responses, apoptosis, and autophagy. In addition, differential miRNA expression can be used to distinguish healthy individuals, patients with TB, and patients with latent TB. This review summarizes the roles of miRNAs in immune regulation and their application as biomarkers in TB. These findings could provide new opportunities for the diagnosis and treatment of TB.

The current landscape of microRNAs (miRNAs) in bacterial pneumonia: opportunities and challenges

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), which were initially discovered in Caenorhabditis elegans, can regulate gene expression by recognizing cognate sequences and interfering with the transcriptional or translational machinery. The application of bioinformatics tools for structural analysis and target prediction has largely driven the investigation of certain miRNAs. Notably, it has been found that certain miRNAs which are widely involved in the inflammatory response and immune regulation are closely associated with the occurrence, development, and outcome of bacterial pneumonia. It has been shown that certain miRNA techniques can be used to identify related targets and explore associated signal transduction pathways. This enhances the understanding of bacterial pneumonia, notably for "refractory" or drug-resistant bacterial pneumonia. Although these miRNA-based methods may provide a basis for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of this disease, they still face various challenges, such as low sensitivity, poor specificity, low silencing efficiency, off-target effects, and toxic reactions. The opportunities and challenges of these methods have been completely reviewed, notably in bacterial pneumonia. With the continuous improvement of the current technology, the miRNA-based methods may surmount the aforementioned limitations, providing promising support for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of "refractory" or drug-resistant bacterial pneumonia.

MiR-152-5p suppresses osteogenic differentiation of mandible mesenchymal stem cells by regulating ATG14-mediated autophagy

BACKGROUND

Osteoporosis affects the mandible resulting in bone loss. Though impairments are not life threatening, they affect a person's quality-of-life particularly vulnerable elderly. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are novel regulatory factors that play an important role in regulating bone metabolism. Autophagy is evolutionarily conserved intracellular self-degradation process and is vital in the maintenance of both miRNA and bone homeostasis. However, the role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of miRNA regulating osteoporosis remains unclear.

METHODS

In the study, we established a rat osteoporosis model induced by ovariectomy (OVX) and isolated mesenchymal stem cells from mandible (MMSCs-M). Several miRNAs were identified to regulate osteoporosis in some studies. qRT-PCR was applied to examine the expression of miRNA, autophagy and osteogenic differentiation-related genes. Western blotting assays were performed to detect the expression of autophagy and osteogenic differentiation proteins. Immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscope were used to verify the autophagy activity. Transfecting technology was used to enhance or suppress the expression of miR-152-5p which enable us to observe the relationship between miR-152-5p, autophagy and osteogenic differentiation. Additionally, the measurement of reactive oxygen species was used to investigate the mechanism of autophagy affecting osteogenic differentiation.

RESULTS

We found an upregulated expression of miR-152-5p in MMSCs-M in OVX group. Downregulated autophagy-related gene, proteins and autophagosome were detected in vitro of OVX group compared with sham group. Moreover, downregulation of miR-152-5p promoted osteogenic differentiation of MMSCs-M as well as enhanced autophagy-related proteins in OVX group. Conversely, overexpression of miR-152-5p showed opposite effect in sham group. Meanwhile, we found Atg14 (autophagy-related protein homolog 14) was identified to be a direct target of miR-152-5p theoretically and functionally. In other words, we confirmed inhibition of miR-152-5p promoted the osteogenic differentiation via promoting ATG14-mediated autophagy. Furthermore, miR-152-5p/ATG14-mediated autophagy regulated osteogenic differentiation by reducing the endogenous ROS accumulation and maintaining cellular redox homeostasis.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that miR-152-5p is the first identified to regulate osteogenic differentiation by directly targeting autophagy-related protein ATG14 and regulating oxidative stress and therapeutic inhibition of miR-152-5p may be an efficient anabolic strategy for osteoporosis.

Comparative Profiling of Circulating Exosomal Small RNAs Derived From Peruvian Patients With Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most fatal infectious diseases, caused by the aerobic bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is estimated that one-third of the world’s population is infected with the latent (LTB) version of this disease, with only 5-10% of infected individuals developing its active (ATB) form. Pulmonary adenocarcinoma (PA) is the most common and diverse form of primary lung carcinoma. The simultaneous or sequential occurrence of TB and lung cancer in patients has been widely reported and is known to be an issue for diagnosis and surgical treatment. Raising evidence shows that patients cured of TB represent a group at risk for developing PA. In this work, using sRNA-sequencing, we evaluated the expression patterns of circulating small RNAs available in exosomes extracted from blood samples of Peruvian patients affected by latent tuberculosis, active tuberculosis, or pulmonary adenocarcinoma. Differential expression analysis revealed a set of 24 microRNAs perturbed in these diseases, revealing potential biomarker candidates for the Peruvian population. Most of these miRNAs are normally expressed in healthy lung tissue and are potential regulators of different shared and unique KEGG pathways related to cancers, infectious diseases, and immunology.

Whole Genome Methylation Analysis Reveals Role of DNA Methylation in Cow's Ileal and Ileal Lymph Node Responses to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Infection

Johne's Disease (JD), caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis (MAP), is an incurable disease of ruminants and other animal species and is characterized by an imbalance of gut immunity. The role of MAP infection on the epigenetic modeling of gut immunity during the progression of JD is still unknown. This study investigated the DNA methylation patterns in ileal (IL) and ileal lymph node (ILLN) tissues from cows diagnosed with persistent subclinical MAP infection over a one to 4 years period. DNA samples from IL and ILLN tissues from cows negative (MAPneg) (n = 3) or positive for MAP infection (MAPinf) (n = 4) were subjected to whole genome bisulfite sequencing. A total of 11,263 and 62,459 differentially methylated cytosines (DMCs), and 1259 and 8086 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) (FDR<0.1) were found between MAPinf and MAPneg IL and ILLN tissues, respectively. The DMRs were found on 394 genes (denoted DMR genes) in the IL and on 1305 genes in the ILLN. DMR genes with hypermethylated promoters/5'UTR [3 (IL) and 88 (ILLN)] or hypomethylated promoters/5'UTR [10 (IL) and 25 (ILLN)] and having multiple functions including response to stimulus/immune response (BLK, BTC, CCL21, AVPR1A, CHRNG, GABRA4, TDGF1), cellular processes (H2AC20, TEX101, GLA, NCKAP5L, RBM27, SLC18A1, H2AC20BARHL2, NLGN3, SUV39H1, GABRA4, PPA1, UBE2D2) and metabolic processes (GSTO2, H2AC20, SUV39H1, PPA1, UBE2D2) are potential DNA methylation candidate genes of MAP infection. The ILLN DMR genes were enriched for more biological process (BP) gene ontology (GO) terms (n = 374), most of which were related to cellular processes (27.6%), biological regulation (16.6%), metabolic processes (15.4%) and response to stimulus/immune response (8.2%) compared to 75 BP GO terms (related to cellular processes, metabolic processes and transport, and system development) enriched for IL DMR genes. ILLN DMR genes were enriched for more pathways (n = 47) including 13 disease pathways compared with 36 enriched pathways, including 7 disease/immune pathways for IL DMR genes. In conclusion, the results show tissue specific responses to MAP infection with more epigenetic changes (DMCs and DMRs) in the ILLN than in the IL tissue, suggesting that the ILLN and immune processes were more responsive to regulation by methylation of DNA relative to IL tissue. Our data is the first to demonstrate a potential role for DNA methylation in the pathogenesis of MAP infection in dairy cattle.

Autophagy and Host Defense in Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infection

Autophagy is critically involved in host defense pathways through targeting and elimination of numerous pathogens via autophagic machinery. Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTMs) are ubiquitous microbes, have become increasingly prevalent, and are emerging as clinically important strains due to drug-resistant issues. Compared to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causal pathogen for human tuberculosis, the roles of autophagy remain largely uncharacterized in the context of a variety of NTM infections. Compelling evidence suggests that host autophagy activation plays an essential role in the enhancement of antimicrobial immune responses and controlling pathological inflammation against various NTM infections. As similar to Mtb, it is believed that NTM bacteria evolve multiple strategies to manipulate and hijack host autophagy pathways. Despite this, we are just beginning to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between pathogen and the host autophagy system in a battle with NTM bacteria. In this review, we will explore the function of autophagy, which is involved in shaping host–pathogen interaction and disease outcomes during NTM infections. These efforts will lead to the development of autophagy-based host-directed therapeutics against NTM infection.

Monocyte and Macrophage miRNA: Potent Biomarker and Target for Host-Directed Therapy for Tuberculosis

The end TB strategy reinforces the essentiality of readily accessible biomarkers for early tuberculosis diagnosis. Exploration of microRNA (miRNA) and pathway analysis opens an avenue for the discovery of possible therapeutic targets. miRNA is a small, non-coding oligonucleotide characterized by the mechanism of gene regulation, transcription, and immunomodulation. Studies on miRNA define their importance as an immune marker for active disease progression and as an immunomodulator for innate mechanisms, such as apoptosis and autophagy. Monocyte research is highly advancing toward TB pathogenesis and biomarker efficiency because of its innate and adaptive response connectivity. The combination of monocytes/macrophages and their relative miRNA expression furnish newer insight on the unresolved mechanism for Mycobacterium survival, exploitation of host defense, latent infection, and disease resistance. This review deals with miRNA from monocytes, their relative expression in different disease stages of TB, multiple gene regulating mechanisms in shaping immunity against tuberculosis, and their functionality as biomarker and host-mediated therapeutics. Future collaborative efforts involving multidisciplinary approach in various ethnic population with multiple factors (age, gender, mycobacterial strain, disease stage, other chronic lung infections, and inflammatory disease criteria) on these short miRNAs from body fluids and cells could predict the valuable miRNA biosignature network as a potent tool for biomarkers and host-directed therapy.

Sufentanil preconditioning protects against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury via miR-125a/DRAM2 axis

This project aimed to investigate the protective mechanism of sufentanil pretreatment on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). An in vivo rat model of myocardial IRI and an in vitro cultured cardiomyocyte model of hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) were used to confirm the anti-oxidation and anti-autophagy effects of sufentanil. The interaction between miR-125a and damage-regulated autophagy regulator 2 (DRAM2) was verified by luciferase reporter assay. We showed that pretreatment with sufentanil suppressed myocardial damage caused by IRI in rats by inhibiting oxidative stress and mitochondrial autophagy. Furthermore, the cardioprotective mechanism of sufentanil was mediated by miR-125a. MiR-125a targeted DRAM2 to ameliorate cardiomyocyte autophagy and oxidative injury following H/R treatment. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that sufentanil pretreatment produced a protective effect against myocardial IRI via regulating miR-125a/DRAM2 signaling axis.

The role of non-coding RNA on macrophage modification in tuberculosis infection

Tuberculosis (TB), a serious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), remains the world's top infectious killer. It is well-established that TB can circumvent the host's immune response for long-term survival. Macrophages serve as the major host cells for TB growth and persistence and their altered functions are critical for the response of the host defense against TB exposure (elimination, latency, reactivation, and bacillary dissemination). Noncoding RNAs are crucial posttranscriptional regulators of macrophage discrimination. Therefore, this review highlights the regulatory mechanism underlying the relationship between noncoding RNAs and macrophages in TB infection, which may facilitate the identification of potential therapeutic targets and effective diagnosis biomarkers for TB disease.